KINEMATICS

1 KINEMATICS
When we observe the nature, we see many objects in motion. From experience we recognize that
motion represents the continuous change in position of an object with time.
When we study mechanics the first step is to know the details of motion, which is dynamics part
of the mechanics. The other part is statics, which deals with body at rest. We study dynamics in two parts:
Kinematics & Kinetics. In kinematics we study the motion in terms of space, and time without knowing
the cause of motion and in kinetics we include the cause of motion.
The present lesson is the study about motion irrespective of its cause i.e., Kinematics. In physics
we study three types of motion: transnational, rotational and vibrational. A car moving on a highway is
undergoing transnational motion, the earth’s daily spin on its axis is an example of rotational motion and
back-and-forth motion of a pendulum is an example of vibrational motion.
1.1 MOTION AND REST
Whether a body or particle is in motion or at rest, it depends upon the frame of reference of the
observer. If an object changes its position in space with time relative to an observer, then it is said to be in
motion, otherwise at rest. Now we should know “What is frame of reference?”
Frame of Reference
Suppose a person ‘B’ who is on the
A
ground observes a person ‘A’ who is inside of a B
moving train. B observes that position of A is
changing, so A is in motion
When B is also inside the train in the B A
same compartment and train is still in motion, B
observes that position of A is not changing. So
A is at rest.
We can conclude that whether an object is at rest or motion, it depends from where the object is
observed which is called frame of reference.
Here in the first case ground is frame of reference and in the second case, train is frame of
reference.
There is no rule or restriction on the choice of a reference frame. We can choose it according to our
convenience.

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 1.2 Distance (PATH LENGTH) AND Displacement
Distance: It is defined as the actual length of path covered by an y

object. B
It is a +ve scalar quantity.
A
Its SI unit is m (metre).
Suppose a particle moves from A to B as shown in figure. The length
O
of curved path from A to B will be distance travelled by that particle. x

Displacement: Displacement is the change in position vector i.e., vector joining initial and final
position, or we can say it is a minimum possible distance between two positions.
It is a vector quantity.
If a particle moves from A to B in a given reference frame as y
shown in figure, then B
 
Position vector of A = OA = r 1
A
 
Position vector B = OB = r 2
 O x
Displacement from position A to B = AB
    
AB  OB  OA = r 2 – r 1
1.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance Displacement
1. Distance is length of actual path 1. Displacement is minimum possible distance
travelled by the particle between two points.
2. It is a scalar quantity 2. It is a vector quantity
3. It can have more than two values 3. It has a unique value between any two points
between any two points 4. It can decrease with time
4. It can never decrease with time 5. For a moving particle displacement >, , = or
5. For a moving particle distance > 0 0.
1.4 SPEED
(a) Speed: It is defined as the rate of change of distance, with respect to time.
Distance = S … (1)
Speed =
Time T
It is a scalar quantity.
Its S.I. unit is m/s and dimensions is [LT–1]
(a) Instantaneous Speed
Instantaneous speed of a particle is speed at a particular instant of time. If S is the distance
S
travelled by a particle in a time interval t, then instantaneous speed is the limiting value of as t
t
approaches zero.
S
Instantaneous speed (v) = Lt
t 0 t

In calculus notation, this limit is called the derivative of s with respect to time, written as ds/dt
ds
Instantaneous speed (v) = … (2)
dt
(b) Average Speed
The average speed of a particle is defined as ratio of total distance travelled to the total time taken
Total Distance travelled
Average Speed =
Total time taken
If a particle travels distances S1, S2, S3 … etc in time t1, t2, t3 …. etc., respectively.

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 S1  S 2  S 3 ... S n
Average speed =
t 1  t 2  t 3 ... t n
n

S
i 1
i
Vavg = n
… (3)
t
i 1
i

 If a particle travels equal interval of distance at speeds v1, v2, v3………. vn respectively, then
1 1 1 1 1 1

   .....  
v avg n  v 1 v 2 v 3 vn 
Average speed is harmonic mean of individual speeds.
 If a particle travels for equal intervals of time at speed v1, v2 …. vn respectively, then
v  v 2  v 3 ...  v n
Vavg = 1
n
In this case average speed is arithmetic mean of individual speed.
1.5 VELOCITY
It is defined as the rate of change in displacement with respect to time.

Displacement S
Velocity = = … (4)
Time T
It is a vector quantity.
Its S.I. unit is m/s and dimensions is [LT–1]
(a) Instantaneous Velocity
Instantaneous velocity of a particle is velocity at a particular instant of time. It is defined as rate of
change of particle’s position with time

 r
If the position of a particle changes by  r in a small time interval t, the limiting value of
t
as t approaches zero, gives the instantaneous velocity.


r
v  lim
t  0 t

In calculus notation, this limit is called the derivative of r with respect to time, written as d r / dt

dr
 v … (5)
dt
(b) Average Velocity
The average velocity of a particle for a given interval of time is defined as the ratio of its
displacement to the time taken.

 Displacement
S
Average velocity = v av  =
Time
… (6)
t
Average velocity is independent of path taken between any two points. It depends only on the
initial and final position of the particle since it depends on displacement.
If a particle starts from some point and returns to the same point, via any path, average
velocity in this trip will be zero.
1.6 ACCELERATION
It is defined as rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

change in velocity
Acceleration ( a ) = … (7)
Time
It is a vector quantity

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 Its S.I. unit is m/s2 and dimension is [LT–2]
(a) Instantaneous acceleration
Instantaneous acceleration is the limiting value of average acceleration as t approaches to zero
 

v dv
a  lim  … (8)
t  0 t dt
Instantaneous acceleration is equal to the derivative of the velocity with respect to time.
Slope of the tangent on v–t graph gives the instantaneous acceleration.
Instantaneous acceleration also known as acceleration
dv d  dx  d 2 x
a    … (9)
dt dt  dt  dt 2
When the acceleration is constant, the average acceleration is equal to the instantaneous
acceleration
(b) Average acceleration
It is defined as ratio of change in velocity to the time interval in which change takes place.
Suppose a particle moving along x-axis has velocity v1 at time t1 and velocity v2 at time t2 average
acceleration aav is given by
v v 2  v 1
a av   … (10)
t t 2  t1

Illustration 1
Question: A person moves on a semi-circular path of radius
20 m as shown in figure. r
If he starts at one end of the path A and reaches

other end B. Find the distance covered and A B
displacement during this motion.
Solution: Distance covered by the person
= the length of the path
= r
=  × 20 = 62.8 m
The displacement =2r
= 2 × 20 = 40 m
Illustration 2
Question: If a particle moves a distance at speed v1 and comes back to initial position with speed
v2, what will be average speed?
Solution: When the particle is going with speed v1 and coming back with speed v2, distance travelled
by the particle in going and coming back is same, so average speed will be harmonic mean
1 1 1 1
So,    
v avg 2  v1 v 2 
2v 1v 2
v avg 
v1  v 2

Illustration 3
Question: The distance travelled by particle in time t is given by S = 3t 2 + 2.
(a) Find the instantaneous speed at t = 3 s.
(b) The average speed of the particle in 0 to 3 s
Solution:
ds
(a) instantaneous speed =
dt

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 Here, S = 3t2 + 2
ds
=6t
dt
= 6 × 3 = 18 m/s
(b) The distance travelled during time 0 to 3 s is
S = 3 (32) + 2 – 2 = 27 m
Total distance travelled 27
 Average speed = = m/s
Total time of motion 3

Illustration 4
Question: The position of an object moving along x-axis is given by x  2  3t 2 , where t is in
seconds (a) what is its instantaneous velocity at t = 2s?(b) what is its average velocity
at t = 2s and t = 4s?
dx
Solution: (a) Instantaneous velocity v    0  6t
dt
v t 2  6  2  12 m/s

(b) Average velocity 

x 4   x 2 

 
2  34   2  32 
2 2
 = 18 m/s
42 2

2 MOTION
Motion is the change in position with respect to time in a given reference frame. There are
different types of motion such as motion in a straight line (Translatory motion), projectile motion, circular
motion, simple harmonic motion etc. On the basis of motion with respect to the co-ordinate axes has been
categorized into three types.
(1) One dimensional motion
(2) Two dimensional motion
(3) Three dimensional motion
One dimensional motion is that type of motion in which motion can be described along any one
axis of co-ordinate system.
i.e., motion in a straight line
Two dimensional motion when a particle moves in a plane and it requires two axes of co-ordinate
system to describe it.
i.e., circular motion, projectile motion.
Three-dimensional motion when a particle moves in space and it requires three axes of
coordinate system to describe it.
i.e., motion of an aeroplane, a balloon or a kite.

3 ONE DIMENSIONAL MOTION

One-dimensional motion can be classified in two parts
(i) Non-accelerated motion
(ii) Accelerated motion

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 One dimensional motion

Non-accelerated Accelerated

Constant acceleration Variable acceleration

3.1 NON-ACCELERATED MOTION
Such type of motion in which velocity is uniform, it means acceleration will be zero. In this type of
motion .
Distance = Velocity × time
Distance (acceleration should be zero) … (11)
Velocity = Time

3.2 ACCELERATED MOTION

If velocity of a particle varies with time then the motion is called accelerated motion. It can be
classified in two parts:
(i) Uniformly accelerated motion
(ii) Non-uniformly accelerated motion
3.3 UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
Such type of motion in which acceleration is constant or uniform.
In this type of motion the average acceleration equals the instantaneous acceleration.
If initial velocity vi at time ti changes to final velocity vf at time tf , then
v  vi
acceleration (a) = f
tf  ti
Let when ti = 0, vi = v0 and after time t, vf = v
v  v0
a
t
v – v0 = at
v  v 0  at (for constant a) … (12)
This expression enables us to determine the velocity at any time t if the initial velocity, the
acceleration, and the elapsed time are given.
From the above equation of motion we can say that velocity varies linearly with respect to time.
Therefore the average velocity in any time interval can be expressed as the arithmetic mean of the initial
velocity v0, and final velocity v,
v v
v avg  0
2
Now to find out the displacement as function of time, we can use this formula
s = vavg t
Let us choose t1 = 0 at which the initial position is s1 = 0 and in any time t, displacement
is s.
s = vavg t
1
s – 0 = (v + v0)t
2
on putting v = v0 + at
1
s – 0 = (v0 + at + v0)t
2
1
s = (2v0 + at ) t
2

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 1 2
s  v 0t  at … (13)
2
This expression enables us to determine the distances travelled in any time t if the initial velocity,
acceleration and the time elapsed are known.
Now to obtain an expression that doesn’t contain time, we can substitute t from equation (12) in
above equation
1
s = (v + v0)t
2
1  v  v0 
= (v + v0)  
2  a 
1 v 2  v 02 
  
2 a 
 
v2 – v02 = 2as
v 2  v 02  2as … (14)
th
Now we want to find out the distance travelled in n second.
Let distance travels in n second by a particle is Sn and in (n – 1) second is sn-1, where initial
velocity at t = 0 is v0 and acceleration is a
1
sn = v0n + an2
2
1
sn-1 = [v0(n–1) – a(n-1)2]
2
1 2 1
sn – sn-1 = (v0n + an ) – [v0(n–1) – a(n-1)2]
2 2
a
Snth  v 0  (2n  1) … (15)
2
3.4 REACTION TIME AND STOPPING DISTANCE
When a situation demands our immediate action, it takes some time before we really respond.
Reaction time is the time a person takes to observe, think and act. For example, if a person is driving and
suddenly a boy appears on the road, then the time elapse before he slams the breaks of the car is the
reaction time. Reaction time depends on complexity of the situation and on an individual.
When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the distance it travels before stopping is called
stopping distance.

