Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/green-energy-and-intelligent-transportation

Review article

Fuel cell-based hybrid electric vehicles: An integrated review of current

status, key challenges, recommended policies, and future prospects
Mohammad Waseem a, *, Mohammad Amir b, G. Sree Lakshmi c, S. Harivardhagini d,
Mumtaz Ahmad a
a
University Polytechnic, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University), Jamia Nagar, New Delhi 110025, India
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University), Jamia Nagar, New Delhi 110025, India
c
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, CVR College of Engg., Hyderabad, India
d
Department of Electronics-Instrumentation Engineering, CVR College of Engg., Hyderabad, India

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

To advance the electrification of the

transportation system, fuel-cell based
hybrid electric vehicles are being
presented.

An overview of the fuel cell is provided
for FCHEVs, along with comparisons of
its electrochemistry.

A comparative analysis of power trans-
formation topologies, and charging
techniques for FCHEVs is demonstrated.

Key challenges, recommended policies,
and future prospects of FCHEVs are
outlined.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), whose exhaust pipes emit nothing, are
Fuel-cell electric mobility examples of zero-emission automobiles. FCEVs should be considered an additional technology that will help
Power conversion topology battery-powered vehicles to reach the aspirational goal of zero-emissions electric mobility, particularly in situ-
Energy storage systems
ations where the customers demand for longer driving ranges and where using batteries would be insufficient due
Internet of vehicles (IoVs)
Artificial intelligence
to bulky battery trays and time-consuming recharging. This study stipulates a current evaluation of the status of
Cloud computing development and challenges related to (i) research gap to promote fuel-cell based HEVs; (ii) key barriers of fuel-
Wireless power transfer cell based HEVs; (iii) advancement of electric mobility and their power drive; (iv) electrochemistry of fuel cell
technology for FCEVs; (v) power transformation topologies, communication protocols, and advanced charging
methods; (vi) recommendations and future prospects of fuel-cell HEVs; and (vii) current research trends of EVs,
and FCEVs. This article discusses key challenges with fuel cell electric mobility, such as low fuel cell performance,
cold starts, problems with hydrogen storage, cost-reduction, safety concerns, and traction systems. The operating
characteristics and applications of several fuel-cell technologies are investigated for FCEVs and FCHEVs. An
overview of the fuel cell is provided, which serves as the primary source of energy for FCHEVs, along with
comparisons and its electrochemistry. The study of power transformation topologies, communication protocols,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Waseem).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geits.2023.100121
Received 2 June 2023; Received in revised form 31 July 2023; Accepted 9 August 2023
Available online 20 August 2023
2773-1537/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Beijing Institute of Technology Press Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

and enhanced charging techniques for FCHEVs has been studied analytically. Recent technology advancements
and the prospects for FCHEVs are discussed in order to influence the future vehicle market and to attain the aim of
zero emissions.

Nomenclatures: ICE Internal combustion engine

GHG Greenhouse gas
Symbols EM Electric motor
kg Kilograms IC Internal Combustion
kW Kilo watt DC Direct-current
km Kilometre AC Alternate current
Wh Watt-hour FCV Fuel-cell Vehicles

C Degree centigrade PEMFC Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel-cell
V Volt PES Primary energy source
L Litre RPSA Rechargeable power storing arrangement
% Percentage HFCs Hydrogen based fuel cell
FCEB Fuel cell electric buses
Acronyms DOE Department of energy
EVs EU Electric vehicles European Union CL Catalyst layer
BEVs Battery Electric Vehicles SAE Society of automobile engineers
HEVs Hybrid Electric Vehicles HRS Hydrogen refilling station
PHEVs Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles BPT Wireless power transfer
FCEVs Fuel-cell Electric Vehicles CAN Controller area network
FCHEVS Fuel-cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles AI Artificial intelligence
EES Energy storage system WC Wireless connectivity
BAT Battery IoT Internet of Things
SC Supercapacitor DTs Digital twins
UC Ultracapacitor
FC Fuel cell

1. Introduction humanity's active response and shared aim is to become carbon

neutral [28]. To reach carbon neutrality, the fundamental strategy is
In spite of international attempts to lower emissions of greenhouse carbon replacement. The key sources of new energy today that are
gases (GHGs) in a number of industries, the transport industry's emissions assisting the power sector in achieving low carbon emissions include
have risen recently despite no fault of its own [1,2]. Compared to barely solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, nuclear energy, and
16 percent in 1990, road traffic now contributes 26% of the European hydrogen energy [29]. In order to significantly minimise carbon
union (EU)'s total carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions [3]. Despite a 23% emissions in the industrial and transportation sectors, “green
drop in overall emissions, the emissions from road traffic have increased hydrogen” is the backup form of new energy [30]. China's CO2
by 24%. As a response, a number of nations unveiled plans for universally emissions will reach their peak level at 110  108 t in 2030. To
promoting the sale of personal cars with zero-emissions [4]. To hasten establish a new “three small and one large” energy structure in China
the transition to emission-free vehicles, the EU suggested a complete ban and advance the achievement of China's energy independence goal,
on new gasoline vehicles beginning in 2035 [5,6]. seven implementation recommendations have been made to achieve
Internal combustion engines (ICE) are by far the extremely prevalent carbon neutrality in that country by 2060 [31,32].
form of transportation and a major contributor to environmental issues There are four different types of EVs that are sold around the world:
[7–10]. Environmental deterioration, poor air quality, and the fast completely electric cars, fuel cell cars, hybrid electric cars, and plug-in
exhaustion of fossil fuels have drawn attention worldwide to more hybrid cars [33–36]. Typically, zero-emission vehicles are electric cars
environmentally friendly transportation vehicle technology [11–17]. In with no tailpipe emissions, like BEVs and FCEVs [37,38]. The BEVs
an effort to stop the growing decline of the environment, many aca- technologies can be complemented by FCEVs, particularly in applications
demics and inventors throughout the world are interested in the design of that call for extended ranges and a powerful input, where the use of
electric vehicles (EVs) [18–21]. To reduce CO2 and other GHG emissions, batteries would not be able to meet consumer mandates because of
governments in the majority of developed nations are promoting the massive battery trays and prolonged or periodic recharging requirements
usage of EVs [22,23]. The shift away from automobiles that use fossil [39,40]. Instead of being seen as a rival to battery-powered vehicles,
fuels yet has certain hurdles to overcome, for example, the price of EVs, FCEVs should be viewed as an additional technology that will help
particularly ones with a longer range, which is rather high, and missing battery-powered vehicles reach the lofty goal of zero-emissions electric
charging infrastructure, which causes range issues [24]. In spite of these mobility [41,42].
restrictions, investigators and automakers worldwide have developed a The FCEVs use a traction system that is run by electrical energy
number of EV technologies, even though there is still potential for engendered by a fuel cell and a battery working together while fuel cell
advancement [25–27]. hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs), combine a fuel cell with a battery or
The ecology has been severely harmed by human industrialised ultracapacitor storage technology as their energy source [43]. Instead of
actions, the greenhouse impact of atmospheric CO2 has gotten worse, relying on a battery to provide energy, the fuel cell (FC) produces
and the alive environment is under attack and experiencing diffi- electricity using hydrogen. In order to provide greater power when
culties [28]. In response to the climate change catastrophe, accelerating, FCEVs are also built to recover braking power. Since

2
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

hydrogen serves as the FCEV's primary fuel, the magnitude of the The differences between several types of advanced EVs, such as BEVs,
hydrogen fuel tank involved determines how much energy can be hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in HEVs, and FCEVs, are described,
delivered to its system [44–46]. This means that the size of the battery along with the power drive configuration for each. The fuel cell, which
has no bearing on the amount of energy that is available. By the end of serves as the primary source of energy for FCHEVs, is then introduced
2020, about 35,000 FCEVs were in operation globally in the conveyance along with comparisons and electrochemistry. Power transformation
zone, representing a rapid expansion of this technology. Fig. 1 depicts topologies, including multiple-stage, single-stage, communications pro-
how FCEVs are distributed among industrialized nations as of the year tocols, and modern wireless charging technologies, are contrasted, and
2020 and demonstrates that South Korea is leading the way in FCEVs described in order to emphasise the advantages and disadvantages of
distribution, tracked by China, the USA, Japan, and Europe [47,48]. FCHEVs electric mobility. Recent technology advancements and the
The establishment of a national hydrogen refuelling station disposition prospects for FCHEVs are discussed in order to influence the future
strategy for South Korea for the years 2022–2040 is the subject of Kim vehicle market and attain the aim of zero emissions. According to WoS
et al., research [49]. Rose concentrates on the creation of a prospective statistics, the most recent research trends for EVs and FCEVs are
heavy-duty HRS Setup for Germany in 2050 [50,51]. presented.
For the purpose of controlling FC hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs),
various control strategies, including proportional-integral-derivative 1.1. Research gap
(PID) controllers, rule-based fuzzy logic controls, model predictive con-
trols, or predictive control strategies, and equivalent consumption Internal combustion engines (ICE) are the most widely utilized, effi-
minimization controls (ECMS), have been implemented [52]. To ensure cient, and dependable technology in the transportation sector, but they
that a variety of energy sources run effectively, steadily, and dependably, also have negative environmental repercussions, such as air, water, and
analysis of the FCHEV's energy management strategies (EMSs), including land pollution. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which combine an in-
rule-based, optimization-based, and advanced learning-based EMSs, is ternal combustion engine (ICE) with an electric motor, emit fewer pol-
used [53,54]. For FC hybrid electric vehicles, a hybrid energy storage lutants than a regular vehicle but have a more complicated and
system with a combined architecture and power management technique voluminous system. By combining vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and vehicle-to-
is given [55,56]. vehicle (V2V) charging infrastructure [59], plug-in HEVs extend their
This article's prime objective is to invigorate: (i) research gap to range while incurring higher investment costs and negative grid conse-
promote fuel-cell-based HEVs; (ii) key barriers to fuel-cell-based HEVs; quences. The current transportation system has a strong demand for
(iii) advancement of electric mobility and their power drive, (iv) elec- battery electric vehicle (BEV) technology, but there are significant ob-
trochemistry of fuel cell technology for FCHEVs; (v) power trans- stacles to this technology's further adoption. These include low specific
formation topologies [57,58], communication protocols, and advanced energy density, overheating, chemical emissions, mechanical crashes,
charging methods; (vi) recommendations and future prospects of fuel-cell short-circuiting, and poor battery management systems related to bat-
HEVs; and (vii) current research trends of EVs, and FCEVs. This article teries. Future technology that will support pure electric mobility and zero
discusses the most recent problems with fuel cell electric mobility, such exhaust emissions is fuel-cell-based hybrid electric vehicle technology.
as low fuel cell performance, cold starts, problems with hydrogen stor- The current research gap to promote fuel cell electric mobility is depicted
age, cost-reduction, safety concerns, and traction systems for FCHEVs. in Table 1.

Fig. 1. Worldwide distribution of FCEVs.

3
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

Table 1
Research gap for fuel-cell-based vehicle technology.
Reference Vehicular technology Merits Research gap

[60–62] ICE vehicles
Commercialized and mostly used vehicle technology.
Harmful emissions

Convenient, efficient, and reliable
Ecological unfriendly
[63] Partial or mild hybrid vehicles
Lower emission rate than ICE vehicles
Need additional electric motor (EM).

Adaptable and impactful
Havier than ICE
[64–68] Fully hybrid vehicles
Excellent fuel effectiveness
Cost is not justified.

Enhanced driving range than Mild HEVs
Dependent on gasoline
[69–74] Plug-in hybrid vehicles
Longer driving range
Higher initial cost

V2G and grid-to-vehicle (G2V) facility
Depends on crude oil

Smooth, noise-free performance
Severe effect on grid
[75–80] Pure electric vehicles
Zero-emission
Thermal issues of battery

Efficient and independent on crude oil
Safety issues of battery management

Sufficient charging requirement
[81–85] Fuel cell based electric vehicles
Promote to zero-emissions.
Lack of hydrogen refilling stations

Independent from electric supply
High cost of fuel

Fuel production is feasible
Limited durability

Independent on crude oils

Long driving range

The organization of this paper is illustrated as follows. Section 2 2.2. Cold start
outlines an overview of some significant obstacles to fuel-cell-based
HEVs. The development of electric mobility, including BEVs, plug-in The cold-start potential is an additional important concern with re-
and FCEVs as well as hybrid and electric vehicles (HEVs), is covered in gard to vehicle fuel cells. That is to say, FCHEVs must be capable of
detail in Section 3. Section 4 provides an overview of fuel cells, which starting in subfreezing temperatures [93–95]. Water will chill in the
serve as the primary source of energy for FCHEVs, along with compari- probes of an FC when the temperature falls down 0  C, forming ice that
sons and its electrochemistry. The study of power transformation topol- will fill the aperture hole. However, self-startup short of help is more
ogies, communication protocols, and enhanced charging techniques for practical, dependable, and urging. Even though it is theoretically feasible
FCHEVs is covered in Section 5. Section 6 provides recommendations and to use a hybridization technology to heat FC beyond 0  C in order to
future prospects for fuel-cell HEVs technology. Sections 7 and 8 sepa- enable water to be evacuated. The scales of freeze build-up and heat
rately describe current research trends for EVs and FCEVs, a research growth in probes are two challenging procedures that govern cold-start
overview, and an overall assessment of the study. capabilities [96,97]. Ice build-up and obstruction become unimportant
once FC hotness rises above 0  C because capillary prosecution can
2. Key challenges of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and fuel eradicate wet produced in the probes [97,98]. Therefore, cold-start
cell based HEVs qualifications can be enhanced by choosing the right FC proposal and
characteristics such as permeability and warmness capacity. According to
Even though FCEVs appear to be the best option for those powered by claims, the Toyota Mirai, and Hyundai NEXO FCEVs can start up at or
fossil fuels, there is still potential for improvement. Its short power re- below 30  C [99].
action and supremacy intensity are the two main flaws that hinder FCEVs
from becoming more widely used [86,87]. The absence of hydrogen fuel 2.3. Concerns over hydrogen storage systems
stations is the main impediment to FCEV adoption. According to a
Department of Energy research, high fuel costs are another disadvantage Along with onboard storing hydrogen and supplying hydrogen, car
of FCEVs [88–90]. Major safety considerations for FCEVs include con- protection, rivalry with supplementary tools like EVs or HEVs, and
taining and preventing the flow of dangerous hydrogen from the fuel community awareness, FCHEVs also face significant obstacles [86,100].
tank. Making FCHEVs a viable and admired contender with regular ve- Given that hydrogen is a highly susceptible gas and that retaining it
hicles for clients will need overcoming a number of obstacles, including onboard poses a risk, it is important to secure the hydrogen storing and to
technological, financial, and others. Different barriers to the adoption of guarantee vehicle safety [101–103]. Last but not least, it is foremost to
FCHEVs are discussed in the following subsections. raise public knowledge in order to win the backing and approval of
FCHEVs. Concerns issue of hydrogen storage can be enhanced by utiliz-
ing a storage tank made of non-porous composite material [104].
2.1. Low performance of fuel cell

