TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION (BAS301/BAS401)/(BAS301H/BAS401H)

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION AND VOICE DYNAMICS:

 Role and Purpose of Communication:

Communication is the transfer of information, thoughts, or ideas from one person to another or from one
end to the other. Communication is defined by McFarland as “a method of meaningful interaction
between people.” It is the process through which humans perceive and comprehend meanings. Newman
and Summer went so far as to say that communication was “an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or
feelings among two or more individuals.”

Communication is the act of transferring information from one individual to another. Communication’s
goal is to convey information. Whatever you want to tell someone must be properly comprehended by
him or else the purpose of the communication would be lost.

Communication in an organization allows the communication of information and understanding among

people and departments throughout multiple media utilizing all available channels and networks. For
managerial effectiveness and decision-making, as well as human resource management, this flow of
knowledge is essential.

Communication aids in the understanding of others by lowering misunderstandings and creating clarity of
thought and expression. It also enlightens people. Communication can be written or oral, formal or
informal, and vertical, horizontal, or diagonal, as well as interpersonal, intrapersonal, interdepartmental,
intra-organizational communication.

Communication is the tool that allows us to connect with people from diverse backgrounds. The
communication is a significant management activity closely linked with all other managerial
responsibilities. It widens the gap between people and groups by transporting knowledge and
comprehension among them. Information is the most crucial component of communication.

Purpose of Communication
The ability to manage things through others is known as administration. The individuals employed in the
company should be informed on how to complete the tasks assigned to them in the best possible manner.
In any company, effective communication is critical.

 Flow of Information
Achieving coordination requires that all levels of the organization work together and share information.
The staff at all levels should be kept aware of the company’s objectives and other developments. It is
critical that no one is misled. The information must reach the incumbent in a way that he or she can
understand it better. Difficult phrases should be avoided; instead, simple language should be utilized to
convey messages effectively to the right people at the appropriate time.

 Coordination
Communication is the key to maintaining efficiency and coordination throughout an organization. All
personnel in an organization’s efforts may be coordinated for the achievement of organizational goals
through effective communication. The essence of management may be achieved through good
communication by coordinating all personnel’s activities and contributions.

 Learning Management Skills

 Communication allows information, ideas, beliefs, perception, advice, opinion, orders and instructions to
flow both ways. It enables supervisors and other supervisory personnel to acquire managerial skills by
observing others’ experiences. The sender’s experience is reflected in the message, which the recipient
may learn by analyzing and comprehending it.

 Preparing People to Accept Change

To achieve overall change in the organisational policies, procedures, and work style while making
employees accept and react favorably, effective and appropriate communication is a useful instrument in
management’s arsenal.

 Developing Good Human Relations

Communication is the tool that allows managers, employees, and other personnel to communicate with
one another. Communication enables them to better comprehend one another. They realize the difficulties
faced by their coworkers at work. This contributes to a rise in positive human interactions throughout the
company.

 Ideas of Subordinates Encouraged

This method allows employees to connect with one another on a personal level and provide input about
their ideas for breakthroughs. This will help them develop creative thinking. The affirmation of
employees’ thoughts will encourage them to work harder and feel connected to the company. It will
provide them with the confidence to inform their bosses without hesitation, as well as offer useful
feedback on how they may improve. Managers must be aware of their workers’ ideas, thoughts,
comments, reactions, and emotions, while staff must do the same for theirs at progressively lower levels
within the organization.

 Types of communication

While it is easy to think of communication as simply the verbal transmission of information from one
person to another, it is so much more than that.

Communication ranges from non-verbal, such as a glance and raised eyebrows, to verbal, such as a
change in pitch and tone. Let’s take an in-depth look at all the ways that we communicate with each other.

1. Non-verbal communication

It is interesting to note that non-verbal communication is used both intentionally and unintentionally.

Most people do not have perfect control over their facial expressions – we all have heard an
unprofessional comment and raised our eyebrows in response, regardless of whether or not it was wise to
do so.

By learning more about how we use non-verbal communication, you will be better able to master yours
and ensure that you are conveying your message exactly the way you wish to.

Facial expressions

We often use facial expressions as a way to communicate that we are listening and engaged with the
person speaking.

A smile, furrowed eyebrows, or a quizzical expression all convey information to the speaker about how
you are responding to their conversation.
They work to help grease the conversation, keeping it going without having to interject verbally to
confirm your continued interest.

If you have ever spoken to a stone-faced person, you will know how important facial expressions are in a
conversation.

Posture

How you position yourself during a conversation is important.

If you angle yourself towards the person, with a relaxed and open posture, you invite them to engage with
you more fully.