Illustration 5
Question: A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 kmh–1 is brought to rest
within a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of car (assumed uniform), and
how long does it take for the car to stop?
Solution: Given Initial speed of car (v0) = 126 km/h = 35 m/s
Distance travelled by the car (s) = 200 m
Final velocity of car (v ) = 0
v2 = v02 + 2as
(0)2 = (35)2 + 2 × a (200)
400 a = –(35 × 35)

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  35  35   49
a  = –3.06 m/s2
 400  16
Here, negative sign shows that the acceleration is opposite to the direction of motion and is
called retardation.
So retardation = 3.06 m/s2
Now retardation calculated above can be used to find the time,
v = v0 + at
0 = 35 – 3.06 t
35
t=  11.437 s
3.06
So car will take 11.44 s, to come to rest.
Illustration 6
Question: A uniformly accelerating train passes successive kilometer stone with speed 18 km/hr
and 27 km/hr, respectively. What will its speed be at the next kilometer stone and
how long did it take to cover these 2 kilometres?
Solution: Applying the equation
v 2  v 02  2ax , we get

7.52  52  2a  1000

 a
7.52  52 = 0.0156 ms–2
2000
The speed at next kilometer stone is given by
v 12  v 2  2ax
 7.5   2  0.0156  1000  87.45 
2
v 1  9.35 m/s
Time to cover the distance of 2 kilometre is obtained by

v1  v 0
t
a
9.35  5
 t = 278.8 s
0.0156

Illustration 7
Question: A motorist while driving at a speed of 72 km/hr sees a boy standing on the road at a
distance of 52 m. He applies the brake and stops his car at a distance of 2 m from the
boy. Find the acceleration caused due to the application of brake and time taken to
stop the car
Solution: v 2  v 02  2ax ,
we get 0 2  20 2  2a  50 or a = – 4 ms–2
Applying equation,
v  v 0  at , we obtain
0  20   4 t
or t = 5s
Illustration 8

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 Question: The distance covered by a body during the 4th second is twice the distance covered by
the body during the 2nd second of this journey. Find the initial velocity of the body. If
its acceleration is 3 ms–2.
Solution: The distance covered in 2nd second is given by
a
S2  v 0  2  2  1
2
The distance covered in the 4th second is given by
a
2  4  1
S4  v 0 
2
a 3
v0   = 1.5 ms–1
2 2
3.5 MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
(i) Motion under gravity means an object is in motion in space under the force of gravity alone.
(ii) Motion under gravity is a uniformly accelerated motion. So equations of motion for uniformly
accelerated motion can be used which are
  
v  v 0  at
  1
s  v 0 t  at 2
2

v 2  v 02  2a.s
(iii) Here acceleration will be acceleration due to gravity.
In SI-unit g = 9.8 m/s2
In c.g.s. unit g = 980 cm/s2
(iv) When an object is thrown upward or downward, in both cases same acceleration ‘g’ will be
experienced by the object, which acts in downward direction.
(v) Here air resistance is neglected. In a real experiment air resistance cannot be neglected. It is an
ideal case. Such motion is referred to as free fall.
Case 1:
When an object is thrown in upward direction (taking positive)space with initial velocity v0.
Acceleration = –g (in downward direction)
So, equation of motion will be
v = v0 –gt
1 2
h = v0t – gt
2
v2 = v02 – 2gh
Case 2:
When an object is thrown in downward direction (taking positive) in space with initial velocity v0.
Acceleration = +g (in downward direction)
So, equation of motion will be
v = v0 +gt
1 2
s = v0t + gt
2
v2 = v02 + 2gh

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 Case 3:
When an object is thrown in space in such a way that at first
it goes up and then comes down.
To solve such types of problem, the following sign
convention is used:-
Sign Convention
Motional quantities in upward-direction are taken as
positive.
Motional quantities, which are in downward-direction, are h
taken as negative.

Let initial velocity is v0 which is in vertically upward direction and finally comes down to the
ground as shown in figure.
Initial velocity = +v0 (in upward directions)
Displacement = –h (in downward direction)
Acceleration = –g (in downward direction)
1
So using equation of motion, s = v 0 t  at 2 , we have
2
1 2
– h = v0t – gt
2
Illustration 9
Question: A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4 m/s-1
(a) What is the direction of acceleration during the upward motion of the ball?
(b) What are the velocity and acceleration of the ball at the highest point of its motion?
(c) To what height does the ball reaches and after how long does the ball return to the
player’s hands (Take g = 9.8 m/s2 and neglect air resistance).
Solution:
(a) Direction of acceleration is downward.
(b) At highest point velocity of the ball will be zero and acceleration will be g = 9.8 m/s2
(c) The ball will go up till velocity will become zero
v=0
v0 = 29.4 m/s
a = g = 9.8 m/s in downward direction (opposite to the motion)
v2 = v02 – 2gh
o2 = (29.4)2 – 2 × 9.8 h
29.4  29.4
h
2  9 .8
= 39.6 m
Let ‘t’ be the time taken by the ball to return to the player’s hands. We have,
v0 = 29.4 m/s
a = 9.8 m/s2
s=0
1
 0 = 29.4 × t – × 9.8 × t2
2
 t = 29.4 × 2 = 6 s
Illustration 10
Question: A rocket is fired vertically and ascends with a constant vertical acceleration of 10 ms–
2
for 60 s. its fuel is then all used and it continues as a free particle. (a) What is the
maximum altitude reached? (b) After how much time from then will the maximum

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 height reached? (c) What is the total time elapsed from take off until the rocket
strikes the earth? (g = 10 m/s2)
Solution: (a) The distance traversed by the rocket till its fuel ends is given by
1
h1  v 0 t  at 2 = 18000 m.
2
(i) The velocity of the rocket when its fuel ends
v  v 0  at1  600 ms 1
(ii) The height the rocket ascends after the fuel ends.
v f2  v  2gh  h = 18000 m
2
 Maximum height = 36000 m
(b) The time to reach the maximum height after the burning of the fuel is given by the
equation.
v f  v  gt 2
 0  600  10t 2 or t2= 60s.
(c) The total time elapsed from the moment the rocket takes off to its touching the
ground is given by
1
y  gt 32
2
 t  t1  t 2  t 3  204.9 s

4 CONCEPT OF GRTAPH
There are two types of variables
(i) Independent variable.
(ii) Dependent variable.
Independent variables are such type of variables which don’t depend on other variable like, time
and dependent variables are those variables which depend on some other variables i.e., velocity, distance
covered, acceleration which depend on time.
When we plot the graph independent variable is plotte on
x-axis and dependent variable is plotted on
y-axis.

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 y-axis

dependent
x-axis
independent
4.1 SLOPE
If a tangent at a particular point on the curve makes an angle  with positive x–axis then tan gives
the slope of that tangent.
If angle is measured in anticlockwise direction from y-axis
positive x-axis, then slope is taken as positive and if angle is
measured in clockwise direction, slope is taken as negative. Q
P  R
 
Here a curve is shown and at points P, Q and R tangents 
are drawn.
O
x-axis
At P, the tangent makes an angle  in anticlockwise with positive x-axis. So slope at P is positive.
At Q, the tangent makes zero angle with the positive x-axis. So slope at Q is zero.
At R, the tangent makes an angle  in clockwise with positive x-axis. So slope at R is negative.
In this chapter we study mainly three types of graph.
(i) Distance–time graphs
(ii) Velocity–time graph
(iii) Acceleration–time graph
4.2 DISPLACEMENT–TIME GRAPH
(i) Slope of position vs time graph gives velocity
(ii) Slope at a particular point of the graph gives instantaneous velocity
(iii) Slope of a line joining initial position to final position gives average velocity between two
points.
(iv) The maximum slope at any point on the graph gives the maximum velocity.
(v) When graph will be straight line parallel to y-axis
x-axis, it means slope is zero so velocity will be zero.
displacement (s)

v = tan  = 0 = tan 0°
  = 0°

o
time (t) x-axis
(vi) Slope of a straight line is constant which means velocity y-axis
is constant.
displacement (s)

(a) As shown in graph slope is positive and constant since it

makes an angle  with positive x-axis in anticlockwise direction. 
So velocity is positive and constant 

x-axis
time (t)
(b) In this graph, slope is negative and constant since  is in
clockwise direction. (a)
So velocity is negative and constant

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 y-axis

displacement (s)



time (t) x-axis

y-axis
(vii) (a) Slope of a curve as shown in figure, is positive but

displacement (s)
decreasing.

So velocity is positive and decreases.



time (t) x-axis

(b) In this graph slope is positive and increasing. y-axis

So velocity is positive and increases

displacement (s)



time (t) x-axis

 Area under curve of a position time graph has no physical significance.

4.3 VELOCITY–TIME GRAPH
(i) Slope of velocity vs. time graph gives acceleration.
(ii) Area under curve gives displacement and area on negative side gives negative displacement.
As shown in the graph of velocity vs. time
(i) Slope from 0 to A is positive and constant hence, y-axis
acceleration is positive and constant.
(ii) Slope from A to B is zero, hence acceleration will
Velocity (v)

be zero A a2 = 0 B
v
(iii) Slope from B to C is negative and constant, hence
acceleration is negative and constant. a3 = –ve
a1 = +ve
Distance covered in motion from O to A, A to B and B
to C will be area under curve with x-axis.
O D E C x-axis
Here, area of curve = area of trapazium
1 t 1 t2 t3
= × v × [t1 + t2 + t3 + t2] Time (t)
2
When graph of velocity vs time is in curve form as
shown in figure. y-axis
(i) Slope from O to A is positive and increasing, hence
acceleration is positive and increasing
Velocity (v)

B
(ii) A to B slope is positive and decreasing, so
acceleration is positive and decreasing. C
(iii) At B slope is zero, so acceleration is zero
(iv) B to C slope is negative and increasing, so A 
acceleration is also negative and increasing. O 
Time (t) x-axis

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  The instantaneous velocity can be positive, negative or
zero as shown in the position-time graph. x
When the slope of position-time graph will be +ve C v=0 D
instantaneous velocity will be +ve, such as at point P, B Q E

v>0P R v<0
slope of tangent AB is positive as shown in figure. So
instantaneous velocity at P is positive. A F

t
When the slope of this graph will be 0 instantaneous velocity will be 0, such as at Q slope of
tangent CD is 0, so instantaneous velocity at Q is 0.
When the slope of this graph is –ve, instantaneous velocity is – ve. Such as at point R, slope of
tangent EF is –ve so instantaneous velocity at R is –ve.
When the velocity is constant, the average velocity is equal to the instantaneous velocity.
 Average velocity of the particle is equal to the slope of

displacement
the straight line joining the initial and final position on xf
the displacement–time graph as shown in figure.  S
S xi
v avg   tan  = slope of chord t
t
ti tf
time
1 2
4.4 GRAPHICAL METHOD TO PROVE S  ut  at
2
Let a particle starts with velocity u and it moves under constant acceleration from A to B in t
second. Its velocity versus time graph is as shown in the figure. We know area under velocity-time graph
gives the distance S covered by the particle in time t.
S = Area under velocity – time graph
= area of rectangle OACD + Area of triangle ACB v B
1
 ut  AC  CB
2
A 
1 2 CB u C
 ut  AC 
2 AC
Velocity

CB
Also = tan = slope of velocity –time graph =
AC
acceleration a D
O time t
1 2
 S  ut  at
2
4.5 ACCELERATION–TIME GRAPH
(1) The slope of acceleration vs. time graphs gives rate of change of acceleration with respect to
time, which has no physical significance.
(2) Area under curve of this graph gives change in velocity.
Illustration 11
Question: The speed-time graph of a particle moving along a fixed direction is shown
in figure.
(a) Calculate the distanced traveled by the particle from t = 0 to t = 10 s.
(b) Calculate the average speed in the time interval from 0 to 10s.
(c) Calculate the distance traveled in the time interval from 2s to 6s.
(d) Calculate the average speed in interval from t = 2s to t =6s.

