Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals

and Applications, 4th edition

Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
Lecture slides by Mehmet Kanoglu

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 6–1 ■ NEWTON’S LAWS
Newton’s laws: Relations between motions of bodies and the forces
acting on them.
Newton’s first law: A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in
motion remains in motion at the same velocity in a straight path when
the net force acting on it is zero.
Therefore, a body tends to preserve its state of inertia.
Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional to
the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass.
Newton’s third law: When a body exerts a force on a second body,
the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
Therefore, the direction of an exposed reaction force depends on
the body taken as the system.
 

 d V d (mV )
Newton's second law: F  ma  m 
dt dt
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 Linear momentum or just the momentum of the body: The product of the
mass and the velocity of a body.
Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the linear momentum equation.
Conservation of momentum principle: The
momentum of a system remains constant
only when the net force acting on it is zero.

Linear momentum is the Newton’s second law is also

product of mass and velocity, expressed as the rate of change
and its direction is the direction of the momentum of a body is
of velocity. equal to the net force acting on it.
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 The counterpart of Newton’s second law for rotating rigid bodies is
expressed as where is the net moment or torque applied on the
body, I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation, and
is the angular acceleration. It can also be expressed in terms of the rate
of change of angular momentum as
  
d  d (I ) d H
 
Angular momentum equation: M  I  I   (6 - 2)
dt dt dt
d x dH x
Angular momentum about x-axis: M x  Ix 
dt dt
The conservation of angular
momentum Principle: The total angular
momentum of a rotating body remains
constant when the net torque acting on it
is zero, and thus the angular momentum
of such systems is conserved.

The rate of change of the angular

momentum of a body is equal to
the net torque acting on it.
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 6–2 ■ CHOOSING A CONTROL VOLUME
A control volume can be selected as any arbitrary
region in space through which fluid flows, and its
bounding control surface can be fixed, moving, and
even deforming during flow.
Many flow systems involve stationary hardware firmly
fixed to a stationary surface, and such systems are
best analyzed using fixed control volumes.
When analyzing flow systems that are moving or
deforming, it is usually more convenient to allow the
control volume to move or deform.
In deforming control volume, part of the control
surface moves relative to other parts.
Examples of
(a) fixed,
(b) moving,
and
(c) deforming
control
volumes.
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 6–3 ■ FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
The forces acting on a control volume consist of
Body forces that act throughout the entire body of the control
volume (such as gravity, electric, and magnetic forces) and
Surface forces that act on the control surface (such as pressure
and viscous forces and reaction forces at points of contact).
Only external forces are considered in the analysis.
  
Total force acting on control volume: F F body   Fsurface

The total force acting on a control

volume is composed of body
forces and surface forces; body
force is shown on a differential
volume element, and surface
force is shown on a differential
surface element.
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 The most common body force is that of gravity, which exerts a downward force on
every differential element of the control volume.
 
Gravitational force acting on a fluid element: d Fgravity  p g dV
 
Gravitational vector in cartesian coordinates: g  g k

F
 
Total body force acting on control volume: body  p g dV  mCV g
CV

Surface forces are not as simple to

analyze since they consist of both
normal and tangential components.
Normal stresses are composed of
pressure (which always acts inwardly
normal) and viscous stresses.
Shear stresses are composed entirely
of viscous stresses.

The gravitational force acting on a

differential volume element of fluid is
equal to its weight; the axes have been
rotated so that the gravity vector acts
downward in the negative z-direction.
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 When coordinate
axes are rotated (a)
to (b), the
components of the
surface force
change, even
though the force
itself remains the
same; only two
dimensions are
shown here.
 
Surface force acting on a differential surface element: d Fsurface   ij  n dA
 
Total surface force acting on control surface:  Fsurface    ij  ndA
CS

    
 F   Fbody   Fsurface    g dV    ij  n dA
CV CS

    
Total force: 
 F   Fgravity   Fpressure   Fviscous   Fother
totalforce

    
body force surface forces

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 Components of the stress tensor in
Cartesian coordinates on the right, top,
and front faces.