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells are the best fuel cells for 2.4. Cost-reduction
FCHEVs. Although Proton exchange membrane FC (PEMFC)'s energy
density and precise supremacy objectives have been met, more ad- The expense of fuel cells is a significant hurdle to their exhaustion in
vancements are still needed to fully address the rudimentary profitable automobiles. Currently, the cost of production for a product volume of
system wrapping criteria. However, up until 2010, just 0.65 kW per kg 500 thousand per year is roughly $45 /kW [105]. The Department of
has been achieved, well below the predicted definite power of 1 kW per Energy's (DOE) ultimate goal is $30 /kW, which will allow ICEs to
kg for self-propelled products [91,92]. Platinum, a pricey and scarce compete. The $30/kW aim will result in the Toyota Mirai's 114 kW fuel
element, is the catalytic agent utilized in PEMFC. This explains why fuel cell stack costing just about $3,400 (last accessed 12/21/2020), which is
cells are expensive. Other elements that must be guaranteed are execu- less than half of the car's $58,500 sticker price (prior to 2020). The aim
tion and robustness. So, in order to use the assembly for trade purposes, for fuel-cell electric buses (FCEBs) is $600,000 per bus, which is a sig-
its capacity, size, and price must be decreased. Expense, execution, nificant decrease from the $1.8 to $2.5 M range that FCEBs operating in
strength, and dependability will be future issues for FC systems. California now range in price from as of 2016 onward [106].

4
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

At a scale of production of 500,000 fuel cells annually, catalyst layers or in combination [124]. These storage devices are expensive, and their
(CLs) make up a significant amount of the charge of a fuel cell, ac- recycling policies have not yet been implemented. Future research must
counting for more than 40% of that cost (as shown in Fig. 2), mostly as a focus on the possibility of various storage systems, such as flywheel power
result of platinum serving as an electrocatalyst [107]. Prior to 2020, the storing. The ESS has several technological difficulties, including greater
Toyota Mirai's anode catalyst layer (CL) and cathode Pt loadings were original and replacement costs, enormous magnitude, poor execution, and
0.05 mg/cm2 and 0.315 mg/cm2, respectively [108,109]. By 2025, the strength [125]. Additionally, developing profitable fabrication facilities
US DOE has established a point of 0.1 mg/cm2 Pt inserting. The DOE is and lifespan investigating of ESS in the field are upcoming hurdles [126].
looking for durability exceeding 25,000 h and Pt burdening fewer than
0.2 mg/cm2 for heavy-duty vehicles like trucks [110,111]. 2.7. Traction system

2.5. Safety concerns Analogous to EVs, HEVs, and PHEVs, these vehicles face issues
regarding traction motor and their control machinery, ways to do away
Corporations in charge of supervising the global transport system set with spot sensors, and inverter current sensors, among other things [127,
safety requirements [112,113]. United States-defined society of automo- 128]. It is still a work in progress to create machines without sensors and
bile engineers (SAE) is the extensively used automobile standard. All of to reduce or do away with the inverter's current sensors. The advance-
these specifications outline the rules for FCV system strategy and exam- ment of perpetual magnets with high temperatures and low costs will
ining, security considerations, automobile performance-proficiency, boost the reliability, speed spectrum, and application of constant elec-
secretion, endurance, automobile lingo, and fuel practices [114–116]. tromagnet drives [129,130]. The development of more compact, wide
With the use of security measures, FCHEVs can operate at demand rates operating range, lighter motors with greater torque and longer lifetimes
while also living longer and performing better. For optimal operation, will thus be a challenge in the future [131,132].
each FCHEV needs to be protected and maintained. The effective services
and secure functions of ESSs are established by modern FCHEVs using 3. Advancement of electric vehicles technology
power microelectronics edges [117–123].
A variety of subsystems are used to build an electric vehicle (EV), and
2.6. Optimum energy storage system they all interact with one another to make EVs function. To run these
subsystems, various technologies are used. In addition to using an in-
The energy storing usage occupies a significant amount of FCHEV's ternal combustion engine (ICE), EVs can also operate entirely on electric
energy supply. An FCHEV's performance is influenced by the storing sys- power [133,134]. The different EV categories are shown in Fig. 2. The
tem's recital, which is dependent on both the storing mode and system most basic type of EV exclusively draws power from batteries, but there
architecture [85]. As a rule, EVs, HEVs, and FCHEVs have storage systems are many models that can use various types of power sources. The term
with varying capacities. In contrast to HEVs, which require a considerably “HEVs” refers to vehicles that employ dual or complementary alternative
smaller storing structure (between 26.3 Wh/kg and 77 Wh/kg), EVs require energy, storing devices, or apostles, provided that one or more of them
a larger storing system (between 34.5 Wh/kg and 140 Wh/kg). Conversely, produces electricity [135,136]. HEVs are cars equipped with an electric
EV batteries have a shorter energy capacity (between 40 Wh/kg and 255 motor and a combustion engine; ultracapacitor based electric vehicles
W/kg) compared to HEV batteries (between 77 Wh/kg and 745 W/kg) (UCEVs) are cars with batteries and capacitors; and FCEVs are cars with
[124]. In order to address the problem of cold starts and transitory su- batteries and fuel cells [135,137,138]. EVs can be divided into the
premacy consumption, ESS of FCHEV must have both extreme supremacy following categories, which are shown in Fig. 3, in accordance with this
and extreme power intensity. Now, ESS uses either batteries and UC alone accepted norm as shown in Table 2.

Fig. 2. Analysis of element budgets for a fuel cell stack created at 500,000 units annually.

5
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

Fig. 3. Different categories of EVs.

Table 2
Different adopted standards for EVs, HEVs, and Fuel-cell based vehicles across globe.
Standards Implemented country Type of vehicles

SAE-J1715, SAE-J2344, SAE-J2758 North America Terms and power directions for EV and HEV [140]
SAC-GB/T 19751-2005, SAC-GB/T 18384.2–2015 China Electrically pushed motorway automobiles, and their protection terms of HEVs
[140,141]
AISC-049, AIS-102 (Part 1) India CMVR type authorisation of EVs and HEVs
ISO 15118 Series International V2G communication interface, including Parts 1, 2, and 3 [140,142]
NMX-J-677, ANCE-2013/C22.2 No.280–13/UL 2594 Canada, USA, Mexico Electric vehicle supply apparatus [140]
IEC 61982 International Secondary batteries (except lithium) for the propulsion of electric road vehicles-
Performance & endurance tests [140]
GB/T 23645–2009, GB/T 23645–2010, GB/T 23645-2011 Japan System design/testing of fuel cell automobiles [143]
ISO 23828:2013 International Fuel Cell Road Vehicle- Energy Consumption Measurement Part 1: Vehicles fueled
with compressed hydrogen [143]
HGV3.1, SAE-J2579, NFPA 52 America Fuel System Parts for Hydrogen Gas-Driven Vehicles and their Code [143]

Depending on the primary mover, energy storage systems, and fuel them the chance to run the vehicle either separately or together. This
delivery, hybrid electric vehicles and pure electric vehicles are the two architecture can enhance fuel efficiency by 40% while maintaining per-
main categories of EVs. Vehicles that are mild, full, or plug-in hybrids formance. These hybrid cars benefit from having a supplementary energy
combine ICE with EM technologies. In order to achieve the zero- storage system which is employable to address the problem of gasoline
emissions goals, advanced full-HEVs are created by integrating IoTs, running out while it is in motion [43]. Based on the energy sources,
artificial intelligence, wireless charging [139], and cloud computing. Due full-HEVs come in three different varieties: series, parallel, and dual
to their independence from ICE technology, pure electric vehicles hybrid. IC engines, supercapacitors, and electrochemical power-storing
encourage zero emissions at the exhaust pipe. Fuel-cell technology is a devices as fuel cells are used to power some hybrid electric car models
cutting-edge method for overcoming the drawbacks of battery electric [144].
vehicles' limited driving range and enabling grid independence. Fuel-cell
cars are becoming more adaptable as future vehicles for achieving sus- (a) Series Full-HEVs: The ICEs and EM work together within a
tainability goals because of the integration of hybrid energy storage sequence hybrid electric vehicle's drivetrain to provide the ve-
systems and smart vehicular technologies. hicle's propulsion. Internal combustion engines provide me-
chanical energy; however, this mechanical power is afterwards
3.1. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) converted to electricity for use in the drivetrain. The alternative
current (AC) is switched to direct current (DC), with the aid of an
Combining compound modes of technology results in a hybrid elec- AC-DC rectifier, primarily for indicting the batteries [145]. Fig. 4
tric vehicle, therefore the power train needs to be propelled by two or shows a series of hybrid electric vehicle drivetrain configura-
more energy units. HEVs combine two different fuel types—internal tions. Dark black connections between mechanical parts are used
combustion engine (ICE) and electric motor (EM)—into one unit to to represent mechanical power flow, light grey lines are used to
operate the car in an environmentally friendly method. Two categories of represent electrical connections between electrical parts, and a
HEVs are possible: full-HEVs and plug-in HEVs. green arrow is used to symbolise energy flow in the configura-
tion. ICE and EM are separated from each other by a battery,
3.1.1. Full-HEVs based on alternative drivetrain elements. The technology is set
Most automakers have embraced the development of full-HEVs in up so that when the battery's charge level dips, ICE recharges the
order to satisfy the desire for greater fuel efficiency. This kind of HEV can battery. The ICE shuts down and puts an end to battery charging
utilize divergent electricity lines regarding the and the EM, granting once it reaches its maximum charging capability. Examples of

6
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

Fig. 4. Full-hybrid electric vehicle series architecture.

series full-HEVs include the Chevrolet Volt. In comparison to (d) Advanced Full-HEVs: The main drawbacks of dual complete HEVs
other vehicle drivetrains, the series hybrid electric car performs are their large size, increased cost, reduced driving range, and un-
less efficiently [145]. derpowered power plants. Full-HEVs can be upgraded to become
(b) Parallel Full-HEVs: A mechanical coupler connects the inde- advanced full-HEVs by integrating a hybrid energy storage system
pendent ICE and EM propulsion systems used in parallel full-HEV. and artificial intelligence to address the difficulties mentioned
Fig. 5 depicts a parallel hybrid electric vehicle with an EM and ICE above. Hybrid energy storage system (ESS) enhances driving effi-
working together to produce traction power [146]. These drive- ciency and reduces tail-point emissions from full-HEVs. The power
trains use an internal combustion engine as their main source of performance, dependability, and charging infrastructure of HEVs
power, with a motor acting as a fallback. The foremost pro of this are all improved with more integration of smart technologies.
drive train is that it just expects insignificant battery backing, Advanced full-HEVs can be developed by combining internet of
which lowers the cost of maintaining the vehicle. The vehicle things (IoTs), artificial intelligence (AI), wireless charging, and
architecture increases fuel efficiency by up to 43.4 per cent. cloud computing to accomplish zero-emissions targets.
Because of its superior efficiency and lesser EM and battery, par-
allel full-HEV is favoured to string full-HEV. 3.1.2. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs)
(c) Dual Full-HEVs: Because the series and parallel drivelines are The energy storage system (ESS) utilized in the car can be charged
combined, the twin hybrid electric vehicle also goes by the outside with plug-in HEVs, which is another sort of HEV. When the
designation “series-parallel EV” [147]. A gear assembly unit is battery runs gone, the vehicle switches to fuel for longer trips [150].
used to connect the first component, a combustion-based engine, Fig. 7 depicts the plug-in hybrid electric vehicle's drivetrain. The primary
to a generator. The subsequent item is an electrifying device driving power of the PHEV is electric propulsion, necessitating a larger
made up of a motor, a battery, and a generator as shown in Fig. 6 battery size than required by HEVs. During a battery's low-charge con-
[148]. This power train is referred to as a “power-split trans- dition, PHEVs call on ICE to offer an advance or to control the battery
mission” in certain academic writing because it can deliver pack. They operate in electric mode when they first start. It is possible for
variable speeds while maintaining the engine's ideal operating PHEV batteries to receive direct grid power or power via regenerative
speed. These models can be used in parallel and series ap- braking. In regions where electricity is generated utilizing comparatively
proaches [149]. These systems are quite expensive and sophis- low-polluting energy sources, PHEVs and all-electric automobiles typi-
ticated, nevertheless, they are frequently chosen over other cally have lower contaminants coming from the exhaust pipe to the
kinds of buildings. wheel than traditional vehicles running on gasoline or diesel [151]. In

Fig. 5. Full-hybrid electric vehicle parallel architecture.

7
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

Fig. 6. Full-hybrid electric vehicle dual architecture.

Fig. 7. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle architecture.

spots where coal is the main energy source, EVs might not have a sub- capacity, BEVs have a range of 100–400 km. A few popular BEVs now are
stantial impact on reducing well-to-wheel pollution. the Nissan Leaf, Tesla, and a few Chinese automobiles. Hybrid electric
vehicles were suggested by numerous research organizations to extend
3.2. Pure electric vehicles the distance travelled [160–162].

