1. What do you mean by cut set and cut vertex. Explain with proper example.

In graph theory, a cut set is a set of edges whose removal disconnects the graph. Similarly, a
cut vertex is a vertex whose removal disconnects the graph.
For example, consider a graph with vertices A, B, C, D, and edges AB, BC, CD, and DA. If
we remove the edge AB, the graph becomes disconnected, making the set {AB} a cut set.
Similarly, if we remove vertex A, the graph also becomes disconnected, making vertex A a
cut vertex.
2. What do mean by bridge edge. Explain.
A bridge edge, also known as a cut edge, is an edge in a graph whose removal increases the
number of connected components in the graph. In other words, if you remove a bridge edge
from a graph, it will disconnect the graph or split it into two or more separate components.
For example, consider a graph with vertices A, B, C, D, and edges AB, BC, CD, and DA. If
we remove the edge AB, the graph becomes disconnected, with two separate components:
one containing vertices A and D, and the other containing vertices B and C. In this case, edge
AB is a bridge edge.
3.A connected graph having a bridge edge must have a cut vertex. Justify.
Yes, a connected graph having a bridge edge must have a cut vertex. This is because the removal
of a bridge edge increases the number of connected components in the graph. Since the graph is
initially connected, the only way removing an edge can increase the number of components is if
that edge is part of a bridge.
When an edge is removed and the graph splits into two or more components, there must be at
least one vertex that acts as a "bridge" between these components. This vertex, known as a cut
vertex, is essential for maintaining the connectivity of the original graph. Removing this vertex
would further disconnect the graph, reinforcing its importance in maintaining connectivity.
Therefore, a connected graph with a bridge edge must have at least one cut vertex.
3. What is bipartite graph? Explain with example.
A bipartite graph G is a graph whose vertex set V can be partitioned into two nonempty
subsets A and B (i.e., A ∪ B=V and A ∩ B=Ø) such that each edge of G has one endpoint in
A and one endpoint in B. The partition V=A ∪ B is called a bipartition of G. A bipartite graph

is shown in Fig. 3.16(A). By definition, a bipartite graph cannot have any self-loops. For a
simple bipartite graph, when every vertex in A is joined to every vertex in B, and vice versa,
the graph is called a complete bipartite graph. If there are m vertices in A and n vertices
in B, the graph is named Km,n. Fig. 3.16(B) shows a complete bipartite graph K3,4.
6. What can be the maximum number of edges of a bipartite graph of n vertices. When n is
even then show that
a bipartite graph with maximum number of edges is regular.
In a bipartite graph of n vertices, where n is even, the maximum number of edges occurs
when each vertex in one partition is connected to every vertex in the other partition. So, if we
have n vertices divided into two partitions, each containing n/2 vertices, the maximum
number of edges is (n/2)(n/2)= (n^2)/4
When n is even, a bipartite graph with the maximum number of edges is indeed
regular because each vertex in one partition has the same degree, which is equal to
the number of vertices in the other partition. This creates a regular structure where
each vertex has the same number of edges connected to it.
7. Prove that the chromatic number of a bipartite graph is two.

8. Find out the number of regular graphs of 12 vertices with degree 2.

 9. What do you mean by degree sequence of a graph. Explain with proper example.

Degree sequence of a graph is the list of degree of all the vertices

of the graph. Usually we list the degrees in nonincreasing order,
that is from largest degree to smallest degree.

10. Prove that, the sum of the degrees of a graph is twice the number of edges in it.
11. Prove that every graph has an even number of odd vertices.

12. Show that two graphs need not be isomorphic even when they both have the same order

and same size.

Solution – Both the graphs have 6 vertices, 9 edges and the degree sequence is the same.
However the second graph has a circuit of length 3 and the minimum length of any circuit in
the first graph is 4. Hence the given graphs are not isomorphic.
 13. Show that two simple graphs are isomorphic if and only if their complements are
isomorphic.