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 Solution:

Speed (in kms–1)

(a) Distance travelled from t = 0 to t = 10 s 12
= area under speed –time graph
1
=  10s  12 ms 1 = 60 m
2
(b) Average speed over the interval from
t = 0 to t = 10 s O
5 10
= 60 m  6 ms–1 Time (in second)
10 s
(c) In order to calculate distance from t = 2s to t = 5s, let us first determine separately the following
and then add them up.
(i) distance covered from t = 2s to t = 5 s
(ii) distance covered from t = 5s to t = 6 s
1
(i) Acceleration  12 ms –2
 2.4 ms
5s
Velocity at the end of 2s  2.4  2 ms 1 = 4.8 ms–1
This will be regarded as initial velocity for motion over the time interval from t = 2 second to t = 5
second.
If x is the distance travelled in this time interval, then
 1 
x  4.8  3   2.4  9  metre  14 .4  10 .8 m  25.2 m
 2 
(ii) Deceleration = –2.4 ms–2
For motion from t = 5s to t = 6s, the initial velocity will be 12 ms–1. If x the distance covered in this
interval of time, then
1
x '  12  1   2.4  1 1  12  1.2  10.8 m
2
Total distance = (25.2 + 10.8) metre = 36 cn
36 m
(d) Average speed  9 ms–1
4s
Illustration 12
Question: A car accelerates from rest at constant rate  for some time after which it decelerates
at a constant rate  to come to rest. If the total time elapsed is t seconds, calculate
(a) the maximum velocity reached
(b) the total distance travelled.
Solution: The situation as shown in figure v
v A
Let the car accelerate for time t1 and decelerate for
Velocity (s)

time t2, so that total time t1 + t2 = t Let v be the

maximum velocity reached
(a) For accelerated motion,
v = 0 +  t1 B
O D
or, v = t1
t1 t2
For decelerated motion, 0 = v + (-)t2
or v = t2
 t1 = t2
t2 
or 
t1 
Adding 1 to both sides

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 t 2  t1   

t1 
t 
or 
t1 
t
or t1 

  t   αβt 
Hence, v = t1 =      
  α  β
(b) Total distance traveled = Area of OAB
AD  OB
or, S =
2
v t
=
2
()t t
= .
 2
1  αβ  2
=  t
2  α  β 

PROFICIENCY TESTI
The following questions deal with the basic concepts of this section. Answer the following
briefly. Go to the next section only if your score is at least 80%. Do not consult the Study Material
while attempting these questions.

1. If velocity v of particle moving in straight line is related with distance travelled s as v  2 1  s  ,

where v is in meter/sec and s is in meter. Find the acceleration of the particle.

2. A car moves on a straight road for first half time with the constant speed of 20 m/s, and the next
half time with a constant speed of 60 m/s, then calculate average speed.

3. If displacement x of a particle moving in straight line is given by x = t3 –12t where t is time in sec
and x is in meter. Find the acceleration of the particle, when velocity of the particle is zero.

4. A clock has its second hand 2.0 cm long. Find the average velocity of the tip of the second hand in
15 seconds.

5. A car travels a distance A to B at a speed of 40 km/h and returns to A at a speed of 30 km/h.

(i) What is the average speed for the whole journey ?
(II) What is the average velocity ?

6. An automobile moving with a velocity of 54 km/hr is brought to rest in a distance of 9 m by the

application of brakes. Find the retardation assuming it to be uniform.

7. A stone is allowed to fall from the top of a tower and cover half the height of the tower in the last
second of its journey. Find the time taken by the stone to reach the foot of the tower.

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 8. A particle is projected vertically upward with speed 20 m/s. Find the time after particle is at a
height 15 m above the ground ( g = 10 m/s2)

9. A ball is dropped from the top of a tower. In the last second of its fall, the ball covers a
distance equal to 9/25 of the height of the tower. Find the height of the tower.(g = 10 m/s 2)

10. A balloon is ascending at the rate of 20 m/sec at a height of 105 metre above the ground
when a package is dropped. How long does it take the package to reach the ground? (g =
10 m/s2)

11. The velocity-time graph of a body moving along a straight line is as follows:
2
v (m/s)
1

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 time in s
1

2
Find the displacement and distance covered by the body in 5 s.
12. The x-t graph for the two particles A and B B
are straight lines inclined at angles of 30°
and 45° with the time axis. What is the ratio x 45° A
of  A :  B ?
30°
t

–2
13 A particle starts from rest at time t  0 and a (ms )
moves on a straight line with acceleration a D E
+ 10
2
( ms ) as plotted in figure. Find the time
at which the speed of the particle is C F
O t(s)
1 2 3 4
maximum. Also calculate the displacement
of the particle from starting point after 4 is.
– 10
A B

14. A train starting from rest accelerates uniformly for 100 s, runs at a constant speed for 5 minutes
and then comes to a stop with uniform retardation in the next 150 seconds. During this motion it
covers a distance of 4.25 km. Find its constant speed.

15. A stone is dropped from a height of 100 m from a balloon which rises up from the ground. Find the
velocity of the balloon at that moment if the stone reaches the ground 5 seconds after it was
dropped.

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 ANSWERS TO PROFICIENCY TESTI
1. 2 m/s2

2. 40 m/s

3. 12 m/s2

4. 18.85  10–4 m/s

5. (i) 34.3 km/h (ii) zero

6. 12.5 m/s2

7. 2  2 sec
8. 1 sec and 3 sec

9. 125 m

10. 7s

11. 3 m, 5 m

12. 1: 3

13. t = 2 s, 40 m.

14. 36 km/hr

15. Velocity of the balloon = 5 m/s directed upward

5 MOTION IN A PLANE
In this chapter we deal with the kinematics of a particle moving in a plane, which is two dimensional
motion. Some common examples of motion in a plane are the motion of projectiles and satellites and the

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 motion of particles in circular path. As in the case of one dimensional motion, we derive the kinematic
equations for two-dimensional motion from the fundamental definitions of displacement, velocity, and
acceleration. To define various kinematics quantities like position, displacement, velocity and acceleration
for objects moving along a plane, we need to use the language of vectors that already we have learned.
The concept of motion when a particle is moving along a straight line can be used for motion in a
plane or three dimensions. When motion of a particle is in a plane, we consider plane of motion as x-y-
plane. We choose the origin at the place from where the motion starts and then we consider motion along
any two convenient mutually perpendicular direction as one dimensional motion. Motion in two
perpendicular directions are chosen as the x and y-axes.
5.1 POSITION VECTOR AND DISPLACEMENT
The displacement of a particle is the difference between its final position, and initial position.
Therefore, the displacement vector for the particle as shown in figure equals the difference between its
final position vector and its initial position vector.
Suppose a particle moves in a plane along the curve as shown y-axis
in figure. At time t1, the particle is at point P, and at some later time t2,
the particle is at Q, where the indices 1 and 2 refer to initial and final
values. As the particle moves from P to Q in the time interval t = t2 – Q
t1 the position vector changes from r1 to r2. y2 P  r
y1
r = r2 – r1 (from triangle law of vector addition). … (16)  
The direction of Δr is indicated in figure r1 r2

x1 x2 x-axis

Let the co-ordinate of the particle at points P and Q are (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) respectively.

Then, r 1  x1 iˆ  y 1 ˆj

r 2  x 2 iˆ  y 2 ˆj
 
r 2  r 1  ( x 2 iˆ  y 2 ˆj )  ( x1 iˆ  y 1 ˆj )

 r = (x2 – x1) iˆ  ( y 2  y 1 ) ˆj

 r = x iˆ  y ˆj where x  x 2  x1 and y  y 2  y 1
  
Where,  r = r 2  r 1 ; x = x2 – x1; y = y2 – y1
As we see from figure the magnitude of the displacement vector is less than the distance travelled
along the curved path.
5.2 VELOCITY
We define the average velocity of the particle during the time interval Δt as the ratio of the
displacement to that time interval:

Δr
ν  … (17)
Δt

 r = x iˆ  yˆj

 r xiˆ y ˆ 
  j  v  v x iˆ  v y ˆj
t t t
Since displacement is a vector quantity and the time interval is a scalar quantity, we conclude that

the average velocity is a vector quantity directed along  r .

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  The average velocity between points P and Q is independent of the path between the two points.
This is because the average velocity is proportional to the displacement, which in turn depends
only on the initial and final position vectors and not on the path taken between those two points.
 As we did with one-dimensional motion, we conclude that if a particle starts its motion at some
point and returns to this point via any path, its average velocity is zero for this trip since its
displacement is zero.
Instantaneous velocity
 
The instantaneous velocity v , is defined as the limit of the average velocity,  r / t, as t
approaches zero:
 
 r dr
i.e. v  lim = … (18)
t  0 t dt
That is, the instantaneous velocity equals the derivative of the position vector with respect to time.
Consider again the motion of a particle between two points in y-axis
the xy plane, as shown in figure. As the time intervals over which we
observe the motion become smaller and smaller, the direction of the
Q3 Q
displacement approaches that of the line tangent to the path at the y2 2
Q1
point P. P
y 1
 

 x iˆ   y ˆj dx ˆ dy ˆ r
v  lim  i j  v x iˆ  v y ˆj
t  0 t dt dt
The direction of the instantaneous velocity vector at any point time x-axis
in a particle’s path is along a line that is tangent to the path at that
point and in the direction of motion; this is illustrated in figure.
 The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity vector is called the speed.
5.3 ACCELERATION
(a) Average acceleration
The average acceleration of a particle as it moves from P to Q is defined as the ratio of the change
in the instantaneous velocity vector, v, to the elapsed time, t
  
 v v 2 v1
i.e., a   … (19)
t t 2  t1
Since the average acceleration is the ratio of a y-axis

vector quantity,  v , and a scalar quantity, t, we
P v1
conclude that a is a vector quantity directed along  v
 
v2
v . As is indicated in figure, the direction of  v is r1 Q
  -v1
found by adding the vector – v 1 (the negative of v 1 ) r2 v2

to the vector v 2 , since by definition O
   x-axis
v = v2 – v 1
 

 v x iˆ  v y ˆj 

 v
a     a iˆ  a ˆj
x y
t t 2  t1
(b) Instantaneous acceleration
 
The instantaneous acceleration a , is defined as the limiting value of the ratio  v / Δt as Δt
approaches zero:

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 
 v d v
a  lim  … (20)
t 0 t dt
6 TWO DIMENSIONAL MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION
Let us consider two-dimensional motion during which the acceleration remains constant. That is,
we assume that the magnitude and direction of the acceleration remain unchanged during the motion.