Pure electric cars are those whose only source of propulsion is elec- 3.2.2. Fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)
tricity. The literature has examined six different types of power trans- FCEVs also go by the name fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). These cars'
mission topologies for pure electric vehicles [152]. Pure electric vehicles fundamental component, fuel cells, which employ organic reactions to
are categorized into three classes depending on the choice of energy yield electrical energy, is how they received their name [163]. They are
source: BEVs, FCEVs, and FCHEVs. While the powertrains of BEVs and frequently referred to as “hydrogen fuel cell vehicles” because hydrogen
FCEVs are comparable, the powerplant of FCHEVs is the outcome of the is the preferred fuel for FCVs to perform this response. Wheels are driven
hybridization of batteries and fuel cells. by an electric motor, which is by electrical energy emitted by the fuel cell.
Fig. 9 shows the configuration of the FCEV drivetrain. Polymer electro-
3.2.1. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) lyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is suited for use in vehicles because
BEVs are known as “purely electric vehicles” because their powertrain they exhibit great power intensity, lower working hotness (60–80  C),
only uses rechargeable batteries. Compared to traditional energy con- and less erosion when associated with different forms of FCs [164–167].
version methods, these batteries are more environmentally benign. The only consequence of the power generation process produced by FCVs
Recent years have seen a considerable increase in concerns over battery is water, which is expelled from the vehicle through the tailpipes. FCEVs
manufacture and how they degrade over time [153]. These batteries can are regarded as good candidates for slow-speed cars due to the generation
be charged using grid electricity or any other source of power via a of steady power. These vehicles now have updated powertrains that
charging port [154–157]. In contrast to conventional internal combus- allow them to be employed in high-speed applications.
tion engines, battery electric vehicles require a little more time to charge.
Fig. 8 depicts a battery-electric car's drivetrain. With almost negligible 3.2.3. Fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs)
losses, these powertrains facilitate the conversion of electrical to me- A brand-new vehicle design known as FCHEVs is produced by
chanical energy [158,159]. Depending on the powertrain's battery changing the FCEVs' powerplant. To support the fuel cell, this form of

8
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

Fig. 8. Battery electric vehicle architecture.

vehicle architecture implements additional supplementary ESS as 4. Energy storage systems for fuel cell-based hybrid electric
shown in Fig. 10. Because they could be charged and released in vehicles (FCHEVs)
accordance with the power necessity and stream, batteries or ultra-
capacitors can be employed as ESS [168]. To guarantee the vehicle The FCEVs' supporting structure is their energy storage system. The most
operates effectively and smoothly when the fuel cell serves as the important factors to consider while choosing the best storage media for
primary power resource and the ESS is made up of a battery or an FCEVs and FCHEVs are specific energy, energy density, working tempera-
ultracapacitor, several challenges must be addressed. Such vehicles ture, life expectancy, and cost. Fig. 11 depicts the three main categories that
have the advantage of being able to generate their own power are currently being used to store the chemical energy for FCEVs and FCHEVs:
without emitting any carbon, which allows them to minimize their fuel cells, batteries, and super- or ultracapacitors. Among these sources, fuel
carbon footprint more than any other EV [169]. The time it takes to cells are mainstream to power FCEVs in the current era. One of these sources,
refuel one of these vehicles is comparable to that of refuelling a known as the prime energy source (PES) [175], has a large energy supply
normal vehicle at a gas station, which is maybe their greatest sig- capacity. The rechargeable power storing arrangement (RPSA), contrasted
nificant advantage at the moment. It increases the likelihood that with, has a high-power capacity and reversibility capability [176,177].
these vehicles will be adopted in the future. At present, transporting While RPSA is used for transitory power streams and reformative slowing, a
spans, energy, and tank space for FCEVs and FCHEVs are listed in prime source is utilized to maintain a continuous power stream. The RPSA
Table 3. plays a prominent responsibility when it comes to the cold start of PES and
The technology of fuel-cell vehicles is regarded as superior to that of unexpected high-energy insist as in the instance speed up the automobile.
BEVs already in use. The most pressing issues with current BEVs are According to published research, batteries and fuel cells have lower power
mechanical accidents, thermal shocks, electrical short-circuiting, over- densities but higher energy densities [44,143]. Therefore, fuel cells and
heating, and chemical emissions from batteries. Due to their extended batteries are suitable as PES. Meanwhile, distinct types of capacitors and
working hours, reduced environmental impact [174], and wider opera- flywheels have a low energy density, both a high-power concentration and a
tional temperature range, fuel-cell vehicles perform better than rapid dismiss rate, indicating that they can generate large amounts of power,
battery-powered electric vehicles. Even FCVs have a high energy density, yet it only lasts for a short time. Due to their qualities, they can be utilised as
a driving range that is comparable to ICEs, zero emissions from the tank RPSA. Below, in the subsections, are descriptions of the energy sources and
to the wheel, and quick refuelling times. storage mechanisms utilised in FCEVs and FCHEVs.

Fig. 9. Configuration of fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) drivetrain.

9
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

Fig. 10. Configuration of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV) drivetrain.

Table 3
The benefit of FC is that it can produce energy if the active ingredients
Tank size and the driving range of different models of FCEVs and FCHEVs are fed to it. The fuel economy of FCs ranges from 40% to 85% [199,200].
[170–173]. The extent of hydrogen aboard is significantly lightweight than the BEVs'
battery box and provides more specific energy, roughly 120 MJ/kg
Car model (year) Type Tank size (kg) Electric Range
motor (kW) (km) versus 44 MJ/kg for petroleum [40,201]. A comparative assessment of
various energy storage systems for FCEVs are demonstrated in Table 4. As
Citro€en €
e-Jumpy (2022) FCEV 4.4 100 400
Opel Vivero-e (2022) FCEV 4.4 100 400
per assessment fuel cell has superior performance in terms of power
PEUGEOT e-Expert (2022) FCEV 4.4 100 400 density, energy concentration, phase of life and operating temperature.
Toyota MIRAI II (2020) FCEV 5.6 138 650 To save costs and increase efficiency, several industrialised nations
Hyundai NEXO (2022) FCEV 6.33 120 756 worldwide have been sponsoring fuel cell research and development for
Mercedes-Benz GLC FCHEV 4.4 155 478
the past 50 years [182]. The classifications and uses of fuel cells are
F-CELL (2022)
Honda Clarity (2016) FCEV 5.0 130 589 discussed in the section that follows.
Hyundai ix35 (2013) FCEV 5.64 100 594
Toyota MIRAI (2015) FCEV 5.6 138 650
Toyota FCHV FCHEV 7.0 160 400–500 4.2. Classification and usage of fuel cells

Fluid or verbose fuel serves as the anode in fuel cells (FCs), while
4.1. Fuel-cell oxygen, air, and chlorine serve as the oxidants on the cathode squad.
Particularly well-liked and accessible on the marketplace are hydrogen
A fuel cell is a chemical energy storage apparatus that uses the organic fuel cells (HFCs) based on hydrogen. To generate electricity, HFCs
energy of the fuel to generate current. In a fuel cell, hydrogen and oxygen combine hydrogen and oxygen. The use of energy and water could make
are mixed to create electricity, heat, and water [178–181]. For this grouping regenerative and changeable [199]. Direct system FCs and
small-scale applications, they are advantageous substitutes for traditional indirect system FCs are two subcategories of HFCs based on fueling
techniques of electricity generation. Fuels made of hydrogen and hy- [180]. Fuels such as hydrogen and methanol react directly in fuel cells
drocarbons have been created for FCEVs applications because they have a (FCs) with a direct system, while in FCs with an indirect system, such as
substantial amount of chemical energy compared to traditional battery fossil fuels and natural gas, the fuel must first be transformed into
materials [182–185]. The manner they provide energy sources is the reforming-rich hydrogen gas before being delivered to the cell for the
primary distinction between an FC and a battery. To create energy in an reaction [202]. Depending on the fuel and oxidant mixtures, the kind of
FC, the fuel and oxidizing agent are provided from outside, and these electrolyte, and the working temperature, FCs are divided into six types
components are built within the battery [180]. appeared in Table 5 [203].

Fig. 11. Different energy storage systems for FCEVs and FCHEVs.

10
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

Table 4
The assessment of several energy storage modules.
Operating parameters Battery Ultracapacitor Flywheel Fuel cell Reference
1 3 3
Density of power (W⋅kg ) 50–2,000 1,000–18,000 210 –310 1,000–2,500 [186,187]
Density of energy (Wh⋅kg1) 50–300 2–15 10–130 10103–15103 [188,189]
Life cycle 200–4,500 5103~10103 20103–25103 4103–13103 [190]
Cost 50–500 300–2,000 1,000–5,000 100–200 [191,192]
($⋅kWh1)
Efficiency of cycle (%) 70–90 >90 85–95 40–70 [193,194]
Working temp. 20–60 40–70 40–40 25–1,000 [195–198]
( C)

Table 5
Different fuel cell technologies and operating characteristics [152,199,204–206].
FC class Fuel used Working temp. ( C) Cell potential (V) Electric efficiency Power limit (kW) Tenders

Alkaline FC H2 90–100 1.0 65 10–100 Space, army

Phosphoric acid FC H2 150–200 1.1 42 50–1,000 Supplied production
Solid oxide FC H2, CO, CH4 650–1,000 0.8–1.0 35–43 5–3,000 Backup power, electric utility
Molten carbonate FC H2, CO, CH4 600–700 0.7–1.0 45–60 1–1,000 Electric service
Proton exchange membrane FC H2 50–100 1.1 50–60 1–250 Transportation, portable power
Direct methanol FC CH3OH 60–200 0.2–0.4 40 0.001–100 Mobiles, computers

4.3. Electrochemistry of fuel cell Reaction at anode : 2H2 → 4Hþ þ 4e (2)

Pure water and may be useful heat are the only by-products produced Reaction at cathode : O2 þ 4e þ 4Hþ → 2H2 O (3)
because of the transformation of the compound energy in hydrogen by
fuel cells into the current. Fuel and an oxidizing agent are supplied into a The term “proton exchange membranes” is frequently used to
cell where they react in the occurrence of an electrolyte, producing describe acidic electrolytes and evident polymers that comprehend free
electricity as the reaction's by-product. It has no emission since the re- Hþ ions. Because they only let the passage of Hþ ions, they perform
actions only waste heat and water instead of emitting any exhaust gases. proton delivery activities more effectively and correctly. If electrons are
Fig. 12 displays the schematic representation of a condensed fuel cell delivered through the electrolyte, the electrical current is lost [209].
[50]. Even though fuel cells come in a variety of designs, they all work on Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), which are used in the
the same fundamental ideas. The chemical properties of the electrolyte transportation and automotive industries, are compared analytically, and
account for most variations in fuel cell design [3]. Eq. (1) describes the used in many applications (refer to Table 3). The next subsection presents
general chemical process in fuel cells. a PEM fuel cell for transporting engineering.

2H2 ðgÞðHydrogenÞ þ O2 ðgÞðOxygenÞ → 2H2 OðwaterÞ þ Elecricity þ Heat 4.4. Fuel cell for automotive industry
(1)
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) technology is pri-
The electrolyte, cathode, anode, and external circuit are the four
marily used in the transport industry to refer enduring worries about the
essential components of a fuel cell. Within the cathode, oxygen is con-
exhaustion of fossil fuels. PEMFC for automobiles can be generated using
verted to oxide groups and combines with hydrogen at the anode to
renewable resources, with hydrogen serving as its main fuel. In actual
create protons and electrons, this process also occurs at the anode [207,
use, fuel cells using hydrogen can achieve an efficiency of up to 65%.
208]. In Eqs. (2) and (3), respectively, the result of getting a position at
Furthermore, the PEM fuel cell system only produces water as a
positive and negative terminals, are depicted.
byproduct, which eliminates tailpipe pollution. Nearly every major

Fig. 12. Chemistry of fuel cell.

11
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

carmaker has been working on FCEV investigation and extension for the delivered to the traction motor inverter's input DC bus via an alternative
past 20–30 years [210–213]. For instance, Toyota introduced the Mirai, converter. Using the traction motor's regenerative braking capability, this
its first commercial FCEV, in the US around 2017. The second version of hybrid technology reduces vehicle speed. In order to start up FC, the
the Mirai will be available starting in 2020 and will have an expected battery also serves as a power supply. The battery allocation is cut off
range of 402 miles [106]. As of September 1, 2020, 49 fuel cell electric once the fuel cell has gotten warm, and the system is then powered only
buses (FCEB) were running in California, and approximately 8,573 by the fuel cell [226,227]. The designs can be split into binary sets
FCEVs have been promoted or rented in the United States. By September established on the power transformation phases of the FCV traction
1st of this year, 3,521 FCEVs and 22 FCEBs had been bought or rented in system: transformation of power over several stages and a single stage.
Japan [214].
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells, which also use polymer 5.1. Transformation of power over several phases
electrolytes, have low weights, prices, and volumes while yet producing
high electrical power densities. According to Fig. 13, it is composed of an A hybrid car transfers power in two phases: from DC to DC and from
electrolyte membrane, anodes, which are negatively charged electrodes, DC to AC. After being transformed into high voltage DC from down
and cathodes, which are positively charged electrodes [215]. At the voltage DC power informants, elevated voltage DC is then inverted to
positive terminal hydrogen oxidation occurs while at the negative ter- become AC. Around six potential topographic anatomies are constructed
minal oxygen reduction takes place. Following this, electrons are trans- for the distribution of power over a number of phases, which have been
ported across an external load circuit while protons are conveyed from discussed in a number of literary sources [228–232].
the anode to the cathode via the electrolyte membrane. Heat is generated
on the cathode when oxygen combines with protons and electrons to 5.2. Transformation of power in single stage
create water [216,217]. The opposing electrode receives ions from the
electrolyte as the anode undergoes an electrochemical oxidation reac- The focus of current research has been on the transformation of power
tion, which generates the bipolar plate's flowing electrons, which are in a single stage because two-stage power transformation would make
frequently constructed of metal or graphite and connect to the external converters big, costly, and more ineffective [227]. Transformation of
circuit. Finally, the electrons leave the exterior circuit and come back power in one stage has been suggested in some publications as a means of
inside, while the ions go from one electrode to the other by way of the generating the necessary output power while keeping the input sources
electrolyte. The electrons join the electrochemical decline effect at the healthy [233–235]. Fig. 15 depicts a schematic representation in general
cathode after leaving the external circuit [218,219]. terms of one-stage power transformation.