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 A common simplification in the application of Newton’s laws of motion is to
subtract the atmospheric pressure and work with gage pressures.
This is because atmospheric pressure acts in all directions, and its
effect cancels out in every direction.
This means we can also ignore the pressure forces at outlet sections where
the fluid is discharged to the atmosphere since the discharge pressure in
such cases is very near atmospheric pressure at subsonic velocities.

Atmospheric pressure acts in all Cross section through a faucet assembly,

directions, and thus it can be ignored illustrating the importance of choosing a
when performing force balances since control volume wisely; CV B is much
its effect cancels out in every direction. easier to work with than CV A.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 6–4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION
Newton’s second law for a system of mass m subjected to net force is
expressed as

  dV d 
F  ma  m  (mV ) (6 -13)
dt dt
where is the linear momentum of the system. Noting that both the density
and velocity may change from point to point within the system, Newton’s
second law can be expressed more generally as
d
 
 F   pVdV (6 - 14)
dt sys
Newton’s second law can be stated as
The sum of all external forces acting on a system is equal to the
time rate of change of linear momentum of the system.
This statement is valid for a coordinate system that is at rest or moves
with a constant velocity, called an inertial coordinate system or inertial
reference frame.
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 
d (mV )sys d    
  pV dV   pV (Vr  n ) dA
dt dt CV CS

 d    
General:  F   pV dV   pV (Vr  n ) dA
dt CV CS

 The sum of all   The time rate of change   The net flow rate of 
 external forces   of the linear momentum    linear momentum out of the 
     
 acting on a CV  of the contents of the CV  control surface by mass flow 

  
Vr  V  VCS
d    
Fixed CV :  F   pV dV   pV (V  n ) dA
dt CV CS

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 The linear momentum equation is
obtained by replacing B in the Reynolds
transport theorem by the momentum ,
and b by the momentum per unit mass .

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 The momentum equation is
commonly used to calculate
the forces (usually on support
systems or connectors)
induced by the flow.

In most flow systems, the sum of

forces consists of weights,  d    

pressure forces, and reaction forces.

F 
dt 
CV
pV dV   pV (V  n ) dA
CS
Gage pressures are used here since
atmospheric pressure cancels out on
all sides of the control surface.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
    
Steady flow:  F    V (V  n ) dA r
Special Cases
CS

 
Mass flow rate across an inlet or outlet: m   (V  n ) dAc  Vavg Ac
Ac

Momentum flow rate across a uniform inlet or outlet:

    
 Ac
 V (V  n ) dAc  Vavg Ac V avg  mV
 avg

In a typical engineering
problem, the control volume
may contain many inlets and
outlets; at each inlet or outlet
we define the mass flow rate
and the average velocity.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Examples of inlets or outlets in which
the uniform flow approximation is
reasonable:
(a) the well-rounded entrance to a pipe,
(b) the entrance to a wind tunnel test
section, and
(c) a slice through a free water jet in air.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, 
The velocity across most inlets and outlets is not uniform.
The control surface integral of Eq. 6–17 may be converted into algebraic form using
a dimensionless correction factor , called the momentum-flux correction factor.
d    
 F    V dV    V (V  n ) dA (6 -17)
dt CV CS

 d   
 F    V dV   mV
 avg    mV avg
dt CV out in

   
Momentum flux across an inlet or outlet:  Ac
 V (V  n ) dAc   mV
 avg

     is always greater than or equal to 1.

 Ac
V (V  n ) dAc  Ac
V (V  n ) dAc
 is close to 1 for turbulent flow and
 
mV
 avg Vavg AcVavg not very close to 1 for fully developed
laminar flow.

2
1  V 
Momentum-flux correction factor: 
Ac Ac  Vavg  dAc
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 2 2
 r  1  V 
2
4 R  r 
2
V  2Vavg 1  2 
 R 
   
Ac Ac  Vavg 
dAc 
 R2 0 1  R 2  2 r dr

0 EXAMPLE:
0 y 
3
4
Laminar flow:   4 y dy  4   
2
Momentum-Flux
1
 3 1 3 Correction Factor for
Laminar Pipe Flow

Velocity profile over a

cross section of a pipe
in which the flow is fully
developed and laminar.