As we learned, in cause of the motion a particle can be determined by its position vector r . The
position vector for a particle moving in the xy plane can be written

r = x iˆ  yˆj … (21)

Where x , y , and r change with time as the particle moves. If the position vector is known, the
velocity of the particle can be obtained on differentiating equation, which give

 dr dx ˆ dy ˆ
v  i  j
dt dt dt

v  v x iˆ  v y ˆj … (22)
on differentiating equation (25) with respect to time, we get

 dv dv x ˆ dv y ˆ
a   i  j
dt dt dt
= a x iˆ  a y ˆj … (23)
  
Because a is assumed constant, its components a x and a y are also constants. Therefore , we can
apply the equations of kinematics to the x and y components of the velocity vector and displacement vector
as shown below.
 v  v
x0  a x t
 
x
v v 0  at  … (24)
v y  v y 0  a y t
 1 2
  1  2  x  v x0 t  2 a x t
r v 0 t  at  … (25)
2 1
y  v y t  a y t 2
 0
2

2
v x2  v x2  2a x s x
v  v 02
 2as  2 2
0
… (26)
v y  v y 0  2a y s y
We can say in other words, two-dimensional motion having constant acceleration is equivalent to
two independent motions in the x and y directions having constant accelerations ax and ay.
Examples of motion in plane are projectile motion and circular motion

7 PROJECTILE MOTION
If an object is thrown in air with some initial velocity at some angle with the horizontal, and then
allowed to move under the gravity, the object moves in a curved path, such type of motion is called
projectile motion and that object is known as projectile. Such a projectile may be football, a cricket ball or
any object.
It is an example of two dimensional motion.
 The path of projectile, which is called trajectory, is always a parabola
Assumptions of projectile motion
(1) The acceleration due to gravity (‘g’) is constant over the motion of projectile.

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 (2) The effect of air resistances is negligible
(3) The effect due to rotation of earth and curvature of the earth is negligible.
When an object is thrown at some angle to the horizontal, the y-axis
motion of projectile will be in horizontal direction as well as in
vertical direction. Suppose motion of projectile is in xy-plane of co-
ordinate system as shown in figure, then motion of the object will be u
along the two mutually perpendicular direction together, say x and y-
axes of the co-ordinate system. Consider motion along horizontal 
o
direction as x-axis and motion along vertical direction as y-axis. x-axis
We can study the two-dimensional motion as one-dimensional motion along x-axes and
y-axis since its superposition gives the resultant motion.
Let us assume that at t = 0, projectile leaves the origin (x = 0, y = 0) with velocity u, which makes
an angle  with the horizontal.
Motion along horizontal direction (x-axis): In this
direction initial velocity will be horizontal component of initial
velocity with which the object is projected i.e., y-axis
ux = u cos 
acceleration will be perpendicular component of g
(acceleration due to gravity) u
ax = 0
Now we can say motion in x-direction is with constant 
velocity since acceleration is zero. o
ucos x-axis
vx = v0x + axt
= ux
= u cos
g
1
and x = v0t + axt2
2
= uxt
= (ucos)t
Motion in vertical direction (y-axis)
In this direction initial velocity will be vertical component of initial velocity with which the object
is projected.
uy = u sin
and acceleration will be ‘g’ which is acting in negative y-axis.
ay = –g (which is constant)
It means motion along y-axis is with uniform acceleration, so equation of kinematics for one-
dimensional motion can be used here.
vy = uy – gt
= usin – gt
1
and y = uyt – gt2
2
1
= (usin) t – gt2
2
Also we have,
v y2  u y2 – 2gy
= (u sin )2 – 2gy

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 7.1 EQUATION OF TRAJECTORY

y-axis
Let projected body be in motion for t second.
Consider motion in x-direction u
ux = u cos 
ax = 0
x = (u cos ) t 
o
x ux =ucos x-axis
t = … (i)
u cos  ax = 0
Now consider motion in y-direction
uy = usin and ay = -g
1
y = (usin)t – gt2
2 u sin 
on putting value of t from equation (i)
x 1 x2
y = (u sin )  g 2
u cos  2 u cos 2 
a=g u cos 
ax = 0

1 x2
y  (tan  ) x  g 2 … (27)
2 u cos 2 

Which is valid for the angles in the range 0 <  <
2
The above equation represents a parabola. So we can say that equation of trajectory is parabola.
7.2 VELOCITY OF PROJECTILE IN SPACE
Now to obtain the speed v of the projectile as a function of time, first we calculate speed along x-
axis and y-axis vx and vy respectively as a function of time
v = v2 v2 y-axis
x y

In x-direction velocity will remains constant. So at any time t


vx = (ucos)


x-axis
In y-direction velocity will be vy = usin  – gt
|v| = (u cos )2  (u sin   gt )2

v  u 2  2ugt sin   g 2 t 2 … (28)

and velocity vector will be tangent to the path at any instant as shown in figure
vy 
tan  =  .

vx 

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 7.3 TIME OF ASCENT
Time of ascent is the time when the projectile will attain the
maximum height. At this position the vertical component of velocity y-axis
vector will become zero.
As shown in figure P is point of maximum height. Now to u P
find the time taken from initial point of projection upto maximum
height, we consider motion in y-direction
vy = uy – gt 
0 = usin – gt x-axis

u sin 
t … (29)
g
7.4 TIME OF FLIGHT
When a particle is projected in air after some time it hits the ground again, time taken in this
process is called time of flight or we can say time of flight is time of motion of projectile when it is in air.
It is denoted by T.
Let a particle be projected from O and again it hits the ground at point Q. In this motion distance
travelled in y-direction is zero.
On applying equation of motion in y-direction. y-axis
1 2 u P
y = ut  gt
2
1
0 = usin T – gT 2 
2 o Q x-axis
1
0 = (u sin – gT)T
2
2u sin 
T = 0 or T =
g
2u sin 
T … (30)
g
Time of flight can be found out in second way as given below.
The total time of flight is consists of two parts
(i) Time taken by the particle to go from O to highest point P, it is called time of ascent.
(ii) Time taken by the particle to go from the highest point P to Q where it hits the ground
again. It is called time of descent.
As motion from O to P and P to Q are symmetrical.
u sin 
 time of ascent = time of descent =
g
Total time of fight = time of ascent + time of descent.
2u sin 
T =
g
7.5 MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF PROJECTILE
y-axis

u P
It is the maximum vertical height attained by the particle
above the point of projection during its flight. it is denoted by H.
H
When the projectile is at maximum height, its vertical 
component of velocity will be zero. o Q x-axis

Initial velocity vy = u sin 

On using equation of motion along y axis.

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 vy2 = uy2 – 2gs
0 = u2sin2 - 2gH
u 2 sin 2 
H = … (31)
2g
7.6 HORIZONTAL RANGE
Range of projectile is horizontal distance travelled by the

y-axis
particle during the time of flight
u
Motion along x-axis is with constant velocity
So distance travelled in this direction will be 
x = (ucos) t o Q x-axis
R = (ucos)T R

Where T is time of flight

2u sin 
T =
g
on putting the value of T
 2u sin  
R = (ucos)  
 g 
u 2 sin 2
R … (32)
g
For range to be maximum
u 2 sin 2
R
g
sin2 = 1 = sin 90°
2 = 90°
 = 45°
u2
Rmax  … (33)
g
 A projectile will have maximum range when it is projected at angle of 45° to the horizontal and
u2
maximum range will be =
g
u 2 sin 2 45
 When range is maximum, the maximum height H reached by the projectile H 
2g
u 2 R max
= 
2g 4
 For same range two angle of projectile are possible, such that two angles are complementary to
each other.
1 + 2 = 90°,
where 1 and 2 are two different angles of projection which gives same horizontal range.
If 1 = 45° + ,
then 2 = 45° – 
Illustration 13
Question: A ball is thrown from a field with a speed of 12.0 m/s at an angle of 450 with the
horizontal. At what distance will it hit the field again? Take g =10.0 m/s2

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 u 2 sin 2
Solution: The horizontal range 
g
(12 m/s)2 x sin( 2 x 450 )

10 m/s 2
144 m 2 /s 2
  14.4 m .
10 m/s 2
Thus, the ball hits the field at 14.4 m from the point of projection.
Illustration 14
Question: Find the maximum horizontal range when the velocity of projection is 30 m/s. Find
the two directions of projection to give a range of 45 m. Take g = 10 m/s2.
u 2 30 2
Solution: (i) Maximum range Rm   = 90 m
g 10
u 2 sin2
(ii) Now = 45
g
4510 1
or sin 2 = 
3030 2
or 2 = 30 or 150 [ (180  ) = sin ]
or  = 15 or 75
Therefore for a given velocity of projection and for a given range, two directions of
projection are possible.
Illustration 15
Question: What is the least velocity with which a cricket ball can be thrown through a distance
of 100 m?
Solution: Since the range is given, the least velocity of projection is that value when the angle of
projection is 45. For velocity u to be least
u 2 sin2 u2
= 100 where  = 45 or = 100
g g
u2 = 100  9.8 = 980
u= 980 = 31.3 m/s

Illustration 16
Question: From a point on the ground at a distance 10 m from the foot of a vertical wall, a ball
is thrown at an angle of 45 which just clears the top of the wall and afterwards
strikes the ground at a distance 5 m on the other side. Find the height of the wall.
Solution: Let u be the velocity of projection at an angle  = 45 with the horizontal.
u 2 sin2 Y
Horizontal range =
g
= 15 u
A (x, h)
2
u
= 15 h
g
45º
Equation of the trajectory O X
1 gx 2 x = 10 m x1 = 5 m
y = x tan  
2 u 2 cos 2 

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 1 gx 2 gx 2 x2
or y=x1 x  2 x 
2 2 1 u 15
u 
2
When x = 10, y = h,
10 2 50 1
 h = 10   = 3 m
15 15 3
7.7 RANGE OF PROJECTILE ON AN INCLINED PLANE THROUGH THE POINT
OF PROJECTION
A particle is projected from a point A on an inclined plane, which is inclined at an angle  to the horizon with
a velocity u at an elevation . The direction of projection lies in the vertical plane through AB, the line of the
greatest slope of the plane.
Let the particle strike the plane at B so that AB
u
is the range on the inclined plane.
The initial velocity of projection u can be B
resolved into a component u cos (  ) along the plane 
and a component u sin (  ) perpendicular to the  C
plane. The acceleration due to gravity g which acts A
vertically down can be resolved into components g sin Fig. 3.
 up the plane and g cos  perpendicular to the plane.
By the principle of physical independence of forces the
motion along the plane may be considered independent
of the motion perpendicular to the plane. Let T be the
time, which the particle takes to go from A to B. Then in
this time the distance traversed by the projectile
perpendicular to the plane is zero.
1
 0 = u sin (  ) T  g cos T 2
2
2u sin( )
 T=
g cos
During this time the horizontal velocity of the projectile (u cos ) remains constant. Hence the
horizontal distance described is given by
2u 2 sin( ) cos
AC = u cos T =
g cos 
AC 2u 2 sin () cos
 AB = 
cos g cos 2 
2u 2 sin(  )cos
 Range on the inclined plane 
g cos 2 
Maximum range on the inclined plane
2u 2 sin (  ) cos
R
g cos 2 
u2
= [sin (2  )  sin ]
g cos 2 
For given values of u and , R is maximum when
sin(2  ) = 1
i.e., (2  ) = 90

 = (45 + /2)

If Rm represents the maximum range on the inclined plane,

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 u2
Rm  (1  sin )
g cos 2 

u2
Rm 
g (1sin)

For a given velocity of projection, it can be shown that there are two directions of projection which
are equally inclined to the direction of maximum range.

u2
Now R= [sin (2  )  sin ]
g cos 2 

For given values of u,  and R, sin (2  ) is constant. There are two values of (2  ) each less
than 180° that can satisfy the above equation.