5. Power transformation topologies of FCHEVs 5.3. Communication protocols for power flow in FCHEVs

To create a hybrid system that can power hybrid electric vehicles, fuel Typically, fuel-cell technology is used in HEVs to create power that is
cells are repeatedly paired with multiple supplemental energy resources mounted inside the vehicles themselves. In a fuel cell, oxygen and
i.e., batteries, flywheels, and ultracapacitors. Ultracapacitors and batte- hydrogen undergo a chemical reaction that produces power and water. As
ries are the two most used supplemental energy sources [220]. Battery a result, the fuel needed for automobiles powered by fuel cells is hydrogen.
installation and upkeep are simple, inexpensive, and inexpensive. are Fig. 16 depicts the procedures used to regulate and improve the power
examples of these supplementary power sources [221]. As a result, the flow commands from the vehicle to the grid for hybrid fuel-cell vehicles.
most prevalent topology for EVs is the fuel cell & battery hybrid scheme, Command signals are passed through the different layer protocols starting
which is employed in many production settings [222]. from the data link to the application layer system. Renewable energy
Fig. 14 depicts the fundamental concept of a fully functional FC-based sources like solar, wind, and hydropower can be converted into grid
HEV over a two-stage power transformation [223,224]. Two DC/DC electricity to provide electric power [236]. The electrolysis of water is
converters turn the low voltage that the FC generates into a useful level. done using this grid power to create hydrogen. After that, hydrogen is
Water, fuel, air pumps, and control systems are just a few examples of stored and delivered under pressure to a filling station. In a fuel cell,
auxiliary loads that are powered by a single converter [225]. Power is hydrogen and oxygen now mix to create power and water.

Fig. 13. Basic structure of proton-exchange membrane FC.

12
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

Fig. 14. Structure of two stages of power transformation for FCHEVs.

Fig. 15. One-stage power transmission for FCHEVs.

Fig. 16. Communication protocols of energy flow in FCHEVs.

13
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

A comparative analysis of the transformation of power in multiple- respectively. It demonstrates that FCHEV will soon be able to compete
stage and single-stage has been carried out to outline their pros and with ICEV on wealth costs [253]. The report also predicts the running
cons. Table 6 shows this comparative analysis for FCHEVs. costs, which are expected to be 7,916.67 $/kWh for gasoline, 9,722.22
$/kWh for hydrogen, and 10,000 $/kWh for electricity, respectively, in
5.4. Advanced power transformation for fuel cell based HEVs 2030. 17.01 km/L, 115.873 km/kg, and 5.793,64 km/kWh, respectively,
are the corresponding ranges for similar energies, indicating that
When fuel cell based HEVs are moving, energy storage (ES) mediums hydrogen is priced similarly to gasoline and will have successively
like batteries and UC can be recharged using smart charging technologies cheaper costs. These forecasts greatly increase the forthcoming pro-
like wireless charging. The majority of FCEV systems are built around a jections for FCHEVs [48,254,255].
number of components that are supposed to ensure the high power and
stability of the vehicle on the pathway [245]. The bulk of these parts have 6.2. Communal awareness
connections to the charging system [246]. In this context, active radio-
communication energy transfer is a workable technique to alleviate As soon as it's established, the communal requirements to be made
range anxiety in HEVs and lower the price of onboard ESS. Since it can be concerned that hydrogen automobiles operate similarly to conventional
done while the car is moving, wireless charging has long been popular automobiles while also offering a few more advantages. When that
with battery HEVs. happens, even people who aren't concerned with the environment will
Wireless power transfer (WPT) is a versatile and cutting-edge value and embrace such vehicles. Because of this, it's important to make
charging method that can improve the dependability of EVs [247,248]. sure that the genuine capabilities of green vehicles are broadly publicized
A road-side unit and a vehicle-side unit make up the major components of and that they're not just praised for being “green”. It turns out that most
the WPT charging system [249,250]. The transmitter is the name for the people had favorable opinions of hydrogen, that few people knew much
stationary component on the road. The moving receiver is the second about it, and that there were no safety issues [256].
component, which is positioned beneath the car. Power connections, an
electrical transmitter and receiver, and motor components make up this 6.3. Long-driving range and development of hydrogen refuelling stations
charging device. Each component has its own electronic system and is
separated by a vacuum. High-frequency magnetic flux alternation is Future buyers may be drawn to FCHEVs because of their many ad-
produced by the transmitter cell block. The receiver coil couples this vantages, including their long-propelling extent and the possibility of
magnetic flux, which is subsequently transformed into electric energy supplying backup power to the home's electrical system. According to
that is used to recharge the EV battery [251]. The wireless power market research, buyers are ready to pay $500 to $1,000 extra for these
transmission topology for electric vehicles is shown in Fig. 17. items on top of the vehicle's base expense [257]. To promote public
dependability and uninterrupted vehicle driving ranges, hydrogen filling
6. Recommendations and future perspectives of fuel cell-based stations (HRS) are the primary goal. This approach should be utilized by
hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV) developing nations to increase the adoption of FCEVs by consumers. This
refuelling station policy is being implemented by some developed nations
The market for vehicles in the future may be significantly impacted by in order to achieve zero-emission goals, including Japan, Germany,
FCHEVs. It could be a serious rival to traditional ICE automobiles. France, the United States, and South Korea. Schemes like consumers'
Adoption of alternative solutions is urgently required during the next preferences for FCEVs and its effect on how a well-crafted programme
several days because of the progressive exhaustion of fossil fuel sub- encouragement promotes, which includes free civic parking and trans-
stitutes. Individuals are presumptively going to pick FCHEVs if their portation, can have a beneficial long-term impact on the country's con-
accomplishment is comparable to that of ICEVs. The following part version to FCEVs [258,259].
provides future perspectives for FCHEVs that support the sustainability
objective. 6.4. Implementation of promoting policies

6.1. Cost-issues Some academics contend that some sort of “match” concerning
technology and marketplace prospects is necessary for the sooq deploy-
To forecast how much FCHEV will cost in the forthcoming, in- ment of a further skill, which yields it more problematical for consumers
vestigators have performed a cost estimation study [252]. The forecast to pick what products to buy. The true problem is to create a convincing
indicates that the typical investment of an FCHEV powertrain will in- sooq saturation strategy that will inspire and provide encouragement for
crease to $5,665 in 2030 frothe 19,700 in 2010. Future wealth prices will both business and administration to participate in the progress of FCEVs
be $2,465 for ICEVs, $7,865 for BEVs, and $10,530 for FCEVs in 2030, and hydrogen creation networks [260]. Innovation in FC, the market, and

Table 6
Analytical comparison of different power transformation topologies for FCHEVs.
Transformation topology Protocols Power converter Pros Cons

FC (fuel-cell) þbattery CAN/PI DC/AC
Simple structure
Incapable to retrieve power [227,
(passive)
Informal to execute and command 237]
FC þ battery (active) Controller Area Network DC/DC þ DC/AC
Control and flexible output
Gradual active reply [229,238]
(CAN)
Extraordinary power intensity
FC þ UC (ultracapacitor) CAN/PI (proportional DC/DC þ DC/AC
Quick dynamical reply
UC is more expensive than battery.
(semi-active) integral)
Stable control power
Intermitted operation [238,239]
FC þ UC CAN/PWM 2DC/DC þ DC/
Regenerative mode
Low energy density of UC
(active) (pulse width modulation) AC
Optimal power controlling Ability to recover [240–242]
energy
FC þ battery þ UC CAN/AC BUS 2DC/DC þ DC/
Elevated energy denseness of battery
Complexity of system
(semi-active) AC
Extreme capacity intensity
Faint energy intensity of UC [232]
FC þ battery þ UC CAN/DC BUS 3DC/DC þ DC/
Optimal control
Regulating tactics are complicated.
(active) AC
Fast dynamic response (UC)
Complicated to employ [232,243,

High efficiency than another topology 244]

14
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

Fig. 17. Wireless charging architecture for HEVs.

the FC businesses that arise and compete using this new technology are 6.6. Intelligent-based autonomous FCEVs
all interconnected in a dynamic way [261]. Because of the way the past
has played out when an innovation is developed, a new market sector The green revolution of the transport sectors' sustainability objectives
emerges, and businesspeople take to see them as fresh prospects for is significantly made possible by digital technologies. The digitalisation
growth [262]. To encourage electric mobility, the Indian government of the self-propelled industry hastens the convergence of technologies for
introduced a number of incentives and subsidy programmes, including fuel cell based HEVs, including perception, computation administering,
national council for electric mobility (NCEM-2011), National Board for communication, forward motion, and data merging [274]. The planning,
Electric Mobility (NBEM-2018), National Mission for Electric Mobility strategies, smart features, and motorised cardinal setup of EVs cars are
Plan (NEMMP-2020), Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and where innovation is most prevalent. The fusion of artificial intelligence
Electric Vehicles (FAME-India), and Mapping India Energy Policy [263]. (AI) [275], wireless connectivity, Internet of Things (IoT) [276], digital
twins (DTs), and circulated record skills allows for the facilitation of
automobile computerisation, automobile electrification, and
6.5. Adoption of hybrid energy storage systems vehicle-to-everything (V2X) message [277–280]. As hardware, software,
sensors, actuators, and intelligent virtual functions are incorporated into
In order to provide high energy density for a prolonged drive range the digital infrastructure, vehicles befitted increasingly intelligent, net-
and high definite power for rapid energy exchange during acceleration worked, and capable of acting as interface minicomputer servers on
and deceleration, EVs can use a hybrid power setup that combines a wheels. The key factors that open up intelligent cars' perspective for
battery and a supercapacitor [264,265]. By including supercapacitors, long-term, green transportation treatments include electrification, com-
batteries, and fuel cells inside an EV, this responsibility could be reduced puterisation, digitalisation, decentralisation, and standardisation [281].
[266]. The FC is still the major energy source for the car, and the entire The advancements, novel architectures, artificial intelligence (AI)
power scheme is known as the fuelcell-battery-supercapacitor methodologies, and processes utilised to integrate autonomous features
(FC-BAT-SC). When the ride first starts up, the supercapacitor (SC) gets in next-generation automobiles. These developments suggest the fusion
involved to provide a quicker power response. After that, the vehicle of technologies, including the Internet of Things, digital twins, robots,
shifts to using the FC as its energy source. The inventors proposed that intelligent connection, and consistency contexts, for the implementation
the components FC, BAT, and SC work together to convey electricity [86, of maintainable green progress solutions.
267–269]. Controlling and synchronizing the SC and the electric motor is
done via the DC-AC converter [270,271]. Superconducting magnetic 6.7. Current research trends of EVs
energy storage was proposed as a replacement for the SC by the authors
[272]. By implementing a suitable power regulator approach at the Fig. 18 indicates the current trends of EV technologies which are
converter side, the problem might be resolved [45,166,273]. based on articles published in the Web of Science (WoS) database from

Fig. 18. Research articles published related to HEVs, PHEVs, BEVs, FCEVs, FCHEVs, EV Standards and Communication Protocols, HEV Dynamics, EV Charging Control
(as per the Web of Science (WoS database).

15
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

the year 2010 to year 2022. These EV technologies are related to various CRediT authorship contribution statement
research topics. From Fig. 18, it has been summarized that the overall
current research trends adhere to EV technologies topics, whereas Mohammad Waseem: constructed the concept, the analysis was done,
currently, battery electric vehicle (BEV) is the leading research topic. Till composed this essay. Mohammad Amir: entire paper was revised, and
2022, there are about 3,574 articles published related to BEV, and arti- significant suggestions were made, G. Sree Lakshmi: assist in writing, S.
cles published about 1,140, till the quarterly of 2023. The second posi- Harivardhagini: and analysis the data. Mumtaz Ahmad: Supervised idea
tion hot topic is EV Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV), 3,848 related articles and make suggestions.
are already published in the years 2021 and 2022. Further, in the current
year (2023), research fields such as EV charging control, Fuel-cell Electric Data availability
Vehicles (FCEV) are higher than HEV dynamics and Fuel-cell Electric
Vehicles (FCEV), and EV Standards and Communication Protocols, The data and materials used to support the findings of this study are
respectively. However, from 2010 to recent years, there has been more available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
substantial progress in the fields of FCEV than another research field,
because of recent advancements in fuel-cell-based EV technologies. Funding information

7. Conclusion The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were
received during the preparation of this manuscript.
The fuel-cell cars, fuel-cell hybrid vehicles, and their associated
power-conversion topologies to support electric mobility have all been
Declaration of competing interest
painstakingly documented in this article to aid in a thorough and in-
depth investigation. Ongoing discussions have focused on the main
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, advanced technological
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
developments, and prospective applications for fuel-cell vehicles in the
the work reported in this paper.
future. The following is a list of the notable contributions.