For turbulent flow β may have an

insignificant effect at inlets and outlets,
but for laminar flow β may be important
and should not be neglected. It is wise
to include β in all momentum control
volume problems.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Steady Flow
  
Steady linear momentum equation:  F    m V    mV

out in

The net force acting on the control volume during steady

flow is equal to the difference between the rates of
outgoing and incoming momentum flows.

The net force acting on the

control volume during steady
flow is equal to the difference
between the outgoing and the
incoming momentum fluxes.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
    Steady Flow
One inlet and one outlet:  F  m ( 2 V2  1 V1 )
with One Inlet
Along x-coordinate:  Fx  m ( 2V2, x  1V1, x ) and One Outlet

The determination by vector addition of

A control volume with only one the reaction force on the support caused
inlet and one outlet. by a change of direction of water.
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 Flow with No External Forces

d (mV )CV  
No external forces: 0    mV
    mV

dt out in
In the absence of external forces, the rate of change of the
momentum of a control volume is equal to the difference between
the rates of incoming and outgoing momentum flow rates.

 
d (mV )CV d VCV  
 mCV  ( m a )CV  mCV a
dt dt
  

Fthrust  mbody a    mV
    mV

in out

The thrust needed to lift the space shuttle is

generated by the rocket engines as a result of
momentum change of the fuel as it is
accelerated from about zero to an exit speed of
NASA

about 2000 m/s after combustion.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 6–5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Rotational motion: A motion during
which all points in the body move in
circles about the axis of rotation.
Rotational motion is described with
angular quantities such as the angular
distance , angular velocity , and
angular acceleration .
Angular velocity: The angular
distance traveled per unit time.
Angular acceleration: The rate of
change of angular velocity.
d d (l r ) 1 dl V
   
dt dt r dt r
d  d 2 1 dV at The relations between angular distance ,
  2   angular velocity  , and linear velocity V.
dt dt r dt r
V  r and at  r
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 Newton’s second law requires that there must be a force acting in the
tangential direction to cause angular acceleration.
The strength of the rotating effect, called the moment or torque, is
proportional to the magnitude of the force and its distance from the axis of
rotation.
The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of
the force is called the moment arm, and the torque M acting on a point
mass m at a normal distance r from the axis of rotation is expressed as

M  rFt  rmat  mr 2

Magnitude of torque: M  r 2  m    r 2  m    I 
mass  mass 

I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation, which is
a measure of the inertia of a body against rotation.
Unlike mass, the rotational inertia of a body also depends on the
distribution of the mass of the body with respect to the axis of rotation.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Magnitude of angular momentum: H   r 2  m    r 2  m    I 
mass  mass 
 
H  I
  
  d  d (I  ) d H
Angular momentum equation: M  I  I  
dt dt dt

Angular momentum of point

mass m rotating at angular
velocity  at distance r from
the axis of rotation.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 2 n
Angular velocity versus rpm:   2 n (rad/min)  (rad/s)
60
Wshaft  FV  Fr  M 

shaft power: Wshaft   M  2 nM


1 2
Rotational kinetic energy: KE r  I 
2

The relations between

angular velocity, rpm, and
the power transmitted
through a shaft.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 During rotational motion, the direction of velocity changes even when
its magnitude remains constant. Velocity is a vector quantity, and thus
a change in direction constitutes a change in velocity with time, and
thus acceleration. This is called centripetal acceleration.
V2
ar   r 2
r
Centripetal acceleration is directed toward the axis of rotation (opposite
direction of radial acceleration), and thus the radial acceleration is
negative. Centripetal acceleration is the result of a force acting on an
element of the body toward the axis of rotation, known as the
centripetal force, whose magnitude is
Fr  mV 2 /r
Tangential and radial accelerations are perpendicular to each other,
and the total linear acceleration is determined by their vector sum:
  
a  at  ar
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 6–6 ■ THE ANGULAR
MOMENTUM EQUATION
Many engineering problems involve the
moment of the linear momentum of flow
streams, and the rotational effects caused
by them.
Such problems are best analyzed by the
angular momentum equation, also called
the moment of momentum equation.
An important class of fluid devices, called
turbomachines, which include centrifugal
pumps, turbines, and fans, is analyzed by
the angular momentum equation.
The moment of a force about a
point O is the vector product of the
A force whose line of
position vector and
action passes through
point O produces zero   
moment about point O. Moment of a force: M  rF

Magnitude of the moment of a force: M  Fr sin 

©McGraw-Hill Education.
   