Let (21  ) and (22  ) be the two values. Then

21   = 180  (22  )

1  /2 = 90  (2  /2)

1  (45 + /2) = (45 + /2)  2

Since (45 + /2) is the angle of projection giving the maximum range, it follows that the direction
giving maximum range bisects the angle between the two angles of projection that can give a particular
range

Illustration 17
Question: A particle is projected at an angle  =600 with horizontal from the foot of a plane
whose inclination to horizontal is  = 150. Find the value of cot .
Solution: Let u be the velocity of projection so that u cos (  ) and u sin (  ) are the initial
velocities respectively parallel and perpendicular to the inclined plane. The acceleration in
these two directions are (g sin ) and (g cos ).
The initial component of velocity perpendicular
to PQ is u sin (  ) and the acceleration in this
direction is (g cos ). If T is the time the particle
u Q
takes to go from P to Q then in time T the space
described in a direction perpendicular to PQ is
zero. 
1 2

0 = u sin (  )  T  g cos   T P N
2
2u sin(  )
T=
g cos
If the direction of motion at the instant when the particle hits the plane be perpendicular to
the plane, then the velocity at that instant parallel to the plane must be zero.
 u cos (  )  g sin T = 0

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 u cos( ) 2u sin( )
T 
g sin g cos
 cot  = 2 tan (  ) = 2

8 RELATIVE VELOCITY
The terms ‘rest’ and ‘motion’ are only relative. For example, when we say that a train is moving
with velocity 30 m.p.h, we mean is that it is the velocity with which the train moves with respect to an
observer on the earth who is regarded as fixed. This is not true strictly since a person on the earth
unconsciously partakes the rotatory motion of the earth round its axis and the motion of earth round the
sun. In addition, he shares the motion of entire solar system through space with respect to certain fixed
stars. Thus there is no absolutely fixed point on the earth about which we can measure motion. Hence a
person on the earth can never realise absolute motion or absolute rest.
Let us consider two motor cars A and B moving in the same direction on a road with equal speed.
To a person seated in A, if he were unconscious of his motion, the car B would appear to be at rest. The line
joining the two cars will always remain constant in magnitude and direction. The velocity of B relative to A
or the velocity of A relative to B is zero.
On the other hand if A is moving with 30 m.p.h and B with 40 m.p.h in the same direction, a person
in A would observe the car B to be drawing away from him at the rate of 10 m.p.h. This represents the
velocity of B relative to A. If, however, B is moving opposite to the direction of A with velocity 40 m.p.h.,
for a person in A, B appears to draw away from him at the rate of 70 m.p.h. This, therefore, represents the
velocity of B relative to A.
Definition of Relative velocity
When the distance between two moving points A and B is altering, either in magnitude or in
direction or both, each point is said to possess a velocity relative to the other. The velocity of one of the
moving points, say, A, relative to the other point B is obtained by compounding with the velocity of A, the
reversed velocity of B. The velocity of A relative to B is the velocity with which A will appear to move to
B, if B is reduced to rest.
If velocity A is v A and that of B is v B with respect to a stationary vB
frame, then from the definition, relative velocity of A with respect to B, v AB
is given by
B A vA
Fig. 8.
v AB = v A  v B …(34)
If angle between v A and v B is  then
| v AB | v A2  v B2  2v A v B cos  …(35)
Also angle  made by relative velocity with vA is given by
v B sin 
tan   …(36)
v A  v B cos 
From the above definition of relative velocity it follows that if we impress on both the moving
points A and B, a velocity equal and opposite to that of B, then B would be reduced to rest and A will have
two velocities (i) its own velocity and (ii) the reversed velocity of B. These two can be compounded into a
single velocity by the parallelogram law, which will give the velocity of A relative to B.
8.1 RELATIVE VELOCITY IN ONE-DIMENSION
Case I
If  = 0°,
v AB  v A2  v B2  2v A v B

= (v A  v B ) 2

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 = vA – vB
If two bodies have velocity in same direction, then their difference gives the relative velocity.
Case II
If  =  or 180°
v AB  v A2  v B2  2v A v B cos 180

v AB  v A2  v B2  2v AB
= vA + vB
When two bodies have velocity in opposite direction, then their sum gives the relative velocity.
8.2 RELATIVE VELOCITY IN TWO DIMENSIONS
The concept of relative velocity has been discussed in one-dimensional motion. Same concept is
used when motion is in a plane. In this case we can consider relative velocity in a plane as superposition of
relative velocity in two mutually perpendicular direction considered as motion along x-axis and y-axis.
 
Suppose two objects A and B are moving with constant velocity v A and v B each with respect to same
common frame of reference, say ground, then velocity of A relative to B is
  
v AB = v A – v B

When we will take relative motion along x-axis

vxAB = = vxA – vxB
When we will take relative motion along y-axis
vyAB = vyA – vyB

River-Boat Problems
River-boat problem is based on concept of relative velocity and resultant velocity. In this problem
we come-across three terms

v RG = velocity of river/stream with respect to ground. It is denoted by u.

v BR = velocity of boatman with respect to river or velocity of boatman in still water. It is denoted
by v.

vBG = velocity of boatman with respect to ground.

Let the river is flowing along x-axis with velocity VRG and B
width of river is d.
Let boat-man start from one bank of river from the point A
 
with velocity v BR along the direction as shown in figure.
v BR  v  d
 v BG

A 
v RG  u
  
v BR  v BG  v RG
  
v BG  v BR  v RG … (i)
Taking x-component in equation (i)

v BG cos   u  v sin  … (ii)
Taking y-component in equation (i)

v BG sin   0  v cos  … (iii)
On squaring and adding equation (ii) and (iii)
2
v BG  u 2  v 2  2uv sin 

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 v BG  u 2  v 2  2uv sin 
on dividing equation (ii) by (i)
 v cos 
tan  
u  v sin 
When boatman cross the river, the displacement in y-direction is d
Time taken to cross the river is t
d
t=
v cos 
In this time displacement in x-direction is x
x = (u – v sin) t
(u  v sin ) d
x=
v cos 
(a) When a boat tends to cross a river in shortest time
d
t=
v cos 
for shortest time , v cos has to be maximum
 cos has to be maximum = 1
 = 0°
So the boats should go along AB (vertically opposite direction) to cross the river in shortest time.
When boat-man is crossing the river in shortest time, the horizontal distance traveled along the
direction of river = x
ud
x=ut=
v
(b) When a boat-man tends to cross the river along a shortest path (wants to reach the point
just opposite from where he started)
When boat-man wants to cross the river in shortest path, horizontal distance covered should be
zero.
x = (u – v sin)
(u  v sin ) d
x= =0
v cos 
u u 
u – vsin = 0 , sin = ,  = sin-1  
v v 
u
Hence, to reach just opposite point the boatman should row at an angle  = sin-1 upstream from
v
AB.
sin < 1
u
1
v
u<v
so to cross the river directly velocity of river or stream should be less than velocity of boat.
If river velocity is greater than the velocity of boat, then it is impossible to reach the point B.
Illustration 18
Question: Ram is moving due east with a velocity of 1 m/s and Shyam is moving due west with a
velocity of 2 m/s. What is the velocity of Ram with respect to shyam?
Solution: It is a dimensional motion. So, let us choose the east direction as positive and the west as
negative. Now given that
vS = velocity of Ram = 1 m/s
and vG = velocity of Shyam = - 2m/s
Thus, vSG = velocity of Ram with respect to Shyam
= vS – vG = 1– (-2) = 3 m/s
Hence, velocity of Ram with respect to Shyam is 3 m/s due east.
Illustration 19

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 Question: A police van moving on a highway with a speed of 30 km h–1 fires a bullet at a thief’s
car speeding away in the same direction with a speed of 192 km h–1. If the muzzle
speed of the bullet is 150 ms–1, with what speed does the bullet hit the thief’s car?
30  1000 25
Solution: Speed of police van, v p  30 kmh 1  ms 1  ms 1
3600 3
192  1000 160
Speed of thief’s car, v t  192 kmh 1  ms 1  ms 1
3600 3
Speed of bullet, v b = speed of police van + speed with which bullet is actually fired.
 25  475
 vb    150  ms 1  ms 1
 3  3
Relative velocity of bullet w.r.t. thief’s car,
 475 160  1 –1
v bt  v b  v b     ms = 105 ms
 3 3 

Illustration 20
Question: A jet air plane traveling at the speed of 500 km h–1 ejects its products of combustion
at the speed of 1500 kmh–1 relative to the jet plane. What is the speed of the
combustion products w.r.t. an observer on the ground?
Solution: Speed of combustion products w.r.t. observer on the ground = ?
Velocity of jet air plane w.r.t. observer on ground = 500 km h–1
 
If v j and v a represent the velocities of jet and observer respectively, then

v j  v a  500 kmh 1

Similarly, if v c represents the velocity of the combustion products w.r.t. jet plane, then
v c  v f  1500 kmh–1
The negative sign indicates that the combustion products move in a direction opposite to
that of jet.
Speed of combustion products w.r.t. observer
 v c  v a  v c  v j   v j  v a    1500  500 kmh 1 = – 1000 km h–1

Illustration 21
Question: A swimmer can swim in still water at a rate 4.0 km/h. If he swims in a river flowing at
3.0 km/h and keeps his direction (with respect to water) perpendicular to the current,
find his velocity with respect to the ground.

Solution: The velocity of the swimmer with respect to water is v S,R  4.0 km/h in the
direction perpendicular to the river. The velocity of river with respect to the ground

is v R,G  3.0 km/h along the length of the river. The velocity of the swimmer with

respect to the ground is v S,G where

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 vS.R vS.G

4,0km/h


3,0km/h vR.G
  
v S,G  v S,R  v S,G

v S,G  (4.0 km/h) 2  (3.0 km/h) 2 = 5. 0 km/h.

The angle  made with the direction of flow is
4.0 km/h 4
tan   
3.0 km/h 3

Illustration 22
Question: To a standing person, the rains appears to fall vertically downward at 10 km/hr. If
the person moves eastward at 5 km/hr, determine the direction of umbrella used to
protect the person against rain. Also find the apparent velocity of the rain with
respect to person

Solution: We have to find out V RP
  
v RP  v RG  v PG vRP
  
or, v RP  v RG + (– v PG ) vp
So to find it, direction of velocity of person
should reversed
   vRG
v RP  v RG  ( v PG ) 

2 2   
 v RP  v RG  v PG  v PG v PG
vRG
= (10 ) 2  (5) 2

= 5 5 km/hr
The direction of resultant can be found out by
v 10
tan  = RG = =2
v PG 5
 = tan-12

9 CIRCULAR MOTION
Circular motion is a type of motion in which a particle moves around a fixed point such that, its
distance from a fixed point is constant.