Acknowledgement
(i) This article discusses key challenges with fuel cell electric
mobility, such as low fuel cell performance, cold starts, problems
The authors would like to acknowledge the University Polytechnic,
with hydrogen storage, cost-reduction, safety concerns, and trac-
JMI and Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) India.
tion systems;
(ii) The technology employed in hybrid and pure electric vehicles, as
well as the arrangement of how energy flows from the battery to References
the wheels, are all covered in detail. The two types of pure electric
[1] Hannan MA, Lipu MSH, Hussain A, Mohamed A. A review of lithium-ion battery
vehicles that use fuel cells as their leading component to generate state of charge estimation and management system in electric vehicle
electricity are fuel cell automobiles (FCEVs) and fuel cell hybrid applications: challenges and recommendations. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;
electric vehicles (FCHEVs). To illustrate the tank storage capacity 78:834–54.
[2] Hou F, Chen X, Chen X, Yang F, Ma Z, Zhang S, et al. Comprehensive analysis
and driving range of various FCEVs and FCHEVs, comparative method of determining global long-term GHG mitigation potential of passenger
research has been conducted; battery electric vehicles. J Clean Prod 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/
(iii) In order to store the chemical energy for FCEVs and FCHEVs, we j.jclepro.2020.125137.
[3] Road transport: EU-wide carbon dioxide emissions have increased by 24% since
presented a comparative evaluation of the primary energy 1990 - German Federal Statistical Office. https://www.destatis.de/Europa/EN/
resource (fuel cell) and various rechargeable energy storage Topic/Environment-energy/CarbonDioxideRoadTransport.html. Accessed 30
methods. Different fuel-cell technologies are examined for FCEVs April 2023.
[4] Greenhouse gas emissions from transport in Europe — European Environment
and FCHEVs, along with their operational traits and applications.
Agency. https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/transport-emiss
An explanation of the fuel cell and fuel cell technology's operation ions-of-greenhouse-gases-7. Accessed 30 April 2023.
is given for automobile use; [5] Breed AK, Speth D, Pl€ otz P. CO2 fleet regulation and the future market diffusion of
(iv) Different power transformation topologies have been compared zero-emission trucks in Europe. Energy Pol 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.enpol.2021.112640.
analytically, along with their configuration, benefits, and draw- [6] EU proposes effective ban for new fossil-fuel cars from 2035 | Reuters. https
backs for FCEVs and FCHEVs. Communication protocols and ://www.reuters.com/business/retail-consumer/eu-proposes-effective-ban-new
emerging wireless power transfer technique are explained for -fossil-fuel-car-sales-2035-2021-07-14/. Accessed 30 April 2023.
[7] Bae C, Kim J. Alternative fuels for internal combustion engines. Proc Combust Inst
hybrid electric mobility; 2017;36:3389–413.
(v) The prospects for fuel cell electric mobility are examined, along [8] Yuan C, Han C, Liu Y, He Y, Shao Y. ScienceDirect Effect of hydrogen addition on
with recent obstacles and technological developments. Current the combustion and emission of a diesel free-piston engine. Int J Hydrogen Energy
2018:1–11.
research trends for EVs and FCEVs have been described as per WoS [9] Zhu G, Liu J, Fu J, Xu Z, Guo Q, Zhao H. Experimental study on combustion and
database. emission characteristics of turbocharged gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine
under cold start new European driving cycle (NEDC). Fuel 2018;215:272–84.
[10] Hannan MA, Azidin FA, Mohamed A. Hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges:
This significant investigation seeks to offer a foundation for the most a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;29:135–50.
recent advancements in fuel-cell electric vehicles, their driveline con- [11] Alahmad M, Chaaban M, Chaar L. A novel photovoltaic/battery structure for solar
figurations, and power conversion topologies to support electric mobility electrical vehicles [ PVBS for SEV ]. IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion
Conference 2011;1:1–4.
technologies. In order to influence the future vehicle market and achieve
[12] Kalghatgi G. Is it really the end of internal combustion engines and petroleum in
the sustainable goal of zero-emissions vehicles, recent technological ad- transport? Appl Energy 2018;225:965–74.
vancements, and the prospects for FCHEVs are discussed. These include [13] Koszela W, Pawlus P, Reizer R, Liskiewicz T. The combined effect of surface
cost concerns, societal awareness, long driving range, development of texturing and DLC coating on the functional properties of internal combustion
engines. Tribol Int 2018;127:470–7.
hydrogen fuel stations, adoption of hybrid energy storage systems, and [14] Luo Q he, Sun B gang. Inducing factors and frequency of combustion knock in
implementation of new promote policies. hydrogen internal combustion engines. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2016;41:16296–305.

16
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

[15] Qian Y, Sun S, Ju D, Shan X, Lu X. Review of the state-of-the-art of biogas [43] Fathabadi H. Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV): novel fuel cell/SC hybrid
combustion mechanisms and applications in internal combustion engines. Renew power generation system. Energy Convers Manag 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Sustain Energy Rev 2017;69:50–8. j.enconman.2017.11.001.
[16] Weldon P, Morrissey P, O'Mahony M. Long-term cost of ownership comparative [44] Selmi T, Khadhraoui A, Cherif A. Fuel cell–based electric vehicles technologies
analysis between electric vehicles and internal combustion engine vehicles. and challenges. Environ Sci Pollut Control Ser 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/
Sustain Cities Soc 2018;39:578–91. s11356-022-23171-w.
[17] Amir M, Khan SZ. Assessment of renewable energy: status, challenges, COVID-19 [45] Wu D, Ren J, Davies H, Shang J, Haas O. Intelligent hydrogen fuel cell range
impacts, opportunities, and sustainable energy solutions in Africa. Energy and extender for battery electric vehicles. World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019.
Built Environment; 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbenv.2021.03.002. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj10020029.
[18] Huang C-J, Hu K-W, Chen H-M, Liao H-H, Tsai HW, Chien S-Y. An intelligent [46] Ganesh AH, Xu B. A review of reinforcement learning based energy management
energy management mechanism for electric vehicles. Appl Artif Intell 2016;30: systems for electrified powertrains: progress, challenge, and potential solution.
125–52. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111833.
[19] Karmaker AK, Ahmed MdR, Hossain MdA, Sikder MdM. Feasibility assessment & [47] Muthukumar M, Rengarajan N, Velliyangiri B, Omprakas MA, Rohit CB, Raja UK.
design of hybrid renewable energy based electric vehicle charging station in The development of fuel cell electric vehicles - a review. Mater Today Proc 2021.
Bangladesh. Sustain Cities Soc 2018;39:189–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.679.
[20] Grande LSA, Yahyaoui I, G omez SA. Energetic, economic and environmental [48] Wang Y, Seo B, Wang B, Zamel N, Jiao K, Adroher XC. Fundamentals, materials,
viability of off-grid PV-BESS for charging electric vehicles: case study of Spain. and machine learning of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell technology.
Sustain Cities Soc 2018;37:519–29. Energy and AI; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyai.2020.100014.
[21] Xue F, Gwee E. Electric vehicle development in Singapore and technical [49] Kim H, Eom M, Kim BI. Development of strategic hydrogen refueling station
considerations for charging infrastructure. Energy Proc 2017;143:3–14. deployment plan for Korea. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2020. https://doi.org/
[22] Khan U, Yamamoto T, Sato H. Understanding attitudes of hydrogen fuel-cell 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.04.246.
vehicle adopters in Japan. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/ [50] Kluschke P, Neumann F. Interaction of a hydrogen refueling station network for
j.ijhydene.2021.06.195. heavy-duty vehicles and the power system in Germany for 2050. ArXiv 2019.
[23] Ajanovic A, Haas R. Prospects and impediments for hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles [51] Rose PK, Neumann F. Hydrogen refueling station networks for heavy-duty vehicles
in the transport sector. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/ in future power systems. Transp Res D Transp Environ 2020. https://doi.org/
j.ijhydene.2020.03.122. 10.1016/j.trd.2020.102358.
[24] Waseem M, Sherwani AF, Suhaib M. Integration of solar energy in electrical, [52] Pramuanjaroenkij A, Kakaç S. The fuel cell electric vehicles: the highlight review.
hybrid, autonomous vehicles: a technological review. SN Appl Sci 2019;1:1459. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2023;48:9401–25.
[25] Alvarez-Meaza I, Zarrabeitia-Bilbao E, Rio-Belver RM, Garechana-Anacabe G. [53] Zhao X, Wang L, Zhou Y, Pan B, Wang R, Wang L, et al. Energy management
Fuel-cell electric vehicles: plotting a scientific and technological knowledge map. strategies for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: classification, comparison, and
Sustainability 2020. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062334. outlook. Energy Convers Manag 2022;270:116179.
[26] Waseem M, Suhaib M, Sherwani AF. Modelling and analysis of gradient effect on [54] Yu P, Li M, Wang Y, Chen Z. Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: a review of
the dynamic performance of three-wheeled vehicle system using Simscape. SN topologies and energy management strategies. World Electric Vehicle Journal
Appl Sci 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-0235-8. 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13090172.
[27] Waseem M, Sherwani AF, Suhaib M. Driving pattern-based optimization and [55] Fitri Desanti A, Uta Nugraha Y, Nur Yuniarto M, Wikarta A. Review of the
design of electric propulsion system for three-wheeler battery vehicle. Int J topology and energy management hybrid energy storage on electric vehicle. IOP
Perform Eng 2020;16:342–53. Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 2019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/694/1/
[28] Zou C, Xue H, Xiong B, Zhang G, Pan S, Jia C, et al. Connotation, innovation and 012006.
vision of “carbon neutrality. Natural Gas Industry B 2021. https://doi.org/ [56] Baba MA, Labbadi M, Cherkaoui M, Maaroufi M. Fuel cell electric vehicles: a
10.1016/j.ngib.2021.08.009. review of current power electronic converters Topologies and technical
[29] Zou C, Xiong B, Xue H, Zheng D, Ge Z, Wang Y, et al. The role of new energy in challenges. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 2021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-
carbon neutral. Petroleum Exploration and Development; 2021. https://doi.org/ 1315/785/1/012011.
10.1016/S1876-3804(21)60039-3. [57] Urooj S, Singh T, Amir M, Tariq M. Optimal design of power transformer with
[30] Lu C, Wang B, Chen T, Yang J. A document analysis of peak carbon emissions and advance core material using ANSYS technique. European Journal of Electrical
carbon neutrality policies based on a PMC index model in China. Int J Environ Res Engineering and Computer Science 2020;4:1–17.
Publ Health 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159312. [58] Urooj S, Amir M, Khan A, Tariq M. An adaptive neuro-fuzzy based methodology
[31] Hepburn C, Qi Y, Stern N, Ward B, Xie C, Zenghelis D. Towards carbon neutrality for harmonic analysis of a power transformer, 101; 2021. p. 1–10.
and China's 14th Five-Year Plan: clean energy transition, sustainable urban [59] Amir M, Zaheeruddin, Haque A. Integration of EVs aggregator with microgrid and
development, and investment priorities. Environmental Science and impact of V2G power on peak regulation. In: 2021 IEEE 4th international
Ecotechnology 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ese.2021.100130. conference on computing, power and communication technologies (GUCON).
[32] Wei YM, Chen K, Kang JN, Chen W, Wang XY, Zhang X. Policy and management of IEEE; 2021. p. 1–6.
carbon peaking and carbon neutrality: a literature review. Engineering; 2022. [60] Awogbemi O, Von Kallon DV, Onuh EI, Aigbodion VS. An overview of the
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2021.12.018. classification, production and utilization of biofuels for internal combustion
[33] Chan CC. The state of the art of electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles. Proc IEEE engine applications. Energies 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185687.
2007;95:704–18. [61] Khalid MR, Khan IA, Hameed S, Asghar MSJ, Ro JS. A comprehensive review on
[34] Sanguesa JA, Torres-Sanz V, Garrido P, Martinez FJ, Marquez-Barja JM. A review structural topologies, power levels, energy storage systems, and standards for
on electric vehicles: technologies and challenges. Smart Cities 2021 2021;4(4): electric vehicle charging stations and their impacts on grid. IEEE access 2021.
372–404. 372–404. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3112189.
_
[35] Inci M, Büyük M, Demir MH, Ilbey _ G. A review and research on fuel cell electric [62] Leach F, Kalghatgi G, Stone R, Miles P. The scope for improving the efficiency and
vehicles: topologies, power electronic converters, energy management methods, environmental impact of internal combustion engines. Transport Eng 2020.
technical challenges, marketing and future aspects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev https://doi.org/10.1016/j.treng.2020.100005.
2021;137:110648. [63] Mykhalevych M, Shuklinov S, Dvadnenko V, Yaryta O. Prospects of “mild hybrid”
[36] Liu T, Tan W, Tang X, Zhang J, Xing Y, Cao D. Driving conditions-driven energy technology for creating a hybridization system of vehicles. 2022. https://doi.org/
management strategies for hybrid electric vehicles: a review. Renew Sustain 10.30977/at.2019-8342.2022.50.0.04. Automobile transport.
Energy Rev 2021;151:111521. [64] Du B, Yin X, Yang Y. Robust control of mode transition for a single-motor full
[37] Hamza K, Hamid M, Mouaad B. A review of future fuel cell electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicle. Advances in Mechanical Engineering. 2017. https://
challenges related to Morocco. WSEAS Trans Power Syst 2022. https://doi.org/ doi.org/10.1177/1687814017717428.
10.37394/232016.2022.17.34. [65] Shafiq S, Irshad U Bin, Al-Muhaini M, Djokic SZ, Akram U. Reliability evaluation
[38] Li Y, Kimura S. Economic competitiveness and environmental implications of of composite power systems: evaluating the impact of full and plug-in hybrid
hydrogen energy and fuel cell electric vehicles in ASEAN countries: the current electric vehicles. IEEE Access; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1109/
and future scenarios. Energy Pol 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/ ACCESS.2020.3003369.
j.enpol.2020.111980. [66] Tran DD, Vafaeipour M, El Baghdadi M, Barrero R, Van Mierlo J, Hegazy O.
[39] Schmidt P, Batteiger V, Roth A, Weindorf W, Raksha T. Power-to-Liquids as Thorough state-of-the-art analysis of electric and hybrid vehicle powertrains:
renewable fuel option for aviation: a review. Chem Ing Tech 2018. https:// topologies and integrated energy management strategies. Renewable and
doi.org/10.1002/cite.201700129. Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109596.
[40] Bethoux O. Hydrogen fuel cell road vehicles: state of the art and perspectives. [67] Fletcher T, Kalantzis N, Ahmedov A, Yuan R, Ebrahimi K, Dutta N, et al. Holistic
Energies 2020. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215843. thermal energy modelling for full hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). SAE Technical
[41] Ustolin F, Campari A, Taccani R. An extensive review of liquid hydrogen in Papers 2020. https://doi.org/10.4271/2020-01-0151.
transportation with focus on the maritime sector. J Mar Sci Eng 2022. https:// [68] Duarte GO, Varella RA, Gonçalves GA, Farias TL. Effect of battery state of charge
doi.org/10.3390/jmse10091222. on fuel use and pollutant emissions of a full hybrid electric light duty vehicle.
[42] Schemme S, Breuer JL, K€ oller M, Meschede S, Walman F, Samsun RC, et al. H2- J Power Sources 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.07.103.
based synthetic fuels: a techno-economic comparison of alcohol, ether and [69] Mandev A, Pl€ otz P, Sprei F, Tal G. Empirical charging behavior of plug-in hybrid
hydrocarbon production. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/ electric vehicles. Appl Energy 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijhydene.2019.05.028. j.apenergy.2022.119293.