Leaning back, crossing arms, or turning away from the speaker conveys a very different message – and
not a positive one.

Just as no one wants to have a conversation with the back of someone’s head, talking to someone with an
extremely closed posture creates a more difficult and unpleasant conversation.

Gestures and physical touch

Depending on the person, and their country of origin, they may use gestures and physical touch a lot, or
almost never. However, there is a lot of information conveyed in these actions.

A gentle touch on the arm can signal encouragement, while an overly strong handshake can be an act of
dominance.

Someone fidgeting with their hands while talking to you about a problem can signal guilt or avoidance
and using many grand gestures while presenting an idea could convey excitement or confidence.

Eye contact

We all know the importance of eye contact.

When someone is unable to maintain eye contact, we take this to mean that they are being untruthful,
shifty, or not paying attention.

Being able to maintain eye contact while listening will ensure that the speaker knows that you are present
and engaged.

While speaking, it shows that you are connecting with the listener, and in cases where you are delivering
unpleasant news, is doubly important.

Being able to tell someone an unpleasant message while looking them directly in the eye shows that you
respect them and are an honest and sincere person.

2. Verbal communication

When we speak, we are communicating much more than just the content of our words.

We are also using pitch and tone, as well as the level of formality we use to convey important subtext to
the person we are speaking with.

By carefully choosing how we use each of these aspects, we can be sure that our message is received
exactly as intended.
From greeting coworkers to leading a client pitch meeting to present in front of the entire company,
verbal communication factors into our work lives in a massive way.

Pitch

When speaking, our emotions can often come into play.

If we are angry, upset, or frustrated, our pitch might raise, conveying to the listener that we are
experiencing a strong emotion.

This is not necessarily a bad thing, but being able to control it allows you to make sure that you are
effectively communicating.

Tone

We all encounter situations that are frustrating or upsetting.

Allowing that to change our tone from calm and professional to curt, short, or rude is always a mistake.

Tone conveys a lot of information to the listener about how the speaker views them.

To build positive interpersonal relationships in an office environment, we should all endeavour to speak
in a professional and respectful tone.

Content

Of course, content is the most important part of verbal communication. What we say, and the words we
choose to use, are crucial.

While most office communications tend to be more formal than, for example, meeting a friend for coffee,
we should make sure that we leave space for personal chats and relationship building.

Think also about how technical your content is. If you are talking with developers about specific aspects
of code, you should use different terms than when talking to the marketing team about new developments
within the app.

3. Written communication

Effective communication by writing is a massively important skill, especially as more people are working
remotely and keep in touch throughout the workday through Skype, Slack, or other digital mediums.

From a Slack message to an email to a customer to a new employee’s training guide, we write every day
and it is crucial that we understand how to do so effectively.

In fact, as we increasingly rely on written communication, we are all faced with just how easy it is to
create misunderstandings when using this medium.

Unclear messages, the information gone missing, or an incorrect understanding of tone or content are all
problems that happen with written communication every day.

Sometimes the reader will misread the tone of a message because they are having a bad day, or just had a
run-in with an unpleasant person.

No matter what, one important skill to have when relying on written communication is knowing when
you need to stop using it. A simple call, in almost all cases, can solve these communication problems.
If you sense that there is a miscommunication happening, or just starting, nip it in the bud with a quick
verbal chat and you’ll save a lot of time and frustration for all parties.

Structure

When writing, it is important to think about how you are presenting the information. Using paragraphs
and line breaks are necessary.

Creating an impenetrable wall of text will disengage the reader – understanding and applying a proper
structure will let the reader take in the information in digestible chunks.

Present your argument or thesis, take the time to back it up with clear proof, add in the relevant
information to make sure that the reader understands the point fully, then close with a conclusion.

Clarity

It is a hard balance to strike between over or under explaining concepts. If you are writing instructions for
a new employee, how detailed should you be?

Of course, this depends on the person, but over-explaining a little bit is much better than leaving the
reader clueless.

Be thoughtful about your audience, what will they know and what do you need to explain in more detail?

Content

Written content tends to be a bit more formal than verbal.

Leave out the slang, use proper punctuation and spelling, and remember that anything written – especially
in the digital age – will remain, even if you delete it.

Err on the side of professionalism every time you write something. Messages on Slack, for example, do
not need to be written as formally as a cover letter, but they should be polite, professional, and well-
written.

Be aware that written jokes can fall flat without the added context of tone or facial expressions.

4. Visual communication

Visual has become the most used type of communication, driven by social media, YouTube, and other
platforms of the digital era.

As more and more people and organisations use these channels of communication, the more we are used
to, and even dependent upon, using visual communication to stand out in a crowded platform.