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 Suppose a particle moves on a circular path which is shown in
figure. Here r is distance from the fixed point, which is centre of this r
circle to the particle. It will remain constant.

9.1 IMPORTANT PARAMETERS

Angular displacement: When a particle moves on a circular
path, angle made at centre is called angular displacement. O
Suppose a particle moving on a circular path start from A and 
after some time t, it is at B the angle made at centre during this interval
of time is AOB = .
A B
Angular displacement =  t
Its Unit is radian
Angular Velocity ()
Angular velocity is rate of change of angular displacement
As shown above the particle moves from A to B in t
 
Angular velocity ()   … (37)
t t
Its unit is radian per second,
If angular velocity is constant,  = t

Instantaneous Angular velocity

Instantaneous angular velocity is angular velocity of a particle at any moment of time.
It is given by limiting value of angular velocity when time approaches to zero
 d
Instantaneous angular velocity = Lt = … (38)
t o t dt
i.e., rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time.
Angular Acceleration ()
Angular acceleration is defined as rate of change of angular velocity

Average angular acceleration () = … (39)
t
 d
Instantaneous angular acceleration,  = lim  … (40)
t 0 t dt
Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity
A particle moves  on a circular path of radius R. It moves R
from a point A to B. Angular displacement =  o
Time taken = t

Distance travelled = s
 A B
angular velocity () =
t S

s
 =
R
  S 
=    
t  R 
1 s
=
R t
1  s 
= v  v  
R  t 

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 v = R … (41)
tangential velocity = Radius × angular velocity
dv
Tangential acceleration (a) =
dt
d
= R  ( v = R)
dt
d
= R = R
dt
a = R … (42)
Tangential Acceleration = (Radius) (Angular acceleration)
9.2 TYPES OF CIRCULAR MOTION
(a) Uniform circular motion
(b) Non-uniform circular motion
(a) Uniform circular motion: When a particle moves on a circular path in such a way that its
angular speed is constant, such type of motion is called uniform circular motion.
Since  is constant, angular acceleration  is zero.
 In this motion speed is constant but velocity is not constant since direction changes continuously
so acceleration is also non-uniform.
 In uniform circular motion tangential acceleration will be zero.
 Time period is time taken in one complete revolution. It is denoted by T.
2
T

1
 Frequency (n) is number of revolutions per second and n =
T
(b) Non-Uniform circular Motion
Such type of motion in which angular speed is not constant.
 In this type of motion velocity changes with magnitude as well as direction both.
d
 Angular acceleration () = 0
dt
dv
 Tangential acceleration (a) = 0
dt
9.3 CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
“Centripetal” comes from a Greek word, which means centre-seeking. When an object moves on a
circular path with constant angular speed, an acceleration acts at each point of the path directed towards
the centre of the circle is called centripetal acceleration.
Let the angle made at the centre is  when an object v2
moves from A to B. The velocities at A and B are v1 and v2 C
respectively which are in tangential direction at A and B. Since B v1
motion is uniform circular
 
o  A
|v1 |  |v2 |  v
From triangle ABC
  
AB  BC  AC
  
BC  AC  BC
  
= v 2  v1 = v
BC = v = v
v 
v
t t

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 v2 – v1 = v B

C
v1
v2


A
 a = v
v v
 a=v (  = )
R R
v2
centripetal acceleration  … (43)
R
Direction of Acceleration B
Since velocity vector |AB| = |AC| = v
C  
So angle ACB = ABC = 
v
It t  0, then   0
v
2 +  = 180° 
  0
2 = 180° A
 = 90°

It means v is perpendicular to v
 
As v is tangential, hence v is perpendicular to tangential direction. It means direction of
acceleration is radially inwards.
Illustration 23
Question: A particle moves in a circle of radius 0.5 m with a linear speed of 2 m/s. Find its
angular speed.

Solution: The angular speed is

v 2
  = 4 rad/s
r 0 .5
Illustration 24
Question: The speed of a particle moving in a circle of radius r = 2 m varies with time t as v = t2
where t is in second and v in m/s. Find the radial, tangential and net acceleration at
t = 2s.
Solution: Linear speed of particle at t = 2s is v = (2)2 = 4 m/s
v 2 ( 4) 2 2
 radial acceleration ar =   8 m/s
r 2
dv
The tangential acceleration is at   2t
dt
 tangential acceleration at t = 2s is
at = (2) (2) = 4 m/s2
 Net acceleration of particle at t = 2 s is
a  (a r ) 2  (at ) 2  (8 ) 2  ( 4) 2

or a  80 m/s 2

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 Illustration 25
Question: A stone of mass 0.3 kg tied to the end of a string in a horizontal plane is whirled
round in a circle of radius 1 m with a speed of 40 rev min–1. Calculate the tension in
the string. What is the maximum speed with which the stone can be whirled around if
the string can withstand a maximum tension of 200 N? Givne 2 = 9.87.
Solution: M = 0.3 kg , R = 1 m
Angular frequency = 40 rev min–1
40  2
Angular speed ,   rad s–1 = 1.333  rad s–1
60
The centripetal force is provided by the tension in the string.
Mv 2
Tension   MR 2
R
 0.3 kg 1m 1.333  N  5.26 N
2

The string can withstand a maximum tension of 200 N. If vmax be the maximum speed of
the stone
Then
Mv 2max 200  1
200   = ms–1 = 25.82 ms–1.
R 0 .3

PROFICIENCY TESTII
The following questions deal with the basic concepts of this section. Answer the following
briefly. Go to the next section only if your score is at least 80%. Do not consult the Study Material while
attempting these questions.

1. A projectile is projected at an angle of 30° from the horizontal with a velocity of 98 m/s. Calculate
(a) time to reach the maximum height, (b) maximum height,
(c) time of flight, (d) horizontal range.

2. A cricketer throws a ball with a velocity of 60 m/s at an angle of 60°. He then runs to catch the
same ball. What should be his minimum velocity so that he may catch the ball before it strikes the
ground?

3. A man can throw a ball to a maximum horizontal distance of 100 m Then what would be
maximum vertical distance upto which he can throw the ball assuming the ball to have same initial
velocity.

4. What should be the angle of projection so that horizontal range of a projectile is equal to its
maximum vertical height.

5. A particle is projected at an angle of 30° with the horizontal. What should be the other angle of
projection with the same speed for which the horizontal range will be same?

6. Two trains A and B have lengths 100 m and 80 m respectively. They move in opposite directions
along parallel tracks at 72 km/hr and 54 km/hr respectively. What is the time taken by one train to
cross the other?

7. A monkey is climbing a vertical tree with a velocity of 12 m/s while a dog runs towards the tree
chasing the monkey with a velocity of 16 m/s. Find the magnitude of velocity of the dog relative to
the monkey.

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 8. A 100 m long train running with uniform velocity overtakes a man running in the same direction
on the platform at a speed of 5 m/s in 10 seconds. Find the velocity of the train.

9. A man can swim at a speed of 3 km/h in still water. He wants to cross a 500 m wide river flowing
at 2 km/h. He keeps himself always at an angle of 1200 with the river flow while swimming. Find
the time he takes to cross the river and at what point on the opposite bank will he arrive?

10. A man is walking on a level road at a speed of 3.0 km/h. Raindrops fall vertically with a speed of
4.0 km/h. Find the velocity of the raindrops with respect to the man.

11. When two bodies move uniformly towards each other, the distance between them decreases by 6
metres/second. If both the bodies move in the same direction with the same speeds, the distance
between them increases by 4 metres/second. What are the speeds of the two bodies.

12. A wheel of radius 2 metre is making 60 revolutions per minute. Calculate the linear velocity of a
point of rim
13. A body of mass 1.5 kg is making 2 revolutions per second in a circle of radius 0.25 m. Calculate
(1) linear velocity (2) centripetal acceleration (3) centripetal force.

14. Two stones are projected from a point P in the same direction with a velocity of 20 m/s one at
angle  above the horizontal and the other at angle  to the vertical. Find the horizontal distance of
each stone from P one second after projection and the horizontal separation between the stones.
(Take cos  = 4/5; sin  = 3/5)

15. A ship ‘A’ steams due north at 16 km/hr and a ship ‘B’ due N

west at 12 km/hr. At a certain moment position of B is 10 iˆ V

A
and of A is 0iˆ . The distances are measured in kilometer.
O E
Find the velocity of A relative to B. Find also the nearest V
distance of approach of the ships. B

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 ANSWERS TO PROFICIENCY TESTII
1. (a) 5 s,
(b) 122.5 metre,
(c) 10 s,
(d) 4903 metre

2. 30 m/s.

3. 50 metre

4. tan-1 (4)

5. 60°

6. 5.14 sec

8. 15 m/s.

1 1
9. h and km
3 3 6 3

10. 5.0 km/h

11. u = 5 m/s, v = 1 m/s.

12. 12.6 m/s

13. (1) 3.14 m/s

(2) 39.5 m/s2,
(3) 59.2 N

14. 16 m; 12 m; 4 m

15. 20 km/h, 8 km

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 SOLVED OBJECIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1:
A particle is travelling with velocity of 2 m/s and moves in a straight line with a retardation of
0.1 m/s2. The time at which the particle is 15m from the starting point is
(a) 10 s (b) 20 s (c) 25 s (d) 40 s
Solution:
1 2 1
S  ut  at ;15  2t   ( 0.1)t 2
2 2
 20  15 = 40t – t 2 or t 2 – 40t + 300 = 0
(t – 30) (t – 10) = 0; t = 30 s
or t = 10 s
The particle is at a distance 15 m from starting point at t = 10 s and also t = 30 s.
 (a)

Example 2:
A particle moves along a straight line according to the law S2 = at2 + 2bt + c. The acceleration
of the particle varies as
(a) S3 (b) S2/3 (c) S2 (d) S5/2
Solution:
S = (at 2 + 2bt + c)1/2
dS 1 at  b
Differentiating,  (at 2  2bt  c ) 1/ 2  ( 2at  2b ) 
dt 2 2
at  2bt  c
 at 2  2bt  c   a  (at  b ) (at  b )
 
2
d S   at 2  2bt  c
=
dt 2 (at 2  2bt  c )
a(at 2  2bt  c )  (at  b ) 2 (ac b 2 )
 
at 2  2bt  c  (at 2  2bt  c ) S S 2

d 2S 1
 2
  acceleration  S–3
dt S3
 (a)

Example 3:
A car accelerates from rest at a constant rate  for sometime, after which it decelerates at a
constant rate  to come to rest. If the total time elapsed is t, the maximum velocity acquired
by car is

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 αβ t (α  β) α 2  β2 α 2  β2
(a) (b) t (c) t (d) t
αβ αβ αβ αβ
Solution:
 
S1 u=V S2 v=0
A B C
u=0 v =V
V
For motion from A to B, V t 1 or t1

V
For motion from B to C, 0V t 2 or t2 

V V V (   )
 t  t 1 t 2   
  

or, V t
( )
 (a)