17
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

[70] Clement-Nyns K, Haesen E, Driesen J. The impact of Charging plug-in hybrid [98] Mishler J, Wang Y, Mukherjee PP, Mukundan R, Borup RL. Subfreezing operation
electric vehicles on a residential distribution grid. IEEE Transactions on Power of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: ice formation and cell performance loss.
Systems. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2009.2036481. Electrochim Acta 2012;65:127–33.
[71] Krupa JS, Rizzo DM, Eppstein MJ, Brad Lanute D, Gaalema DE, Lakkaraju K, et al. [99] Chen Q, Zhang G, Zhang X, Sun C, Jiao K, Wang Y. Thermal management of
Analysis of a consumer survey on plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Transp Res Part polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells: a review of cooling methods, material
A Policy Pract. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2014.02.019. properties, and durability. Appl Energy 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/
[72] Raghavan SS, Tal G. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle observed utility factor: why the j.apenergy.2021.116496.
observed electrification performance differ from expectations. Int J Sustain Transp €
[100] Ozdo gan E, Hüner B, Süzen YO, Eşiyok T, Uzg€ _ Kıstı M, et al. Effects of tank
oren IN,
2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/15568318.2020.1849469. heating on hydrogen release from metal hydride system in VoltaFCEV Fuel Cell
[73] Pl€otz P, Moll C, Bieker G, Mock P. From lab-to-road: real-world fuel consumption Electric Vehicle. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/
and CO2emissions of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Environ Res Lett 2021. j.ijhydene.2022.07.080.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abef8c. [101] Whiston MM, Lima Azevedo IM, Litster S, Samaras C, Whitefoot KS, Whitacre JF.
[74] Millo F, Rolando L, Fuso R, Mallamo F. Real CO2 emissions benefits and end user's Hydrogen storage for fuel cell electric vehicles: expert elicitation and a levelized
operating costs of a plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle. Appl Energy 2014. https:// cost of driving model. Environ Sci Technol 2021. https://doi.org/10.1021/
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.09.014. acs.est.0c04145.
[75] K€onig A, Nicoletti L, Schr€oder D, Wolff S, Waclaw A, Lienkamp M. An overview of [102] Di Giorgio P, Di Ilio G, Jannelli E, Conte FV. Innovative battery thermal
parameter and cost for battery electric vehicles. World Electric Vehicle Journal management system based on hydrogen storage in metal hydrides for fuel cell
2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12010021. hybrid electric vehicles. Appl Energy 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/
[76] Burs L, Roemer E, Worm S, Masini A. Are they all equal? Uncovering adopter j.apenergy.2022.118935.
groups of battery electric vehicles. Sustainability (Switzerland). 2020. https:// [103] Sorlei IS, Bizon N, Thounthong P, Varlam M, Carcadea E, Culcer M, et al. Fuel cell
doi.org/10.3390/su12072815. electric vehicles—a brief review of current topologies and energy management
[77] Jin F, Yao E, An K. Analysis of the potential demand for battery electric vehicle strategies. Energies 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14010252.
sharing: mode share and spatiotemporal distribution. J Transport Geogr 2020. [104] Tian M, Rochat S, Polak-Krasna K, Holyfield LT, Burrows AD, Bowen CR, et al.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2019.102630. Nanoporous polymer-based composites for enhanced hydrogen storage.
[78] Kawamoto R, Mochizuki H, Moriguchi Y, Nakano T, Motohashi M, Sakai Y, et al. Adsorption 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10450-019-00065-x.
Estimation of CO2 Emissions of internal combustion engine vehicle and battery [105] Banham D, Ye S. Current status and future development of catalyst materials and
electric vehicle using LCA. Sustainability (Switzerland). 2019. https://doi.org/ catalyst layers for proton exchange membrane fuel cells: an industrial perspective.
10.3390/su11092690. ACS Energy Lett 2017. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.6b00644.
[79] Liu Z, Song J, Kubal J, Susarla N, Knehr KW, Islam E, et al. Comparing total cost of [106] Wang Y, Ruiz Diaz DF, Chen KS, Wang Z, Adroher XC. Materials, technological
ownership of battery electric vehicles and internal combustion engine vehicles. status, and fundamentals of PEM fuel cells – a review. Mater Today 2020. https://
Energy Pol 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112564. doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2019.06.005.
[80] Mahmoudzadeh Andwari A, Pesiridis A, Rajoo S, Martinez-Botas R, Esfahanian V. [107] Thompson ST, James BD, Huya-Kouadio JM, Houchins C, DeSantis DA,
A review of Battery Electric Vehicle technology and readiness levels. Renew Ahluwalia R, et al. Direct hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle cost analysis: system
Sustain Energy Rev 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.138. and high-volume manufacturing description, validation, and outlook. J Power
[81] Peksen MM. Artificial intelligence-based machine learning toward the solution of Sources 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.07.100.
climate-friendly hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles. Vehicles 2022. https:// [108] Zhu F, Luo L, Wu A, Wang C, Cheng X, Shen S, et al. Improving the high-current-
doi.org/10.3390/vehicles4030038. density performance of PEMFC through much enhanced utilization of platinum
[82] Trencher G. Strategies to accelerate the production and diffusion of fuel cell electrocatalysts on carbon. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2020. https://doi.org/
electric vehicles: experiences from California. Energy Rep 2020. https://doi.org/ 10.1021/acsami.0c06981.
10.1016/j.egyr.2020.09.008. [109] Ramaswamy N, Gu W, Ziegelbauer JM, Kumaraguru S. Carbon support
[83] Rasic D, Katrasnik T. Multi-domain and Multi-scale model of a fuel cell electric microstructure impact on high current density transport resistances in PEMFC
vehicle to predict the effect of the operating conditions and component sizing on cathode. J Electrochem Soc 2020. https://doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/
fuel cell degradation. Energy Convers Manag 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/ ab819c.
j.enconman.2022.116024. [110] Hiesgen R, Morawietz T, Handl M, Oldani C, Karan K, Friedrich KA. Structure,
[84] Na W, Park T, Kim T, Kwak S. Light fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles based on properties, and degradation of ultrathin ionomer films in fuel cell catalytic layers.
predictive controllers. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 2011;60:89–97. ECS Meeting Abstracts 2018. https://doi.org/10.1149/ma2018-01/30/1769.
[85] Sulaiman N, Hannan MA, Mohamed A, Ker PJ, Majlan EH, Wan Daud WR. [111] Firouzjaie HA, Mustain WE. Catalytic advantages, challenges, and priorities in
Optimization of energy management system for fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles: alkaline membrane fuel cells. ACS Catal 2020. https://doi.org/10.1021/
issues and recommendations. Appl Energy 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/ acscatal.9b03892.
j.apenergy.2018.07.087. [112] Khan U, Yamamoto T, Sato H. Understanding the discontinuance trend of
[86] Manoharan Y, Hosseini SE, Butler B, Alzhahrani H, Senior BTF, Ashuri T, et al. hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in Japan. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2022. https://doi.org/
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles; Current status and future prospect. Switzerland: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.07.141.
Applied Sciences; 2019. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9112296. [113] Aikhuele DO. Development of a fixable model for the reliability and safety
[87] Luo Y, Wu Y, Li B, Mo T, Li Y, Feng SP, et al. Development and application of fuel evaluation of the components of a commercial lithium-ion battery. J Energy
cells in the automobile industry. J Energy Storage 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/ Storage 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101819.
j.est.2021.103124. [114] Jayakumar A, Madheswaran DK, Kannan AM, Sureshvaran U, Sathish J. Can
[88] Melo SP, Toghyani S, Cerdas F, Liu X, Gao X, Lindner L, et al. Model-based hydrogen be the sustainable fuel for mobility in India in the global context? Int J
assessment of the environmental impacts of fuel cell systems designed for eVTOLs. Hydrogen Energy 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.07.272.
Int J Hydrogen Energy 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.10.083. [115] Barilo NF, Weiner SC, James CW. Overview of the DOE hydrogen safety, codes and
[89] Pardhi S, Chakraborty S, Tran DD, El Baghdadi M, Wilkins S, Hegazy O. A review standards program part 2: hydrogen and fuel cells: emphasizing safety to enable
of fuel cell powertrains for long-haul heavy-duty vehicles: technology, hydrogen, commercialization. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/
energy and thermal management solutions. Energies 2022. https://doi.org/ j.ijhydene.2016.04.070.
10.3390/en15249557. [116] Moretto P, Quong S. Legal requirements, technical regulations, codes, and
[90] Trencher G, Edianto A. Drivers and barriers to the adoption of fuel cell passenger standards for hydrogen safety. Hydrogen safety for energy applications:
vehicles and buses in Germany. Energies 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/ engineering design, risk assessment, and codes and standards. 2022. https://
en14040833. doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820492-4.00003-8.
[91] Wang Y, Pang Y, Xu H, Martinez A, Chen KS. PEM Fuel cell and electrolysis cell [117] Lukic SM, Cao Jian, Bansal RC, Rodriguez F, Emadi A. Energy storage systems for
technologies and hydrogen infrastructure development - a review. Energy Environ automotive applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2008;55:2258–67.
Sci 2022. https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ee00790h. [118] Khaligh A, Li Zhihao. Battery, ultracapacitor, fuel cell, and hybrid energy storage
[92] Sathyamurthy R, Bhaskar K, Solomon JM, Anaimuthu S, Vinayagam NK. A review systems for electric, hybrid electric, fuel cell, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles:
on PEM fuel cells used for automotive applications, models and hydrogen storage state of the art. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 2010;59:2806–14.
for hybrid electric fuel cell vehicle. SAE Technical Papers 2020. https://doi.org/ [119] Vazquez S, Lukic SM, Galvan E, Franquelo LG, Carrasco JM. Energy storage
10.4271/2020-01-5173. systems for transport and grid applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2010. https://
[93] Ko J, Ju H. Comparison of numerical simulation results and experimental data doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2010.2076414.
during cold-start of polymer electrolyte fuel cells. Appl Energy 2012. https:// [120] Zakeri B, Syri S. Electrical energy storage systems: a comparative life cycle cost
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.02.007. analysis. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/
[94] Wan Z, Chang H, Shu S, Wang Y, Tang H. A review on cold start of proton j.rser.2014.10.011.
exchange membrane fuel cells. Energies 2014. https://doi.org/10.3390/ [121] Lu S, Corzine KA, Ferdowsi M. A new battery/ultracapacitor energy storage system
en7053179. design and its motor drive integration for hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Veh
[95] Luo Y, Jiao K. Cold start of proton exchange membrane fuel cell. Prog Energy Technol 2007. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2007.896971.
Combust Sci 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2017.10.003. [122] Moon D, Park J, Choi S. New interleaved current-fed resonant converter with
[96] Wang Y. Analysis of the key parameters in the cold start of polymer electrolyte fuel significantly reduced high current side output filter for EV and HEV applications.
cells. J Electrochem Soc 2007. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2767849. IEEE trans power electron. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2014.2360470.
[97] Wang Y, Mukherjee PP, Mishler J, Mukundan R, Borup RL. Cold start of polymer [123] Lee IO. Hybrid PWM-resonant converter for electric vehicle on-board battery
electrolyte fuel cells: three-stage startup characterization. Electrochim Acta 2010. chargers. IEEE trans power electron. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1109/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2009.12.029. TPEL.2015.2456635.