14.What is weighted graph. Write down the steps of Kruskal’s algorithm and Prim’s
algorithm for finding out the minimal spanning trees of a graph.
A weighted graph is a graph in which each edge is assigned a numerical value, called a weight, to
represent a metric such as distance, cost, or time between the connected vertices.
15. Write short notes on the following: Regular graph; Order, size and center of a graph; pendant
vertex; path; cycle; circuit; degree of a vertex; Fundamental CutSets;
Regular Graph

A regular graph is a graph where each vertex has the same number of neighbors, meaning every
vertex has the same degree. A graph is kkk-regular if every vertex has degree kkk. For example,
in a 3-regular graph, each vertex is connected to exactly three other vertices. Regular graphs are
important in the study of graph symmetry and structure.

Order, Size, and Center of a Graph

 Order: The order of a graph is the number of vertices in the graph. If a graph GGG has
nnn vertices, then its order is nnn.
 Size: The size of a graph is the number of edges in the graph. If a graph GGG has mmm
edges, then its size is mmm.
 Center: The center of a graph is the set of vertices that have the minimum eccentricity.
The eccentricity of a vertex is the greatest distance from that vertex to any other vertex in
the graph. The center can be thought of as the "middle" of the graph, where the maximum
distance to other vertices is minimized.

Pendant Vertex

A pendant vertex (or leaf) is a vertex that is connected to exactly one other vertex by a single
edge. This means it has degree 1. Pendant vertices are often found at the "ends" of trees or other
acyclic graphs.

Path

A path in a graph is a sequence of vertices where each adjacent pair is connected by an edge, and
no vertex is repeated. For example, a path from vertex AAA to vertex DDD might look like
A→B→C→DA \rightarrow B \rightarrow C \rightarrow DA→B→C→D.

Cycle

A cycle in a graph is a path that starts and ends at the same vertex, with no other vertex repeated.
For example, a cycle might look like A→B→C→AA \rightarrow B \rightarrow C \rightarrow
AA→B→C→A. Cycles are important in understanding the structure and characteristics of
graphs.

Circuit

A circuit is similar to a cycle but typically refers to a closed path where edges are traversed
without repetition. In an electrical context, circuits represent paths where current can flow.
Degree of a Vertex

The degree of a vertex in a graph is the number of edges connected to it. For example, if a vertex
vvv is connected to three other vertices, then the degree of vvv is 3. In a directed graph, the
degree can be split into in-degree (number of incoming edges) and out-degree (number of
outgoing edges).

Fundamental CutSets

A fundamental cutset (or fundamental cut) is a minimal set of edges whose removal disconnects
the graph. For a given spanning tree of the graph, each cutset corresponds to one of the edges of
the tree. Removing that edge from the tree and cutting all the edges connecting the two resulting
subtrees forms a fundamental cutset. Fundamental cutsets are useful in network reliability and
flow problems.

16. Every cut-set in a connected graph G must contain at least one branch of every spanning tree
of G – prove.

a. In a connected graph G, any minimal set of edges containing at least one branch of every
spanning tree of G is a cut-set – prove.

b. In a connected graph G, any minimal set of edges containing at least one branch of every
spanning tree of G is a cut-set – prove.

Let S be a minimal set of edges in G that contains at least one branch of every
spanning tree of G. We need to show that S is a cut-set.

Suppose, for the sake of contradiction, that S is not a cut-set. Then, there exist two
vertices u and v in G such that there is a path P between u and v in G - S.

Let T be a spanning tree of G. Since S contains at least one branch of T, there must be
an edge e in S that is also in T. Let T' be the tree obtained by removing e from T. Then,
T' is a forest with two connected components.

Since P is a path between u and v in G - S, it must be contained in one of the two

connected components of T'. Without loss of generality, assume P is contained in the
component containing u.

Then, there must be an edge f in S that connects a vertex in the component containing
u to a vertex in the component containing v. However, this means that S - {e} + {f} is a
set of edges that contains at least one branch of every spanning tree of G, contradicting
the minimality of S.

Therefore, any minimal set of edges containing at least one branch of every spanning
tree of G is a cut-set.
17. Every circuit has an even number of edges in common with any cut-set – prove.