Example 4:
Two particles P and Q start simultaneously from A with velocities 15 m/s and 20 m/s
respectively. They move in the same direction with different accelerations. When P overtakes
Q at B, velocity of P is 30 m/s. The velocity of Q at B is
(a) 30 m/s (b) 25 m/s (c) 20 m/s (d) 15 m/s
Solution:
As displacement (in uniformly accelerated motion) = average velocity  time
The average velocity is the same, when overtaking takes place.
15 + 30 = 20 + v
or, v = 25 m/s
 (b)

Example 5:
A stone A is dropped from rest from a height h above the ground. A second stone B is
simultaneously thrown vertically up with velocity v. The value of v which would enable the
stone B to meet the stone A midway between their initial positions is
(a) 2 gh (b) 2 gh (c) gh (d) 2gh
Solution:
Time of travel of each stone = t
h
Distance travelled by each stone =
2
h 1 2 h
For stone A,  gt i .e.,t 
2 2 g
h 1 h 1 h
For stone B,  ut  gt 2  u  g  
2 2 g 2  g 
h h h
 u 
2 g 2
h
or, u  h
g
g
 u h  gh
h
 (c)

Example 6:
A body is dropped from rest from a height h. It covers a distance 9h/25 in the last second of
fall. The height h is

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 (a) 102.5 m (b) 112.5 m (c) 122.5 m (d) 132.5 m
Solution:
t is time to reach ground.
1  9  1
h  at 2 ;1 h  a(t 1) 2
2  25  2
2 2
 9  (t 1) 16 (t 1) 4 t 1
1  2 ;  2 or   t = 5 sec
 25  t 25 t 5 t
1
h =  9.8  52 = 122.5 m
2
 (c)

Example 7:
A particle P is projected vertically upward from a point A. Six seconds later, another particle
Q is projected vertically upward from A. Both P and Q reach A simultaneously. The ratio of
maximum heights reached by P and Q = 64 : 25. Find the velocity of the projection of Q in
m/s
(a) 7 g (b) 6 g (c) 5 g (d) 4 g
Solution:
1 1
g(t + 3)2: gt 2 = 64 : 25
2 2
or (t + 3)2 : t2 = 64 : 25; or (t + 3) : t = 8 : 5
5t + 15 = 8t or 3t = 15; t = 5 seconds
v = g  t = g  5 = 5g m/s
 (c)

Example 8:
A stone is dropped from rest from the top of a cliff. A second stone is thrown vertically down
with a velocity of 30 m/s two seconds later. At what distance from the top of a cliff do they
meet?
(a) 60 m (b) 120 m (c) 80 m (d) 44 m
Solution:
The two stones meet at distance S from top of cliff t seconds after first stone is
dropped.
1 2 1
For 1st stone S = gt ; For 2nd stone S = u(t – 2) + g(t – 2)2
2 2
1 2 1 2
i.e., gt = ut – 2u + gt – 2gt + 2g
2 2
2(u g ) 2(30 10 )
0 = (u – 2g)t – 2(u – g); t   =4s
u 2g 30 20
1 1
Distance S at which they meet =  gt 2 =  10  16
2 2
= 80 m from top of cliff
 (c)

Example 9:
A particle is projected from a point O with velocity u in a direction making an angle 
upward with the horizontal. At P, it is moving at right angles to its initial direction of
projection. Its velocity at P is
(a) u tan  (b) u cot  (c) u cosec  (d) u sec 
Solution:
P 
v cos (90  ) = v sin  = u cos ; v = u cot 
(90° )
 (b) 90°
u v

O

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 Example 10:
In the previous example the time of flight from O to P is
u cosec α u sin α u tan α u sec α
(a) (b) (c) (d)
g g g g
Solution:
v = gt = (g cos)t = u cot 
u cot  u 1 ucosec α
t=   
g cos g sin g
 (a)

Example 11:
A particle is projected from O and is moving freely under gravity and strikes the horizontal
plane through O at a distance R from it. Then which of the following is incorrect?
(a) There will be two angles of projection if Rg < u2
(b) There will be more than two angles of projection if Rg = u2
(c) The two possible angles of projection are complementary
(d) The products of the times of flight for two directions of projection is 2R/g
Solution:
2u 2 sincos
The range R =
g
Rg
sin 2 = 2
 Rg = u2, then sin 2 = 1, so  = 450.
u
Rg
sin 21 = sin 22  sin 21  sin 22 = 0
u2
or, 2 cos (1 + 2) sin (1  2) = 0
If Rg < u2, 1 + 2 = /2; if Rg = u 2, 1 = 2 = /2
2u sin 1 2u sin 2 4u 2 sin 1 cos  1 2R
t1t2 =   2
 since 1 + 2 = /2
g g g g
 (b)

Example 12:
The velocity of a particle P moving freely under gravity is 4.9 m/s, the direction being 30°
with the downward normal
(a) its acceleration normal to the direction of motion at P = 9.8 m/s2
(b) the radius of curvature of P of the parabolic trajectory of particle is 4. 9 m
(c) the particle has no acceleration normal to the direction of motion
(d) the radius of curvature at P of the path depends upon the initial velocity of projection
Solution:
The component of acceleration perpendicular to
velocity is g cos 60 and this provide the necessary
centripetal acceleration. v
60° 30°
g
g cos 60 = = 4.9 m/s2
2
v2
The radius of curvature is = 4.9;
r
v2
r= = 4.9 m
4.9
 (b)
Example 13:

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 A boat which has a speed of 5 km/hr in still water crosses a river of width 1 km along the
shortest possible path in 15 minutes. The velocity of the river water in kilometres per hour is
(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 41
Solution:
For shortest possible path vw
1km
v  4 km/h
15 min vb  v
v w2  v 2  v b2
v w  v b2  v 2  5 2  4 2  3kmh–1
 (b)

Example 14:
A man running at 6 km/hr on a horizontal road in vertically falling rain observes that the
rain hits him at 30° from the vertical. The actual velocity of rain has magnitude
(a) 6 km/hr (b) 6 3 km/hr (c) 2 3 km/hr (d) 2 km/hr
Solution: O 6 km M
Velocity of rain = Velocity of man + Relative velocity of rain
OR gives the actual velocity.
30°
VR 1 6 Relative
tan 30  = 
OR 3 OR velocity
or, OR  6 3 km/hr
 (b)
V R

Example 15:
A boat which has a speed of 5 km/hr in still water crosses a river of width 3 km along the
shortest possible path in t min. The river flows at the rate of 3 km/hr. The time taken t is
(a) 20 min (b) 25 min (c) 45 min (d) 55 min
Solution:
AB 3
t  = 45 minutes
5 2 3 2 4

 (c)

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 SOLVED SUBJECTIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1:
A particle moves along a straight path ABC with a uniform acceleration of 0.5 m/s2. While it
crosses A its velocity is found to be 5 m/s. It reaches C with a velocity 40 m/s, 30 seconds after
it has crossed B in its path. Find the distance AB.
Solution:
The velocity while it crosses the point A is 5 m/s
u = 5 m/s v = 40 m/s
A
S1 B C
t=0 t = t1 t = t1 + 30
Considering the displacement AC,
initial velocity u = 5 m/s
final velocity v = 40 m/s
acceleration a = 0.5 m/s2
v u 405
 time of motion t =  = 70 s
a 0 .5
For the displacement AB,
initial velocity u = 5 m/s
acceleration a = 0.5 m/s2
time of motion t = 70  30 = 40 s
1 2 1 
 AB = S = ut + at = (5  40) +   0.5  40 2  = 200 + 400 = 600 m
2 2 
Example 2:
A particle moving with uniform acceleration in a straight line covers a distance of 3 m in the
8th second and 5 m in the 16th second of its motion. What is the displacement (in cm) of the
particle from the beginning of the 6th second to the end of 15th second?
Solution:
The distance traveled during the nth second of motion of a body is given by
1
Sn  u  a (2n 1)
2
For the motion during the 8th second,
1 15a
3=u+ a (16 1)  u  ... (i)
2 2
For the motion during the 16th second,
1 31a
5=u+ a ( 32  1)  u  ... (ii)
2 2
Subtracting equations (i) from (ii)
8a = 2
1
or acceleration a = ms2
4
 15 1  9
From equation (1), u = 3     ms2
 2 4 8
Now, the velocity at the end of 5 s (velocity at the beginning of 6th second)
v1 = u + 5a
The velocity at the end of 15th s, v2 = u + 15a
v1 v 2
Average velocity during this interval of 10 seconds =
2
(u 5a )(u 15a )
 = u + 10a
2

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 Distance travelled during this interval
S = average velocity x time = (u + 10a)  t
9 10  290
=     10  = 36.25 m = 3625 cm
8 4  8
Example 3:
5
An automobile can accelerate or decelerate at a maximum value of m/s2 and can attain a
3
maximum speed of 90 km/hr. If it starts from rest, what is the shortest time in which it can
travel one kilometre, if it is to come to rest at the end of the kilometre run?
Solution:
In order that the time of motion be shortest, the automobile should attain the maximum velocity
with the maximum acceleration after the start, maintain the maximum velocity for as along as
possible and then decelerate with the maximum retardation possible, consistent with the condition
that, the automobile should come to rest immediately after covering a distance of 1 km.
Let t1 be the time of acceleration, t2 be the time of uniform velocity and t3 be the time of
retardation.
5
Now, maximum velocity possible = 90 km/hr = 90  m/s = 25 m/s
18
v u 25 0
t1   = 15 s
a 5
3
Similarly, the time of retardation is also given by
0  25
t3  = 15 s
5

3
During the period of acceleration, the distance covered
= average velocity x time
25  0
=  15 = 187.5 m
2
During the period of retardation, the distance covered is the same and hence
= 187.5 m
 the total distance covered under constant velocity = 1000  375 = 625 m
625
Time of motion under constant velocity, t 2   25s
25
 the shortest time of motion = t1 + t2 + t3 = 15 + 25 + 15 = 55 seconds

Example 4:
1
A stone is dropped into a well and the sound of the splash is heard 3 seconds later. If the
8
velocity of sound in air is 352.8 m/s, find the depth of the well (in cm). g = 9.8 m/s2.
Solution:
Let x metres be the depth of the well and t the time taken by the stone to reach the surface of
water.
In this case u = 0, a = 9.8 m/s2
1 2
Now in the relation, S = ut + at ,
2
we have
1
x=0+ (9.8) t2
2
or x = 4.9t2 ... (i)

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 Time taken by the sound to travel the distance x up (Motion of sound wave is not affected by
gravity) is
 1 
 3  t  seconds
 8 
Distance traveled = Velocity of sound  Time taken
 25 
x = 352.8 t ... (ii)
 8 
From equations (i) and (ii),
 25 
4.9t 2 352.8 t 
 8 
or, 4.9t2 + 352.8t – 1102.5 = 0
or, t 2 + 72t – 225 = 0
Solving, t = 3 or – 75 s.
Since the negative value of t has no meaning, t = 3 s.
This gives x = 4.9t 2 = 4.9 x 9 = 44.1 m
Hence the depth of the well = 44.1 m = 4410 cm