18
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

[124] Amjad S, Neelakrishnan S, Rudramoorthy R. Review of design considerations and [150] Waraich RA, Galus MD, Dobler C, Balmer M, Andersson G, Axhausen KW. Plug-in
technological challenges for successful development and deployment of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and smart grids: investigations based on a
hybrid electric vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010. https://doi.org/ microsimulation. Transport Res C Emerg Technol 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/
10.1016/j.rser.2009.11.001. j.trc.2012.10.011.
[125] Hu H, Lu C, Tan J, Liu S, Xuan D. Effective energy management strategy based on [151] Thompson TM, King CW, Allen DT, Webber ME. Air quality impacts of plug-
deep reinforcement learning for fuel cell hybrid vehicle considering multiple in hybrid electric vehicles in Texas: evaluating three battery charging
performance of integrated energy system. Int J Energy Res 2022. https://doi.org/ scenarios. Environ Res Lett 2011. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/6/2/
10.1002/er.8731. 024004.
[126] Venkatasatish R, Dhanamjayulu C. Reinforcement learning based energy [152] Tie SF, Tan CW. A review of energy sources and energy management system in
management systems and hydrogen refuelling stations for fuel cell electric electric vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/
vehicles: an overview. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.rser.2012.11.077.
j.ijhydene.2022.06.088. [153] Li W, Long R, Chen H, Geng J. A review of factors influencing consumer intentions
[127] Farajollahi AH, Rostami M, Marefati M. A hybrid-electric propulsion system for an to adopt battery electric vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017. https://
unmanned aerial vehicle based on proton exchange membrane fuel cell, battery, doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.076.
and electric motor. Energy Sources, Part A: recovery, Utilization and [154] Mishra S, Verma S, Chowdhury S, Gaur A, Mohapatra S, Dwivedi G, et al.
Environmental Effects. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2022.2051644. A comprehensive review on developments in electric vehicle charging station
[128] Wang B, Zhao D, Li W, Wang Z, Huang Y, You Y, et al. Current technologies and infrastructure and present scenario of India. Sustainability (Switzerland). 2021.
challenges of applying fuel cell hybrid propulsion systems in unmanned aerial https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042396.
vehicles. Progress in Aerospace Sciences. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/ [155] Amir M, Haque A, Kurukuru VSB, Bakhsh F, Ahmad A. Agent based online learning
j.paerosci.2020.100620. approach for power flow control of electric vehicle fast charging station integrated
[129] Szałek A, Pielecha I, Cieslik W. Fuel cell electric vehicle (Fcev) energy flow with smart microgrid. IET Renewable Power Generation n/a-n/a. 2022.
analysis in real driving conditions (rdc). Energies (Basel). 2021. https://doi.org/ [156] Waseem M, Sherwani AF, Suhaib M. Simscape modelling and analysis of
10.3390/en14165018. photovoltaic modules with boost converter for solar electric vehicles. In: Lecture
[130] Wang G, Yu Y, Liu H, Gong C, Wen S, Wang X, et al. Progress on design and notes in electrical engineering; 2019. p. 181–91.
development of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell systems for vehicle [157] Waseem M, Sherwani AF, Suhaib M. Integration of solar energy in electrical,
applications: a review. Fuel Processing Technology; 2018. https://doi.org/ hybrid, autonomous vehicles: a technological review. SN Appl Sci 2019. https://
10.1016/j.fuproc.2018.06.013. doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1458-4.
[131] Rajashekara K. Present status and future trends in electric vehicle propulsion [158] Sanders M. Lithium-ion battery raw material supply and demand 2016-2025.
technologies. IEEE J Emerg Sel Top Power Electron 2013. https://doi.org/ Global Battery Raw Materials 2017. 2017. Held at AABC 2017.
10.1109/JESTPE.2013.2259614. [159] Waseem M, Ahmad M, Parveen A, Suhaib M. Battery technologies and
[132] Eqbal MAS, Fernando N, Marino M, Wild G. Hybrid propulsion systems for functionality of battery management system for EVs: current status, key
remotely piloted aircraft systems. Aerospace 2018. https://doi.org/10.3390/ challenges, and future prospectives. J Power Sources 2023;580:233349.
AEROSPACE5020034. [160] Ehsani M, Singh KV, Bansal HO, Mehrjardi RT. State of the art and trends in
[133] Waseem M, Sherwani AF, Suhaib M. Highway gradient effects on hybrid electric electric and hybrid electric vehicles. Proc IEEE 2021. https://doi.org/10.1109/
vehicle performance. In: Smart cities—opportunities and challenges. Singapore: JPROC.2021.3072788.
Springer; 2020. p. 583–92. [161] Song Z, Pan Y, Chen H, Zhang T. Effects of temperature on the performance of fuel
[134] Waseem M, Sherwani AF, Suhaib M. Designing and modelling of power converter cell hybrid electric vehicles: a review. Appl Energy 2021. https://doi.org/
for renewable powered hybrid vehicle. In: 2019 international conference on 10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117572.
power electronics, control and automation (ICPECA). IEEE; 2019. p. 1–6. [162] Chen Z, Liu Y, Ye M, Zhang Y, Li G. A survey on key techniques and development
[135] Chan CC. The state of the art of electric and hybrid vehicles. Proc IEEE 2002;90: perspectives of equivalent consumption minimisation strategy for hybrid electric
247–75. vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/
[136] Waseem M, Sherwani AF, Suhaib M. Simscape modelling and analysis of j.rser.2021.111607.
photovoltaic modules with boost converter for solar electric vehicles. Lecture [163] Miller JF, Webster CE, Tummillo AF, DeLuca WH. Testing and evaluation of
Notes in Electrical Engineering 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6772- batteries for a fuel cell powered hybrid bus. Proceedings of the Intersociety Energy
4_17. Conversion Engineering Conference. 1997. https://doi.org/10.1109/
[137] Forero Camacho OM, Mihet-Popa L. Fast charging and smart charging tests for iecec.1997.661887.
electric vehicles batteries using renewable energy. Oil & Gas Science and [164] Uzunoglu M, Alam MS. Dynamic modeling, design and simulation of a PEM fuel
Technology – Revue d’IFP Energies nouvelles 2016. https://doi.org/10.2516/ cell/ultra-capacitor hybrid system for vehicular applications. Energy Convers
ogst/2014001. Manag 2007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2006.11.014.
[138] Camacho OMF, Nørgård PB, Rao N, Mihet-Popa L. Electrical vehicle batteries [165] Mekhilef S, Saidur R, Safari A. Comparative study of different fuel cell
testing in a distribution network using sustainable energy. IEEE Trans Smart Grid technologies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2012. https://doi.org/
2014. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2014.2299064. 10.1016/j.rser.2011.09.020.
[139] Lin C-H, Amir M, Tariq M, Shahvez M, Alamri B, Alahmadi A, et al. Comprehensive [166] Podder AK, Chakraborty O, Islam S, Manoj Kumar N, Alhelou HH. Control
analysis of IPT v/s CPT for wireless EV charging and effect of capacitor plate shape strategies of different hybrid energy storage systems for electric vehicles
and foreign particle on CPT. Processes 2021;9:1619. applications. IEEE Access; 2021. https://doi.org/10.1109/
[140] Green JM, Hartman B, Glowacki PF. A system-based view of the standards and ACCESS.2021.3069593.
certification landscape for electric vehicles. World Electric Vehicle Journal 2016. [167] Afif A, Radenahmad N, Cheok Q, Shams S, Kim JH, Azad AK. Ammonia-fed fuel
https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj8020564. cells: a comprehensive review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2016.
[141] Green JM, Hartman B, Glowacki PF. A system-based view of the standards and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.120.
certification landscape for electric vehicles. EVS 2016 - 29th International Electric [168] Thounthong P, Ra€el S, Davat B. Utilizing fuel cell and supercapacitors for
Vehicle Symposium 2016. automotive hybrid electrical system. Conference Proceedings - IEEE Applied
[142] Zhang P, Shi X, Khan SU, Ferreira B, Portela B, Oliveira T, et al. IEEE draft standard Power Electronics Conference and Exposition - APEC. 2005. https://doi.org/
for spectrum characterization and occupancy sensing. IEEE Access 2019;9. 10.1109/APEC.2005.1452894.
[143] Das HS, Tan CW, Yatim AHM. Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: a review on power [169] Rodatz P, Garcia O, Guzzella L, Büchi F, B€artschi M, Tsukada A, et al. Performance
conditioning units and topologies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017. https:// and operational characteristics of a hybrid vehicle powered by fuel cells and
doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.056. supercapacitors. SAE Technical Papers 2003. https://doi.org/10.4271/2003-01-
[144] Wang Y, Wu Z, Chen Y, Xia A, Guo C, Tang Z. Research on energy optimization 0418.
control strategy of the hybrid electric vehicle based on Pontryagin's minimum [170] Hames Y, Kaya K, Baltacioglu E, Turksoy A. Analysis of the control strategies for
principle. Comput Electr Eng 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/ fuel saving in the hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2018.
j.compeleceng.2018.09.018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.12.150.
[145] García A, Monsalve-Serrano J. Analysis of a series hybrid vehicle concept that [171] Toyota FCHV-adv Hydrogen SUV Review | Hydrogen Cars Now. https://www.hyd
combines low temperature combustion and biofuels as power source. Results in rogencarsnow.com/index.php/toyota-fchv/. Accessed 1 April 2023.
Engineering 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2019.01.001. [172] Remzi can samsun LA deployment status of fuel cells in road transport: 2021
[146] Zhao C, Zu B, Xu Y, Wang Z, Zhou J, Liu L. Design and analysis of an engine-start update.
control strategy for a single-shaft parallel hybrid electric vehicle. Energy 2020. [173] Hydrogen Cars - H2.LIVE. https://h2.live/en/fahren/. Accessed 1 April 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117621. [174] Amir M, Zaheeruddin, Haque A, Bakhsh FI, Kurukuru VSB, Sedighizadeh M.
[147] Cipek M, Kasac J, Pavkovic D, Zorc D. A novel cascade approach to control Intelligent energy management scheme-based coordinated control for reducing
variables optimisation for advanced series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle power- peak load in grid-connected photovoltaic-powered electric vehicle charging
train. Appl Energy 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115488. stations. IET Generation. Transmission & Distribution; 2023. https://doi.org/
[148] Tang X, Yang W, Hu X, Zhang D. A novel simplified model for torsional vibration 10.1049/gtd2.12772.
analysis of a series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle. Mech Syst Signal Process 2017. [175] Rao SNVB, Pavan Kumar YV, Amir M, Ahmad F. An adaptive neuro-fuzzy control
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2016.08.020. strategy for improved power quality in multi-microgrid clusters. IEEE Access 2022;
[149] Teng H, Liu Y, Liu A, Xiong NN, Cai Z, Wang T, et al. A novel code data 10:128007–21.
dissemination scheme for Internet of Things through mobile vehicle of smart [176] Bellur DM, Kazimierczuk MK. DC-DC converters for electric vehicle applications.
cities. Future Generat Comput Syst 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 2007 electrical insulation conference and electrical manufacturing expo. EEIC
j.future.2018.11.039. 2007;2007. https://doi.org/10.1109/EEIC.2007.4562633.

19
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

[177] Zhou X, Sheng B, Liu W, Chen Y, Wang L, Liu YF, et al. A high-efficiency high- [206] Ibrahim H, Ilinca A, Perron J. Energy storage systems-characteristics and
power-density on-board low-voltage DC-DC converter for electric vehicles comparisons. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews. 2008. https://doi.org/
application. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2021. https://doi.org/10.1109/ 10.1016/j.rser.2007.01.023.
TPEL.2021.3076773. [207] Kendrick E, Slater P. Battery and solid oxide fuel cell materials. Annual Reports on
[178] Thomas CE. Fuel cell and battery electric vehicles compared. Int J Hydrogen the Progress of Chemistry - section A. 2012. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ic90006h.
Energy 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.06.003. [208] Lashtabeg A, Skinner SJ. Solid oxide fuel cells-a challenge for materials chemists?
[179] Dincer I, Rosen M. Thermal energy storage systems and applications. 2011. J Mater Chem 2006. https://doi.org/10.1039/b603620a.
[180] Besenhard JO. Handbook of battery materials. Handbook of battery materials. [209] Larminie J, Dicks A. Fuel cell systems explained: second edition. Fuel cell systems
https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527611676; 2007. explained: second edition. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118878330.
[181] Wilberforce T, El-Hassan Z, Khatib FN, Al Makky A, Baroutaji A, Carton JG, et al. [210] Zhang Y, Wang J, Yao Z. Recent development of fuel cell core components and key
Developments of electric cars and fuel cell hydrogen electric cars. Int J Hydrogen materials: a review. Energies 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052099.
Energy 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.07.054. [211] Li J, Fang C, Xu L. Current status and trends of the research and development for
[182] Cook B. Introduction to fuel cells and hydrogen technology. Eng Sci Educ J 2002. fuel cell vehicles. Journal of Automotive Safety and Energy 2014;5.
https://doi.org/10.1049/esej:20020601. [212] Veziroglu A, MacArio R. Fuel cell vehicles: state of the art with economic and
[183] Al-Mufachi NA, Shah N. The role of hydrogen and fuel cell technology in providing environmental concerns. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/
security for the UK energy system. Energy Pol 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.ijhydene.2010.08.145.
j.enpol.2022.113286. [213] (2018) Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, Third Edition.
[184] Tarasenko AB, Kiseleva SV, Popel OS. Hydrogen energy pilot introduction – Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, Third Edition. https://
technology competition. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/ doi.org/10.1201/9780429504884
j.ijhydene.2022.01.242. [214] Annual Hydrogen Evaluation | California Air Resources Board. https://ww2.arb.c
[185] Tanç B, Arat HT, Baltacıo glu E, Aydın K. Overview of the next quarter century a.gov/resources/documents/annual-hydrogen-evaluation. Accessed 16 April
vision of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2019. https:// 2023.
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.10.112. [215] Fuel cell - What is it and how does it work? - Peak Oil. https://www.peakoil.net/re
[186] Itani K, De Bernardinis A, Khatir Z, Jammal A. Comparative analysis of two hybrid newable/hydrogen-fuel-cell. Accessed 16 April 2023.
energy storage systems used in a two front wheel driven electric vehicle during [216] Moldrik P, Hradilek Z. Hydrogen production for solar energy storage. Renewable
extreme start-up and regenerative braking operations. Energy Convers Manag Energy and Power Quality Journal 2011. https://doi.org/10.24084/repqj09.379.
2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.04.036. [217] Do gan EE. Hydrogen production and its storage from solar energy. Adv Mater Sci
[187] Beck A, Kn€ ottner S, Unterluggauer J, Halmschlager D, Hofmann R. An integrated 2020. https://doi.org/10.2478/adms-2020-0007.
optimization model for industrial energy system retrofit with process scheduling, [218] Olabi AG. State of the art on renewable and sustainable energy. Energy 2013.
heat recovery, and energy supply system synthesis. Processes. 2022. https:// https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.10.013.
doi.org/10.3390/pr10030572. [219] Ba~ nos R, Manzano-Agugliaro F, Montoya FG, Gil C, Alcayde A, G omez J.
[188] Hannan MA, Lipu MSH, Hussain A, Mohamed A. A review of lithium-ion battery Optimization methods applied to renewable and sustainable energy: a review.
state of charge estimation and management system in electric vehicle applications: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews; 2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/
challenges and recommendations. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;78:834–54. j.rser.2010.12.008.
[189] Hannan MA, Hoque MM, Mohamed A, Ayob A. Review of energy storage systems [220] Iqbal M, Becherif M, Ramadan HS, Badji A. Dual-layer approach for systematic
for electric vehicle applications: issues and challenges. Renew Sustain Energy Rev sizing and online energy management of fuel cell hybrid vehicles. Appl Energy
2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.171. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117345.
[190] Naseri F, Karimi S, Farjah E, Schaltz E. Supercapacitor management system: a [221] Fu Z, Zhu L, Tao F, Si P, Sun L. Optimization based energy management strategy
comprehensive review of modeling, estimation, balancing, and protection for fuel cell/battery/ultracapacitor hybrid vehicle considering fuel economy and
techniques. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/ fuel cell lifespan. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.rser.2021.111913. j.ijhydene.2020.01.017.
[191] Hu P, Yan M, Zhu T, Wang X, Wei X, Li J, et al. Zn/V2O5 aqueous hybrid-ion [222] Luo Y, Wu Y, Li B, Qu J, Feng SP, Chu PK. Optimization and cutting-edge design of
battery with high voltage platform and long cycle life. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles. Int J Energy Res 2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/
2017;9:42717–22. er.7094.
[192] Zhang X, Li Z, Luo L, Fan Y, Du Z. A review on thermal management of lithium-ion [223] Emadi A, Williamson SS. Fuel cell vehicles: opportunities and challenges. 2004
batteries for electric vehicles. Energy 2022;238:121652. IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting; 2004. https://doi.org/10.1109/
[193] Run on Less with Hydrogen Fuel Cells - RMI. https://rmi.org/run-on-less-with pes.2004.1373150.
-hydrogen-fuel-cells/. Accessed 6 April 2023. [224] Rifai N, Sabor J, Alaoui C. Energy management strategy of a fuel-cell electric
[194] Grid energy storage technology cost and performance assessment. https://www. vehicle based on wavelet transform. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems.
pnnl.gov/sites/default/files/media/file/Hydrogen_Methodology.pdf. [Accessed 6 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53970-2_21.
April 2023]. [225] Rudolf T, Schurmann T, Schwab S, Hohmann S. Toward holistic energy
[195] Ud-Din Khan S, Wazeer I, Almutairi Z, Alanazi M. Techno-economic analysis of management strategies for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles in heavy-duty
solar photovoltaic powered electrical energy storage (EES) system. Alex Eng J applications. Proc IEEE 2021. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2021.3055136.
2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2021.12.025. [226] Zhao X, Wang L, Zhou Y, Pan B, Wang R, Wang L, et al. Energy management
[196] M€ oller M, Kucevic D, Collath N, Parlikar A, Dotzauer P, Tepe B, et al. SimSES: a strategies for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: classification, comparison, and
holistic simulation framework for modeling and analyzing stationary energy outlook. Energy Convers Manag 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/
storage systems. J Energy Storage 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.enconman.2022.116179.
j.est.2021.103743. [227] Azib T, Bethoux O, Remy G, Marchand C, Berthelot E. An innovative control

