MECHANICS

1.1 Physical Quantities

Physical quantities are aspects of physical phenomena that can be quantified by

measurement. They consist of two parts:

1. Numerical Magnitude: This is a number that represents the size or amount of the
quantity.

2. Unit: This is a standard of measurement that defines what the numerical value
represents.

E.G. If we say that a race car travels at 200 kilometres per hour (km/h), ‘200’ is the numerical
magnitude, and ‘kilometres per hour’ is the unit.

Dimensionless Quantities

Dimensionless quantities are ratios or comparisons that do not require a unit because they
are derived from other quantities that cancel out during calculation. They are pure numbers
without any physical dimensions.

E.G.

Refractive Index: This is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in a medium.

Relative Density (Specific Gravity): This is the ratio of the density of a substance to the
density of a reference substance, typically water at 4°C.

These quantities are useful in scientific equations and calculations because they provide a
way to compare different phenomena without the need for units.

1.2 Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities, and state examples
Scalar Quantities:

Scalar quantities are defined by only their magnitude (a numerical value) and do not
include any information about direction. They are described completely by a single number
with appropriate units.

Examples of scalar quantities include:

Temperature: Measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K).

Mass: Measured in kilograms (kg) or grams (g).

Speed: Measured in meters per second (m/s) or kilometres per hour (km/h).

Vector Quantities:

Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction. They are represented by an arrow
where the length indicates the magnitude and the arrowhead indicates the direction.

Examples of vector quantities include:

Velocity: Speed with a specified direction, measured in m/s or km/h.

Force: Push or pull on an object, measured in newtons (N).

Displacement: Distance moved in a specific direction, measured in meters (m).

Understanding the difference between scalars and vectors is crucial in physics as it affects
how these quantities interact with each other in equations and physical laws.

1.3 Combine and resolve vectors

Combining and resolving vectors can be done graphically or through calculations:

 1. Graphically:

Combining Vectors (Vector Addition):

Place the tail of the second vector at the head of the first vector. The resultant vector is
drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the second vector.

Resolving Vectors:

This involves breaking down a vector into its horizontal (x-axis) and vertical (y-axis)
components. You can draw right-angled triangles with the vector as the hypotenuse to find
these components.

2. By Calculation:

Combining Vectors:

For vectors in the same direction, add their magnitudes.

For vectors in opposite directions, subtract their magnitudes.

For vectors at an angle, use trigonometry or the Pythagorean theorem.

Resolving Vectors:

Use trigonometric functions (sine, cosine) to find the components:

Horizontal component ((V_x)) = (V \cdot \cos(\theta))

Vertical component ((V_y)) = (V \cdot \sin(\theta))

Using Components:

Addition: Add corresponding components of each vector together.

Subtraction: Subtract corresponding components of one vector from another.

This method is particularly useful when dealing with multiple vectors or when precise
calculations are required.

1.3 Measure physical quantities using appropriate instruments

Measuring physical quantities accurately is essential in science. Here is how to measure

some common physical quantities using appropriate instruments:
Length: Use rulers, tape measures, or meter sticks for short distances. For more precision,
use callipers or micrometres.

Mass: Use balances and scales. A triple beam balance is commonly used in laboratories.

Time: Use stopwatches or electronic timers for short durations. For longer periods, clocks
and chronometers are suitable.

Temperature: Use thermometers. There are various types, including liquid-in-glass, digital,
and infrared thermometers.

Volume: Use graduated cylinders, pipettes, or burettes for liquids. For gases, volume can be
calculated from the ideal gas law if the pressure and temperature are known.

Pressure: Use manometers or barometers for gases and liquids. Digital pressure sensors are
also available for various applications.

Electric Current: Use ammeters to measure current flow in a circuit.

Each instrument has a specific range and precision, so it is important to choose the right one
for the quantity you are measuring to ensure accuracy.

1.4 Construct and use calibration curves

Calibration curves are used to determine the concentration of a substance in an unknown

sample by comparing it to a set of known standards. Here is how to construct and use them:
Prepare Standard Solutions: Create a series of standard solutions with known
concentrations.

Measure Response: Use an instrument to measure the response for each standard solution.
This could be absorbance for spectrophotometry, voltage for electrochemical sensors, etc.

Plot the Curve: Plot the known concentrations on the x-axis against the measured
instrument response on the y-axis.

Draw the Best Fit Line: For linear relationships, draw a straight line that best fits the data
points. For non-linear relationships, you may need to use a curve-fitting method or software
to draw an appropriate curve.

Use the Curve: To determine the concentration of an unknown sample, measure its response
using the same instrument, find that response on the y-axis of your calibration curve, and
then read off the corresponding concentration from the x-axis.

Non-linear calibration curves are common when the relationship between concentration and
response is not directly proportional. In such cases, you might use quadratic or logarithmic
functions to fit your data points.

1.5 Rearrange relationships between physical quantities so that linear graphs may be
plotted

To plot linear graphs from relationships between physical quantities that are not inherently
linear, you can often rearrange the equation into a linear form. Here is how:
Identify the Relationship: Determine the type of relationship (exponential, power law, etc.)
between the variables.

Rearrange the Equation: For a power law relationship (y = ax^b), take the logarithm of both
sides to get (\log(y) = b\log(x) + \log(a)), which is linear in (\log(x)) and (\log(y)).

Plot the Graph: Plot (\log(y)) against (\log(x)) to get a straight line if the original
relationship was a power law.

For exponential relationships like (y = ae^{bx}):

Take the natural logarithm of both sides to get (\ln(y) = bx + \ln(a)).

Plot (\ln(y)) against (x) to get a straight line.

By using logarithmic scales or plotting the logarithm of one or both variables, non-linear
relationships can be transformed into linear ones, allowing for easier analysis and
interpretation of data.

1.6 Distinguish between precision and accuracy

Precision and accuracy are both important in measurements, but they refer to different
aspects:

Accuracy:

This refers to how close a measured value is to the true or accepted value. If you are
accurate, your measurement is close to the target.
Precision:

This refers to how close multiple measurements are to each other, regardless of whether
they are close to the true value. If you are precise, your measurements are consistent with
each other.

For example: if you throw darts at a dartboard, accuracy would mean hitting the bullseye
(the true value), while precision would mean that your darts hit the same spot every time,
even if it is not the bullseye.

Ideally, measurements should be both accurate and precise, but in practice, achieving both
can be challenging.

1.7 Estimate the uncertainty in a derived quantity from actual, fractional or percentage
uncertainties.

Estimating the uncertainty in a derived quantity involves combining the uncertainties of the
individual measurements that contribute to it. Here is how to do it:

Actual Uncertainty:

This is the absolute uncertainty in a measurement, expressed with the same units as the
measurement itself.
Fractional Uncertainty:

This is the actual uncertainty divided by the measured value, giving a dimensionless
number.

Percentage Uncertainty:

This is the fractional uncertainty multiplied by 100, giving a percentage.

When combining uncertainties:

For quantities added or subtracted, add their absolute uncertainties directly.

For quantities multiplied or divided, add their fractional or percentage uncertainties.

For example, if you have two measurements (A) and ( B ) with uncertainties ( \Delta A ) and
( \Delta B ), and you want to calculate ( C = A \times B ), then:

The fractional uncertainty in ( C ) is ( \frac{\Delta A}{A} + \frac{\Delta B}{B} ).

The absolute uncertainty in ( C ) is ( C \times (\frac{\Delta A}{A} + \frac{\Delta B}{B}) ).

This approach can be extended to more complex calculations and multiple sources of
uncertainty.