Understanding that your visual communication must be in line with your brand and marketing, and
knowing that there must be a developed and cohesive strategy for that, is crucial.

We rely heavily on visual communication.

There are many ways that visual communication, like charts, photographs, sketches, video, graphs, and
even emojis and GIFs, can help improve the understanding of your message.

Think about how charts can bring data to life, making it much easier to understand than presenting a long
stream of numbers, or how a sketch of a new UX is much more effective than a text description.
We rely on visuals to elevate our understanding of complex ideas.

Content

While it is tempting to include visuals to add a bit of diversity and interest, you should consider what they
bring to the table.

 Are they helpful?

 Are they necessary?

 Do they add to the overall message?

Not all communications need to have visuals added, and in some cases, they might detract from what you
are trying to communicate.

You should endeavour to make sure that you are not adding fluff to your message, but rather
strengthening your audience’s understanding of it.

Tone

As with all communications, make sure that you are meeting your audience where they are.

If you are presenting complex data, include the relevant descriptions, at the right technical level, so that
your audience can follow.

Don’t use images that are graphic or could be upsetting, and remember the same rule applies to visual
communication as does to writing: don’t create anything that you wouldn’t want to have associated with
you in the future.

 Communication Flows in an Organization

In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions-

1. Downward

2. Upward

3. Lateral

4. Diagonal

5. External

1. Downward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows from a higher level in an

organization to a lower level is a downward communication.

In other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a downward

communication. This communication flow is used by the managers to transmit work-related information
to the employees at lower levels. Employees require this information for performing their jobs and for
meeting the expectations of their managers. Downward communication is used by the managers for the
following purposes -

Providing feedback on employees performance

 Giving job instructions

Providing a complete understanding of the employees job as well as to communicate

them how their job is related to other jobs in the organization.

Communicating the organizations mission and vision to the employees.

Highlighting the areas of attention.

Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all examples
of downward communication. In order to have effective and error-free downward
communication, managers must:

 Specify communication objective

 Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unambiguous.

 Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver
in right form

2. Upward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows to a higher level in an

organization is called upward communication. It provides feedback on how well the organization
is functioning. The subordinates use upward communication to convey their problems and
performances to their superiors.

The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the downward
communication. It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas and to participate in
the decision-making process.

Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in an organization because the
employees are given a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the higher levels. The managers
get to know about the employees feelings towards their jobs, peers, supervisor and organization in
general. Managers can thus accordingly take actions for improving things.

Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc all help in
improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are -performance reports
made by low level management for reviewing by higher level management, employee attitude surveys,
letters from employees, employee-manager discussions etc.

3. Lateral/Horizontal Communication: Communication that takes place at same levels of

hierarchy in an organization is called lateral communication, i.e., communication between peers,
between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent organizational member.
The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:

It is time saving.
 It facilitates co-ordination of the task.

It facilitates co-operation among team members.

It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.

It helps in solving various organizational problems.

It is a means of information sharing

It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or
conflicts within a department.

4. Diagonal Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and employees
of other workgroups is called diagonal communication. It generally does not appear on
organizational chart. For instance - To design a training module a training manager interacts with
Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform their task.

5. External Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and external
groups such as - suppliers, vendors, banks, financial institutes etc. For instance - To raise capital
the Managing director would interact with the Bank Manager.

 Barriers to Effective Communication:

There are many reasons why interpersonal communications may fail. In many communications, the
message (what is said) may not be received exactly the way the sender intended. It is, therefore, important
that the communicator seeks feedback to check that their message is clearly understood.

The skills of Active Listening, Clarification and Reflection may help but the skilled communicator also
needs to be aware of the barriers to effective communication and how to avoid or overcome them.

There are many barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the communication
process. Barriers may lead to your message becoming distorted and you therefore risk wasting both time
and/or money by causing confusion and misunderstanding.

Effective communication involves overcoming these barriers and conveying a clear and concise message.

Common Barriers to Effective Communication:

 The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.

 Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their emotions and
some topics may be completely 'off-limits' or taboo. Taboo or difficult topics may include, but are
not limited to, politics, religion, disabilities (mental and physical), sexuality and sex, racism and
any opinion that may be seen as unpopular.
  Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver. (See our page Barriers to
Effective Listening for more information).

 Differences in perception and viewpoint.

 Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.

 Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues,
gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective. Phone calls,
text messages and other communication methods that rely on technology are often less effective
than face-to-face communication.

 Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.

 Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping. People often
hear what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said and jump to incorrect conclusions.
Our page The Ladder of Inference explains this in more detail.

 Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as do the
way in which emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal space varies between
cultures and between different social settings. See our page on Intercultural Awareness for more
information.

A skilled communicator must be aware of these barriers and try to reduce their impact by continually
checking understanding and by offering appropriate feedback.

A Categorization of Barriers to Communication

Language Barriers

Language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to communication.

However, even when communicating in the same language, the terminology used in a message may act as
a barrier if it is not fully understood by the receiver(s). For example, a message that includes a lot of
specialist jargon and abbreviations will not be understood by a receiver who is not familiar with the
terminology used.

Regional colloquialisms and expressions may be misinterpreted or even considered offensive. See our
page: Effective Speaking for more information.

Psychological Barriers

The psychological state of the communicators will influence how the message is sent, received and
perceived.

For example:

If someone is stressed they may be preoccupied by personal concerns and not as receptive to the message
as if they were not stressed.

Stress management is an important personal skill that affects our interpersonal relationships. See our
pages Stress: Symptoms and Triggers and Avoiding Stress for more information.
Anger is another example of a psychological barrier to communication. When we are angry it is easy to
say things that we may later regret, and also to misinterpret what others are saying.

See our pages: What is Anger? and Anger Management for more information.

More generally people with low self-esteem may be less assertive and therefore may not feel comfortable
communicating - they may feel shy or embarrassed about saying how they really feel, or read unintended
negative sub-texts in messages they hear.

Visit our pages on Improving Self-Esteem and Assertiveness for more information.

Physiological Barriers

Physiological barriers to communication may result from the receiver’s physical state.

For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not fully grasp the content of a spoken conversation
especially if there is significant background noise.

Physical Barriers

An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic distance between the sender and
receiver(s).

Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more communication channels are available
and less technology is required. The ideal communication is face-to-face.

Although modern technology often helps to reduce the impact of physical barriers, the advantages and
disadvantages of each communication channel should be understood so that an appropriate channel can be
used to overcome the physical barriers.

Systematic Barriers

Systematic barriers to communication may exist in structures and organisations where there are inefficient
or inappropriate information systems and communication channels, or where there is a lack of
understanding of the roles and responsibilities for communication. In such organisations, people may be
unclear of their role in the communication process and therefore not know what is expected of them.

Attitudinal Barriers

Attitudinal barriers are behaviours or perceptions that prevent people from communicating effectively.

Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from personality conflicts, poor management, resistance
to change or a lack of motivation. To be an effective receiver of messages you should attempt to
overcome your own attitudinal barriers to to help ensure more effective communication.

 The 7 Cs of Communication:

The 7 Cs of Communication is a checklist to ensure that your communication is effective. We

communicate with people every day, both at work and in our personal life. We communicate using a
number of different methods – face to face, telephone, email, instant messenger, letters, reports, meetings,
presentations and more.

Clear
(Clarity) Be clear about the goal of your message and the purpose of the message. Present one idea at a
time making it easier for the recipient to understand. Don’t leave them guessing what the message is
about and having to fill in the gaps themselves.

Set a goal or outcome for what you want to communicate and work towards that.

Concise

(Conciseness) Keep to the point and keep it short and simple. Don’t use unnecessary words (use two
words where one will do or 6 sentences when 3 will do). Don’t repeat the same point in different ways.

This will also make any communication more engaging and easier to understand.

Concrete

(Concreteness) Be clear, not fuzzy. Ensure there is enough detail to get the message across but not too
much so that the recipient will be lost and that the message is factual.

Adding too much ‘noise’ around your main points can mean these are missed. Make sure your main
points and any conclusions are clear to the recipient.

Correct

(Correctness) Check the information you are providing is accurate and, in written communication, ensure
it is free from grammatical and spelling errors. Check the technical parts of your content are
understandable by the person receiving the information.

Preparation will help here to make sure you can be sure about what you are communicating or a chance to
read what you have written.

Coherent

Make sure your message flows well and is laid out logically. The points you make should all be linked to
the main topic and should help you to deliver the objective you originally set out to achieve. Make sure
the tone of the message is the same throughout.

Consider using a structure for your communication to help here.

Complete

(Completeness) Ensure the recipient has everything they need to understand your message and take action
if needed. If action is needed, ensure your message includes a ‘call to action’. Also, ensure that any
specific details are clear and included. Don’t leave the recipient with lots of questions to ask.

Think about how you will check for understanding. For example, you could ask questions to check their
understanding.

Courteous

(Courtesy) Your message should be polite, friendly, professional, open and honest. Think about your
message from the recipient’s point of view and you are empathetic towards their needs. This will help you
to deliver the message in a way that’s easy to understand and buy into.