[197] do Nascimento ADJ, Rüther R. Evaluating distributed photovoltaic (PV) strategy of a single converter for hybrid fuel cell/supercapacitor power source.
generation to foster the adoption of energy storage systems (ESS) in time-of-use IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2010. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2010.2044123.
frameworks. Sol Energy 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.08.045. [228] Li Q, Chen W, Li Y, Liu S, Huang J. Energy management strategy for fuel cell/
[198] Atanasoae P, Pentiuc RD, Milici LD. Opportunity analysis of cogeneration and battery/ultracapacitor hybrid vehicle based on fuzzy logic. Int J Electr Power
trigeneration solutions: an application in the case of a drug factory. Energies 2022. Energy Syst 2012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.06.026.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15082737. [229] Tazelaar E, Veenhuizen B, Van Den Bosch P, Grimminck M. Analytical solution of
[199] Chau KT, Wong YS, Chan CC. Overview of energy sources for electric vehicles. the energy management for fuel cell hybrid propulsion systems. IEEE Trans Veh
Energy Convers Manag 1999. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-8904(99)00021-7. Technol 2012. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2012.2190630.
[200] Rashid MH. Power electronics handbook: devices, circuits, and applications, third [230] Veenhuizen PA, Tazelaar E. Experimental assessment of an energy management
edition. Power electronics handbook: devices, circuits, and applications, third strategy on a fuel cell hybrid vehicle. 26th Electric Vehicle Symposium 2012;2. 2012.
edition. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-382036-5.00053-7; 2010. [231] Mohammed AS, Atnaw SM, Salau AO, Eneh JN. Review of optimal sizing and
[201] Hydrogen Storage | Department of Energy. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuel power management strategies for fuel cell/battery/super capacitor hybrid electric
cells/hydrogen-storage. Accessed 14 April 2023. vehicles. Energy Rep 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.01.042.
[202] Aminudin MA, Kamarudin SK, Lim BH, Majilan EH, Masdar MS, Shaari N. An [232] Odeim F, Roes J, Heinzel A. Power management optimization of an experimental
overview: current progress on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Int J Hydrogen Energy fuel cell/battery/supercapacitor hybrid system. Energies 2015. https://doi.org/
2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.10.156. 10.3390/en8076302.
[203] Kirubakaran A, Jain S, Nema RK. A review on fuel cell technologies and power [233] Florescu A, Stocklosa O, Teodorescu M, Radoi C, Stoichescu DA, Rosu S. The
electronic interface. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/ advantages, limitations and disadvantages of Z-source inverter. Proceedings of the
j.rser.2009.04.004. International Semiconductor Conference. CAS; 2010. https://doi.org/10.1109/
[204] Oldenbroek V, Wijtzes S, Blok K, van Wijk AJM. Fuel cell electric vehicles and SMICND.2010.5650503.
hydrogen balancing 100 percent renewable and integrated national transportation [234] Shen M, Joseph A, Wang J, Peng FZ, Adams DJ. Comparison of traditional
and energy systems. Energy Convers Manag X 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/ inverters and Z-source inverter for fuel cell vehicles. IEEE Trans Power Electron
j.ecmx.2021.100077. 2007. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2007.900505.
[205] Amirante R, Cassone E, Distaso E, Tamburrano P. Overview on recent [235] Tan GH, Zeng F, Ji Y, Chen X, Wang H. Novel single-stage isolated buck-boost
developments in energy storage: mechanical, electrochemical and hydrogen inverter based on improved SPWM control method. Conference Proceedings -
technologies. Energy Convers Manag 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/ IPEMC 2006: CES/IEEE 5th International Power Electronics and Motion Control
j.enconman.2016.11.046. Conference. 2007. https://doi.org/10.1109/IPEMC.2006.297328.

20
M. Waseem et al. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation 2 (2023) 100121

[236] Amir M, Prajapati AK, Refaat SS. Dynamic performance evaluation of grid- [258] Khan U, Yamamoto T, Sato H. Consumer preferences for hydrogen fuel cell
connected hybrid renewable energy-based power generation for stability and vehicles in Japan. Transp Res D Transp Environ 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/
power quality enhancement in smart grid. Front Energy Res 2022. https://doi.org/ j.trd.2020.102542.
10.3389/fenrg.2022.861282. [259] Jung J, Lee DJ, Yoshida K. Comparison between Korean and Japanese consumers'
[237] Rao SNVB, Yellapragada VPK, Padma K, Pradeep DJ, Reddy CP, Amir M, et al. preferences for fuel cell electric vehicles. Transp Res D Transp Environ 2022.
Day-ahead load demand forecasting in urban community cluster microgrids using https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2022.103511.
machine learning methods. Energies 2022;15:6124. [260] Thomas CE, James BD, Lomax FD. Market penetration scenarios for fuel cell
[238] Li Q, Chen W, Li Y, Liu S, Huang J. Energy management strategy for fuel cell/ vehicles. Int J Hydrogen Energy 1998. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0360-3199(97)
battery/ultracapacitor hybrid vehicle based on fuzzy logic. Int J Electr Power 00150-x.
Energy Syst 2012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.06.026. [261] Wittstock R, Pehlken A, Wark M. Challenges in automotive fuel cells recycling.
[239] Wang L, Wang Z, Li H. Optimized energy storage system design for a fuel cell Recycling 2016. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling1030343.
vehicle using a novel phase shift and duty cycle control. 2009 IEEE Energy [262] Emonts B, Reuß M, Stenzel P, Welder L, Knicker F, Grube T, et al. Flexible sector
Conversion Congress and Exposition. ECCE 2009; 2009. https://doi.org/10.1109/ coupling with hydrogen: a climate-friendly fuel supply for road transport. Int J
ECCE.2009.5316429. Hydrogen Energy 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.183.
[240] Kisacikoglu MC, Uzunoglu M, Alam MS. Load sharing using fuzzy logic control in a [263] NATIONAL LEVEL POLICY. https://e-amrit.niti.gov.in/national-level-policy.
fuel cell/ultracapacitor hybrid vehicle. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2009. https:// Accessed 20 May 2023.
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.11.035. [264] Burke AF. Batteries and ultracapacitors for electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles.
[241] Zheng CH, Park YI, Lim WS, Cha SW. Fuel consumption of fuel cell hybrid vehicles Proc IEEE 2007;95:806–20.
considering battery SOC differences. Int J Automot Technol 2012. https://doi.org/ [265] Shen J, Dusmez S, Khaligh A. Optimization of sizing and battery cycle life in
10.1007/s12239-012-0100-x. battery/ultracapacitor hybrid energy storage systems for electric vehicle
[242] Zheng CH, Park YI, Lim WS, Cha SW. Fuel economy evaluation of fuel cell hybrid applications. IEEE Trans Industr Inform 2014;10:2112–21.
vehicles based on optimal control. Int J Automot Technol 2012. https://doi.org/ [266] Habib AKMA, Hasan MK, Mahmud M, Motakabber SMA, Ibrahimya MI, Islam S.
10.1007/s12239-012-0049-9. A review: energy storage system and balancing circuits for electric vehicle
[243] Melero-Perez A, Gao W, Fernandez-Lozano JJ. Fuzzy logic energy management application. IET Power Electron 2021. https://doi.org/10.1049/pel2.12013.
strategy for fuel cell/ultracapacitor/battery hybrid vehicle with multiple-input [267] Di Ilio G, Di Giorgio P, Tribioli L, Bella G, Jannelli E. Preliminary design of a fuel
DC/DC converter. 5th IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference; 2009. cell/battery hybrid powertrain for a heavy-duty yard truck for port logistics.
https://doi.org/10.1109/VPPC.2009.5289851. VPPC ’09. Energy Convers Manag 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114423.
[244] Yu Z, Zinger D, Bose A. An innovative optimal power allocation strategy for fuel [268] Mallon K, Assadian F. A study of control methodologies for the trade-off between
cell, battery and supercapacitor hybrid electric vehicle. J Power Sources 2011. battery aging and energy consumption on electric vehicles with hybrid energy
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.09.057. storage systems. Energies 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020600.
[245] Mohamed N, Aymen F, Alqarni M, Turky RA, Alamri B, Ali ZM, et al. A new [269] Sun K, Li Z. Development of emergency response strategies for typical accidents of
wireless charging system for electric vehicles using two receiver coils. Ain Shams hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2021. https://doi.org/
Eng J 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2021.08.012. 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.02.130.
[246] Amir M, Zaheeruddin, Haque A. Optimal scheduling of charging/discharging [270] Zhang Y, Liu J, Cui S, Zhou M. Parameter matching methods for Li battery-
power and EVs pattern using stochastic techniques in V2G system. In: 2021 IEEE supercapacitor hybrid energy storage systems in electric buses. Machines; 2022.
transportation electrification conference (ITEC-India). IEEE; 2021. p. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines10020085.
[247] Liu W, Chau KT, Lee CHT, Han W, Tian X, Lam WH. Full-range soft-switching pulse [271] Komsiyska L, Buchberger T, Diehl S, Ehrensberger M, Hanzl C, Hartmann C, et al.
frequency modulated wireless power transfer. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2020;35: Critical review of intelligent battery systems: challenges, implementation, and
6533–47. potential for electric vehicles. Energies 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/
[248] Liu W, Chau KT, Lee CHT, Jiang C, Han W, Lam WH. Wireless energy-on-demand en14185989.
using magnetic quasi-resonant coupling. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2020;35: [272] Molina-Iban~ ez EL, Rosales-Asensio E, Perez-Molina C, Perez FM, Colmenar-
9057–69. Santos A. Analysis on the electric vehicle with a hybrid storage system and the use
[249] Elwalaty M, Jemli M, Azza H Ben. Experimental investigation and optimal air gap of Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES). Energy Rep 2021. https://
selection for electric vehicles wireless charging system. Int Rev Econ Educ 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.07.055.
https://doi.org/10.15866/iree.v14i6.17134. [273] Şahin ME, Blaabjerg F, Sangwongwanich A. A comprehensive review on
[250] Benlaloui I, Benalia N, Laroussi K, Bensalah A. Power pad using new rectangular supercapacitor applications and developments. Energies 2022. https://doi.org/
spiral shape design for charging electric vehicles. 2022 2nd international 10.3390/en15030674.
conference on advanced electrical engineering. ICAEE 2022; 2022. https:// [274] Vermesan O, John R, Pype P, Kriegel K, Mitic G, Lorentz V, et al. Automotive
doi.org/10.1109/ICAEE53772.2022.9962118. intelligence embedded in electric connected autonomous and shared vehicles
[251] Wang Z, Zhang J, Huang T, Cui S. Coil design for high coupling performance for technology for sustainable green mobility. Frontiers in Future Transportation
two-phase receiver of dynamic wireless charging system. 2019 IEEE wireless 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffutr.2021.688482.
power transfer conference. WPTC 2019; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1109/ [275] Amir M, Zaheeruddin. ANN based approach for the estimation and enhancement
WPTC45513.2019.9055659. of power transfer capability. In: 2019 international conference on power
[252] Roche MY, Mourato S, Fischedick M, Pietzner K, Viebahn P. Public attitudes electronics, control and automation (ICPECA). IEEE; 2019. p. 1–6.
towards and demand for hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles: a review of the evidence [276] Iqbal A, Amir M, Kumar V, Alam A, Umair M. Integration of next generation IIoT
and methodological implications. Energy Pol 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/ with blockchain for the development of smart industries. Emerging Science
j.enpol.2009.03.029. Journal 2020;4:1–17.
[253] Ahluwalia RK, Wang X, Star AG, Papadias DD. Performance and cost of fuel cells [277] Anandavel S, Li W, Garg A, Gao L. Application of digital twins to the product
for off-road heavy-duty vehicles. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2022. https://doi.org/ lifecycle management of battery packs of electric vehicles. IET Collaborative
10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.01.144. Intelligent Manufacturing. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1049/cim2.12028.
[254] Fletcher T, Ebrahimi K. The effect of fuel cell and battery size on efficiency and cell [278] Tariq H, Javed MA, Alvi AN, Hasanat MHA, Khan MB, Saudagar AKJ, et al. AI-
lifetime for an l7e fuel cell hybrid vehicle. Energies 2020. https://doi.org/ enabled energy-efficient fog computing for internet of vehicles. J Sens 2022.
10.3390/en13225889. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/4173346.
[255] Moon S, Lee YJ, Lee DJ. A cost-effectiveness analysis of fuel cell electric vehicles [279] Ben Youssef M, Salhi A, Ben Salem F. Intelligent multiple vehicule detection and
considering infrastructure costs and greenhouse gas emissions: an empirical case tracking using deep-learning and machine learning: an overview. 18th IEEE
study in Korea. Sustain Energy Technol Assessments 2022. https://doi.org/ international multi-conference on systems, signals and devices. SSD 2021; 2021.
10.1016/j.seta.2022.102777. https://doi.org/10.1109/SSD52085.2021.9429331.
[256] Hardman S, Shiu E, Steinberger-Wilckens R, Turrentine T. Barriers to the adoption [280] Archakam PK, Muthuswamy S. Modelling and simulation of four-stage collision
of fuel cell vehicles: a qualitative investigation into early adopters attitudes. energy absorption system based on magneto rheological absorber. Int J Mech
Transp Res Part A Policy Pract 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2016.11.012. Mater Des 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10999-022-09616-7.
[257] Offer GJ, Howey D, Contestabile M, Clague R, Brandon NP. Comparative analysis [281] Arandhakar S, Jayaram N, Shankar YR, Gaurav, Kishore PSV, Halder S. Emerging
of battery electric, hydrogen fuel cell and hybrid vehicles in a future sustainable intelligent bidirectional charging strategy based on recurrent neural network
road transport system. Energy Pol 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/ accosting EMI and temperature effects for electric vehicle. IEEE Access; 2022.
j.enpol.2009.08.040. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3223443.

21