Example 5:
A circus artist maintains four balls in motion making each in turn rise to a height of 5 m
from his hand. With what velocity (in m/s) does he project them and the height (in cm) of the
other three balls at the instant when the fourth one is just leaving his hand? (take g = 10
m/s2.)
Solution:
Obviously, to maintain proper distances, the artists must throw the balls after equal intervals of
time. Let the interval of time be t, so that when the fourth ball is just leaving his hand, the first ball
would have travelled for time 3t, the second for time 2t and the third for time t. The second
obviously would just have reached the maximum height of 5 m.
If v be the initial velocity of throw of each ball, then for the second ball we have,
v2 = 0 = v – g (2t) ... (i)
1
and s2 = 5 = v (2t ) – g (2t ) 2 ... (ii)
2
These gives, v = 2gt
and v  2t = 2t 2 + 5
or v = 20t
and v  2t = 20t 2 + 5
1
Solving for t, we get 20t2 = 5 or t = second.
2
1
Therefore, v = 20  = 10 m/s. Thus each ball is thrown up with initial velocity of 10 m/s.
2
For the first ball, which would have come down for time (3t – 2t) = t, we have
1
S=0+ gt 2
2
2
1  1 5
=  10    = 125 cm
2 2
  4
Therefore, it will be at a height of (5 – 1.25) = 3.75 m = 375 cm from the hand and going
downwards.
For the third ball, which will have risen up for time t,
2
1 2  1 1  1
S3  vt  gt  10     10     5  1.25  375 cm
2 2 2 2

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 Example 6:
A stone is projected from the point on the ground in such a direction so as to hit a bird on the
top of a telegraph post of height h and then attain the maximum height 2h above the ground.
If at the instant of projection the bird were to fly away horizontally with uniform speed
 
v = 2 2  1 m/s. Find the horizontal velocity of the stone if the stone still hits the bird while
descending.
Solution:
The situation is shown in Figure. Let  be the angle of projection and u the velocity of projection.
Maximum height MN = 2h
u 2 sin 2  Y
MN = 2h =
2g
 u sin  = 2 gh ... (i)
Let t be the time taken by stone to attain the
u M
vertical height h above the ground.
1 2 A B
 h = (u sin )t  gt
2 h h

X
O N

 2u sin  2h
t 2   t  0
 g  g

usin u 2 sin2  2h
t  
g g2 g
Substituting the value of u sin  from (i),
2 gh 4gh 2h 4h 2h
t   = 
g g2 g g g

4h 2h 4h 2h
t1   t2  
g g g g
where t1 and t2 are time to reach A and B respectively shown in the figure. If v is the horizontal
velocity of bird, then
AB = vt2.
AB is also equal to u cos  (t2  t1), where u cos  is constant horizontal velocity of stone.
2h
t 2 t 1  2
g
2h
 u cos   2 = vt2
g

2h 2h
2 2
v g g
 
u cos t2 2h
( 2 1)
g
v 2

u cos  2 1
 u cos   1 m/s

Example 7:

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 Two particles are projected at the same instant from two points A and B on the same
horizontal level where AB = 56 m, the motion taking place in a vertical plane through AB.
 5 
The particle from A has an initial velocity of 39 m/s at an angle sin 1   with AB and the
 13 
 1 3 
particle from B has an initial velocity of 25 m/s at an angle sin   with BA. Show that the
 5
particles would collide in mid-air and find when and where the impact occurs.
Solution:
AB = 56 m.
At A, a particle is projected with velocity u = 39 m/s. u1 u v
and u2 are its horizontal and vertical components
u2 v2
respectively. The angle u makes with AB is 1. 1 2
5 12 B
Given that sin  1  cos 1  . A u1 56 m v1
13 13

Similarly, for the particle projected from B, with velocity v = 25 m/s, v1 and v2 are the horizontal
and vertical components respectively.
3 4
sin 2 =  cos 2 = .
5 5
5
Now u2 = u sin 1 = 39  = 15 m/s.
13
3
v2 = v sin 2 = 25  = 15 m/s.
5
The vertical components of the velocities are the same at the start. Subsequently at any other
instant t their vertical displacement are equal and have a value
h = 15t  5t 2
which means that the line joining their positions at the instant t continues to be horizontal and the
particles come closer to each other.
Their relative velocity in the horizontal direction
= 39 cos 1 + 25 cos 2
12 4
= 39   25   36  20 = 56 m/s
13 5
AB 56
Time of collision   = 1 s, after they were projected.
56 56
1 2 1
Height at which the collision occurs = ut  at  15(1)  (10 ) (1) 2 = 10 m
2 2
12
The horizontal distance of the position of collision from A = 39   1 s = 36 m
13

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 Example 8:
A shell is fired from a gun from the bottom of a hill along its slope. The slope of the hill is
 = 30 and the angle of barrel to the horizontal is  = 60. The initial velocity of shell is
21 m/s. Find the distance from the gun to the point at which the shell falls.
Solution:
We can write the equation of motion as
x = ut cos 
gt 2
y = ut sin  
2
OA =  u
At the moment the shell falls to the ground
A
x =  cos  =  cos 30
y =  sin  =  sin 30 =60º
=30º

 cos  = ut cos  ... (i)

2
gt
 sin  = ut sin   ... (ii)
2
cos
 t =
u cos
cossin  g2 cos 2  2u 2 sin( )cos
sin    
cos  2 2
2u cos  g cos 2 
Substituting u = 21 m/s,  = 30,  = 60 and g = 9.8 m/s2, we get  = 30 m

Example 9:
A man can swim at a velocity V1 relative to water in a river flowing with speed V2. Show that
V1
it will take him times as long to swim a certain distance upstream and back as to
V12 V 22
swim the same distance and back perpendicular to the direction of the stream (V1 > V2).
(given 24V1  25V2 )
Solution:
Suppose the man swims a distance x up and the same distance down the stream.
Velocity of man upstream relative to the ground = V1  V2.
x
Time taken for this, t 1 
V1 V2
Velocity of man downstream relative to the ground = V1 + V2
x
Time taken for this, t 2 
V1 V2
x x 2V1 x
Total time taken t 1 t 2   
(V1 V2 ) (V1  V2 ) (V12  V22
Next the man intends crossing the river perpendicular to the direction of the stream. If he wants to
cross the river straight across he must swim in a direction OM such that the vector sum of velocity
of man + velocity of river will give him a velocity relative to the ground in a direction

perpendicular to the direction of the stream. In the Figure the velocity relative to the ground is OR

and the magnitude of OR  V12 V22

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 Now the man swims a distance x up and x down V2
M R
perpendicular to the river flow. Time taken for this,
2x
t
V1
V12 V22 V1 + V 2

t1 t 2 2V x 2x
Then the ratio,  2 1 2 
t (V1  V2 ) V1  V22
2
O

2V1 x V12 V22 V1

   =5
(V12  V22 ) 2x V12 V22

Example 10:
A man walking eastward at 6 km/hr finds that the wind seems to blow directly from north.
On doubling his velocity, the wind appears to come N 30° E. Find the speed of the wind.
Solution:
Actual velocity of the man = 6 km/hr eastward.
The direction of the relative velocity of the wind in this case is North to South.
 
If OA represents the velocity of man and AB represents the relative velocity of the wind, then

velocity of man + relative velocity of wind = velocity of wind = OB (say)
It is also given that when the velocity of the man is doubled (i.e., 12 km/hr) the wind seems to blow

from a direction N 30°E. Representing this by vector OC = New velocity of man = 12 km/hr.

The direction of the relative velocity N 12 km/h N

of the wind in this case is CB. The W O 6 km/h A 30º E
two directions of the relative velocity 60º 60º C

meet at B. Hence OB should give the
real velocity of the wind. From the
geometry of the Figure, it is clear that S S
OBC is an equilateral triangle. Hence Direction N 30º E
the magnitude of the real velocity of B
the wind = 12 km/hr.

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 NEET
NEET SLIP TEST PAPERS
CHAPTERISE INDEX
PRACTICE TESTS
S PHYSICS CHAPTERS TEST PAGE
NO EACH TEST 50 MARKS NO
1. PHYSICAL WORLD AND MEASUREMENT 1
2. KINEMATICS 5
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3. LAWS OF MOTION 9
4. WORK POWER ENERGY 14
5. MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES ANDRIGID BODY 19
6. GRAVITATION 25
7. PROPERTIES OF BULK MATTER 30
8. THERMODYNAMICS 35
9. BEHAVIOUR OF PERFECT GAS AND KINETIC ENERGY 40
10. OSCILLATIONS' AND WAVES 45
11. ELECTROSTATICS 50
12. CURRENT ELECTRICITY 55
13. MAGNETIC EFFECTS AND MAGNETISM 61
14. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENTS 66
15. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 72
16. OPTICS 77
17. DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION 81
18. ATOMS AND NUCLAI 86
19. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONIC DEVICES 91
20. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE AND PLANS 97
21. MOTION IN A PLANS 102
22. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND FLUIDS 107
23. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FLUIDS 111
24. WAVE OPTICS 115
25. RAY OPTICS 119
26. MAGNETISM AND MATTER 123
27. ELECTRIC CHARGES FIELDS CAPACITANCE 128
28. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 134
29. KINETIC THEORY 139
30. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE 143
 NEET CHEMISTRY CHAPTERS TEST
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1. STRUCTURE OF ATOM AND NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 1
2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY 6
3. CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE 11
4. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES 15
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5. ELECTROCHEMISTRY 19
6. EQUILIBRIUM 25
7. CHEMICAL KINETICS 30
8. GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS OF ISOLATION OF ELEMENTS 36
9. HYDROGEN 41
10. HYDROCARBONS 46
11. STATE'S OF MATTER LIQUID AND GASES 52
12. THERMODYNAMICS 57
13. REDOX REACTION 62
14. S BLOCK ELEMENTS ALKALI ALKALINE 66
15. P BLOCK ELEMENTS 71
16. SOME P BLOCK ELEMENTS PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 75
17. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 79
18. SOLID STATE 84
19. SOLUTIONS 88
20. SURFACE CHEMISTRY 92
21. d AND f BLOCK ELEMENTS 98
22. COORDINATION COMPOUNDS 104
23. HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES 109
24. ALCOHOL PHENOLS ETHERS 115
25. ALDEHYDES' KETONES CARBOXYLIC ACIDS 121
26. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAING NITROGEN 126
27. BIOMOLECULES 132
28. POLYMERS 138
29. CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE 143
30. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES 148
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 BIOLOGY CHAPTERS TEST PAGE
EACH TEST 60 MARKS NO
1 LIVING WORLD 1
2 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 8
3 PLANT KINGDOM 14
4 ANIMAL KINGDOM 20
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5 MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS 27

6 ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS 33
7 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 38
8 CELL UNIT OF LIFE 45
9 BIOMOLECULES 50
10 CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION 57
11 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 63
12 MINERAL NUTRITION 70
13 PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS 75
14 RESPIRATION OF PLANTS 80
15 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 88
16 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 94
17 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES 101
18 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION 109
19 EXCRETORY PRODUCT AND THEIR ELIMINATION 117
20 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT 123
21 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION 129
22 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION 137
23 REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS 143
24 HUMAN REPRODUCTION 150
25 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH 157
26 PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION 165
27 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE 171
28 EVOLUTION 176
29 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES 184
30 STRATIGES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD PRODUCTION 190
31 MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE 195
32 BIOTECHNOLOGY PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS 202
33 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS 207
34 ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS 214
35 ECOSYSTEM 219
36 SEXUAL PREPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS 225
37 BIODIVERSITY AND CONVERSATION 231
38 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 237