Let C be a circuit and S be a cut-set in a connected graph G. Let E(C) and E(S) denote
the set of edges in C and S, respectively.

We will show that |E(C) ∩ E(S)| is even.

Let T be a spanning tree of G. Since S is a cut-set, it must contain at least one branch
of T. Let e be a branch of T in S.

Since T is a tree, it contains no circuits. Therefore, adding e to T creates a unique

circuit, which we will call C'.

Now, C' must contain at least one edge in common with C, since C' is the only circuit in
T + e. Let f be an edge in C ∩ C'.

We claim that C' and C have an even number of edges in common. To see this,
consider the symmetric difference of C and C', which we will call D. The symmetric
difference of two sets is the set of elements that are in either set but not in their
intersection.

Since C and C' are both circuits, D is a union of edge-disjoint circuits. Moreover, since f
is in both C and C', D cannot contain the circuit C' itself. Therefore, D must contain an
even number of edges in common with C'.

Since f is in both C and C', it is also in D. Therefore, D contains an even number of

edges in common with C.

Now, since C' and C have an even number of edges in common, and C' differs from C
by only one edge (namely, e), it follows that C and S have an even number of edges in
common.

Therefore, every circuit has an even number of edges in common with any cut-set.

18. Prove that any planar graph can be properly colored with 6 colors. Can it be possible to color
a planar graph with 5 colors. Justify.

Proof that any planar graph can be properly colored with 6 colors:

We will use induction on the number of vertices in the graph.

Base case: A planar graph with 1 vertex can be properly colored with 1 color.

Inductive step: Suppose that any planar graph with k vertices can be properly colored with 6
colors. We need to show that any planar graph with k+1 vertices can also be properly colored
with 6 colors.
Let G be a planar graph with k+1 vertices. Remove a vertex v from G to obtain a planar graph G’
with k vertices. By the inductive hypothesis, G’ can be properly colored with 6 colors.

Now, we need to color v. Since G is planar, v has at most 5 neighbors. Therefore, at least one of
the 6 colors is not used by any of v’s neighbors. Assign this color to v.

This coloring is proper, since v is not adjacent to any vertex with the same color. Therefore, any
planar graph with k+1 vertices can be properly colored with 6 colors.

Can a planar graph be colored with 5 colors?

The answer is yes, but not all planar graphs can be colored with 5 colors. The famous Four Color
Theorem states that any planar graph can be properly colored with 4 colors. However, not all
planar graphs can be colored with 5 colors.

A counterexample is the graph K4, which is a complete graph on 4 vertices. K4 is planar, but it
cannot be properly colored with 5 colors. To see this, suppose that K4 can be properly colored
with 5 colors. Then, each vertex must have a different color, since each vertex is adjacent to
every other vertex. But this means that we need at least 4 colors, and we cannot use the 5th color.

However, it is possible to color some planar graphs with 5 colors. For example, a planar graph
with a vertex of degree 1 (i.e., a leaf vertex) can be colored with 5 colors, since we can assign a
unique color to the leaf vertex and then color the remaining vertices with 4 colors.

In summary, while not all planar graphs can be colored with 5 colors, some planar graphs can be
colored with 5 colors, and any planar graph can be properly colored with 6 colors.

17. Every circuit has an even number of edges in common with any cut-set – prove.

Proof:

Let C be a circuit and S be a cut-set in a connected graph G. Let E(C) and E(S) denote the set of
edges in C and S, respectively.

We will show that |E(C) ∩ E(S)| is even.

Case 1: C and S have no edges in common.

In this case, |E(C) ∩ E(S)| = 0, which is even.

Case 2: C and S have at least one edge in common.

Suppose P' has an odd number of edges in common with S. Then, there must be an
edge f in P' ∩ E(S) such that f is not in E(C). This means that f is a bridge in G, which
contradicts the fact that G is connected.
Therefore, P' has an even number of edges in common with S.