Moment of momentum: H  r  mV
  
Moment of momentum ( system): H sys   (r  V ) dV
sys

d H sys d 
  (r  V ) dV

Rate of change of moment of momentum:
dt dt sys

d H sys
   
M   M  (r  F )
dt

d H sys d    
  (r  V ) dV   (r  V ) (Vr  n ) dA
 

dt dt CV CS

 d    
 M   (r  V ) dV   (r  V )(Vr  n ) dA
 
General:
dt CV CS

 The net flow rate of 

 Thesum of all   The time rate of change   
 external moments angular momentum
  of the angular momentum   
     out of the control 
 acting on a CV   of the contents of the CV  
 surface by mass flow 
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  d      
General:  M   (r  V ) dV   (r  V ) (Vr  n ) dA
dt CV CS

 The net flow rate of 

 The sum of all   The time rate of change   
 external moments angular momentum
  of the angular momentum   
     out of the control 
 acting on a CV   of the contents of the CV  
 surface by mass flow 
  
Vr  V  VCS
d
      
Fixed CV :  M   (r  V ) dV   (r  V ) (V  n ) dA
dt CV CS
 
Vr  V
The forces acting on the control volume consist of body forces
that act throughout the entire body of the control volume such
as gravity, and surface forces that act on the control surface
such as the pressure and reaction forces at points of contact.
The net torque consists of the moments of these forces as
well as the torques applied on the control volume.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The angular momentum equation is
obtained by replacing B in the Reynolds
transport theorem by the angular
momentum , and b by the angular
momentum per unit mass .
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Special Cases
During steady flow, the amount of angular momentum within the control
volume remains constant, and thus the time rate of change of angular
momentum of the contents of the control volume is zero.
   
 M   (r  V ) (V  n ) dA

Steady flow: r
CS

An approximate form of the angular momentum equation in terms of

average properties at inlets and outlets:
d    
 M   (r  V ) dV   ( r  mV
  
 )   ( r  mV
 )
dt CV out in

    
Steady flow:  M   (r  mV
 )  ( r  m V )
out in

The net torque acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to the
difference between the outgoing and incoming angular momentum flow rates.

 M   rmV
   rmV
 scalar form of angular
out in momentum equation
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Flow with No External Moments

d H CV    
No external moments : 0   (r  mV
 )   (r  mV
 )
dt out in

In the absence of external moments, the rate of change of the angular

momentum of a control volume is equal to the difference between the
incoming and outgoing angular momentum fluxes.

When the moment of inertia I of the control volume remains constant,

the irst term on the right side of the above equation becomes simply
moment of inertia times angular acceleration. Therefore, the control
volume in this case can be treated as a solid body, with a net torque of
     
M body  I body    (r  mV
 )   (r  mV
 )
in out

This approach can be used to determine the angular acceleration of

space vehicles and aircraft when a rocket is fired in a direction different
than the direction of motion.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Radial-Flow Devices
Radial-flow devices: Many rotary-flow devices such as centrifugal pumps
and fans involve flow in the radial direction normal to the axis of rotation.
Axial-flow devices are easily analyzed using the linear momentum equation.
Radial-flow devices involve large changes in angular momentum of the fluid
and are best analyzed with the help of the angular momentum equation.

Side and frontal views of a typical centrifugal pump.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The conservation of mass equation for steady incompressible flow
V1  V2  V  (2 r1b1 )V1,n  (2 r2b2 )V2, n
V V angular momentum equation
V1,n  and V2,n   M   rmV
   rmV

2 r1b1 2 r2b2 out in

Euler's turbine equation: Tshaft  m (r2V2,t  rV

1 1,t )

Tshaft  m ( r2V2 sin  2  rV

1 1 sin 1 )

When V1,t   r1 and V2,t   r2

Tshaft,ideal  m  (r22  r12 )

Wshaft   Tshaft  2 n Tshaft

  2 n
An annular control volume that
encloses the impeller section of
a centrifugal pump.
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©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.