Now, we can count the number of edges in E(C) ∩ E(S):

 e is in E(C) ∩ E(S).
 P' has an even number of edges in common with S.
 The remaining edges in C (i.e., those not in P') do not intersect with S, since S is
a cut-set.

Therefore, |E(C) ∩ E(S)| = 1 + (even number) = even number.

Thus, every circuit has an even number of edges in common with any cut-set.

18. Prove that any planar graph can be properly colored with 6 colors. Can it be
possible to color a planar graph with 5 colors. Justify.

Proof that any planar graph can be properly colored with 6 colors:

We will use a proof by contradiction.

Suppose that there exists a planar graph G that cannot be properly colored with 6
colors. Let G be a minimal such graph, i.e., G has the fewest number of vertices among
all planar graphs that cannot be properly colored with 6 colors.

Claim: G has at least 6 vertices.

Proof of Claim:

If G has fewer than 6 vertices, then it can be properly colored with 6 colors. For
example, if G has 5 vertices, we can color the vertices with colors 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5,
respectively.

Now, we will find a contradiction:

Since G is planar, it has a vertex v of degree at most 5. Remove v from G to obtain a

graph G'. By the minimality of G, G' can be properly colored with 6 colors.

Let c be a 6-coloring of G'. Since v has at most 5 neighbors, at least one of the 6 colors
is not used by any of v's neighbors. Assign this color to v.
This coloring is proper, since v is not adjacent to any vertex with the same color.
Therefore, G can be properly colored with 6 colors, which contradicts our assumption.

Thus, any planar graph can be properly colored with 6 colors.

Can a planar graph be colored with 5 colors?

The answer is yes, but not all planar graphs can be colored with 5 colors. The famous
Four Color Theorem states that any planar graph can be properly colored with 4 colors.
However, not all planar graphs can be colored with 5 colors.

A counterexample is the graph K4, which is a complete graph on 4 vertices. K4 is

planar, but it cannot be properly colored with 5 colors. To see this, suppose that K4 can
be properly colored with 5 colors. Then, each vertex must have a different color, since
each vertex is adjacent to every other vertex. But this means that we need at least 4
colors, and we cannot use the 5th color.

However, it is possible to color some planar graphs with 5 colors. For example, a planar
graph with a vertex of degree 1 (i.e., a leaf vertex) can be colored with 5 colors, since
we can assign a unique color to the leaf vertex and then color the remaining vertices
with 4 colors.

In summary, while not all planar graphs can be colored with 5 colors, some planar
graphs can be colored with 5 colors, and any planar graph can be properly colored with
6 colors.
19. Prove that if a connected planar graph of order n and size m has f regions, then n – m + f
= 2.

Proof:

We will use induction on the number of edges m.

Base case: m = n-1

In this case, the graph is a tree. A tree with n vertices has n-1 edges and 1 region
(the exterior region). Therefore, n - (n-1) + 1 = 2.

Inductive step:

Assume that the formula holds for all connected planar graphs with m edges. We will
show that it also holds for all connected planar graphs with m+1 edges.

Let G be a connected planar graph with m+1 edges. Since G is planar, we can draw
it in the plane without any edges crossing.
Let e be an edge in G. Then, G-e (the graph obtained by removing e from G) is also
planar and has m edges. By the induction hypothesis, n - m + f = 2.

Now, consider the two regions that are adjacent to e. When we remove e, these two
regions become a single region. Therefore, the number of regions in G-e is one less
than the number of regions in G.

Let f' be the number of regions in G-e. Then, f' = f - 1.

By the induction hypothesis, n - m + f' = 2.

Substituting f' = f - 1, we get n - m + (f - 1) = 2.

Simplifying, we get n - (m+1) + f = 2.

Therefore, the formula holds for all connected planar graphs with m+1 edges.

By induction, the formula holds for all connected planar graphs with any number of
edges.

Thus, if a connected planar graph of order n and size m has f regions, then n - m + f
= 2.

20. Show that the number of edges in a simple planar graph of order n is at most 3n – 6.
21. Prove that both K5 and K3 ,3 are non-planar.