Also, communicating to or writing for the reader can make your communication more engaging.
By following the 7 Cs of communication you should find the messages you are delivering much more
effective.

 Code and Content of Communication Skills:

Any human communication system involves the production of a message by someone, and the receipt of
that message by someone else. To encode a message, one must possess the necessary encoding skills.

Languages are codes. A code may be defined as any group of symbols that can be structured in a way that
is meaningful to another person. The English language, like any other language, is a code—it contains
element that are arranged in a meaningful order. A code has a group of elements (vocabulary) and a set of
procedures for combining these elements meaningfully (syntax).

Next is the message content, i.e., the message that is selected by the source to express its purpose.
Content, like codes, has both element and structure. When more than one piece of information is to be
presented, they should have some order or structure.

An individual may sometimes be identified by his characteristic way of structuring messages. This is
because the individual communicates in a way that is distinctive to him. He uses a distinctive way or
method, which has become his habit by constant use.

 Stimulus and Response of Communication Skills:

Stimulus and response are the two terms that are frequently used in any discussion on the communication
process. A ‘stimulus’ is anything that a person can receive through one of his senses. In fact, it is
anything that can produce a sensation. And a ‘response’ is anything that an individual does as a reaction
to the stimulus.

These two terms, stimulus and response, are ultimately connected with the whole learning process. The
communication objective of the source is to bring about a change in the behaviour of the receiver.

 Vowel Sounds:

What Is a Vowel?

The term ‘vowel’ is used to refer to letters used to represent vowel sounds. In the English language, five
letters among the twenty-six letters of the English alphabet are called vowels. They are a, e, i, o, and u.
The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines a vowel as “a letter that represents a vowel sound”. Now, let us
find out what a vowel sound is.

What Is a Vowel Sound?

A vowel sound is a speech sound that is pronounced without the lips, tongue, teeth or throat blocking the
air produced when uttering the letter. According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, a vowel sound is “a
speech sound in which the mouth is open, and the tongue is not touching the top of the mouth, the teeth,
etc., so that the flow of air is not limited”. There are only five vowels in the English language, but there
are twenty vowel sounds in total. Out of the twenty, eight of them are called diphthongs. Let us look at
the following lists of vowel sounds and diphthongs to have a clearer idea.
Classification of Vowels

Vowels are classified into two – pure vowels and diphthongs.

Pure Vowels

Vowels which have a single vowel sound when pronounced are called pure vowels. The twelve vowel
sounds we have mentioned earlier are pure vowels. Words such as announce(ə), fret(e), sun(ʌ), tick(ɪ),
please(iː), dot(ɒ), foot(ʊ), food(uː), word(ɜː), warm(ɔː), arm(aː) and pant(æ) come under this category.

Pure vowels are further classified into two – checked vowels and free vowels. Read on to learn what they
are.

Checked Vowels

Among the 12 vowel sounds, 7 of them are considered checked vowels. They are ʌ, e, ə, ʊ, ɪ, æ and ɒ.
These vowels cannot occur at the end of open syllables.

Free Vowels

The five vowel sounds uː, iː, ɜː, aː and ɔː are considered free vowels. These vowels can be used at the end
of open syllables.

Diphthongs

Diphthongs are speech sounds formed by the combination of two vowel sounds. They do not resemble the
speech sound of either vowel sound, instead form an entirely new speech sound.

Types of Vowels/Vowel Sounds

Vowels/vowel sounds are categorised into two based on the length of the vowel sound and the number of
vowels. They are

 Short vowels
 Long vowels
Let us look at each of them in detail.

Short Vowels

Short vowels are those that appear individually in words. These words normally end with consonants.
They can, in no way, appear at the end of the last syllable of a word.

Here are a few examples.

 ‘a’ in ‘pan’
  ‘e’ in ‘rent’
 ‘i’ in ‘pit’
 ‘o’ in ‘cot’
 ‘u’ in ‘truck’

Long Vowels

The term ‘long vowels’ is used to refer to two or more vowels that appear in words. Words with long
vowels can start/end with vowels. Take a look at the following examples to understand.

 ‘a’ in ‘fake’
 ‘e’ in ‘tedious’’
 ‘i’ in ‘blind’
 ‘o’ in ‘rote’
 ‘u’ in ‘cumin’
The categorization of vowel sounds as long and short would not be the same. There is a difference. They
would include words with diphthongs as well. Let us look at the following examples to comprehend how
it works.

 Consonant Sounds:

What Is a Consonant?

Consonant is a term used to refer to the letters of the English alphabet other than the five vowels (a, e, i, o,
u). They include letters that are pronounced by obstructing the flow of air in the vocal tract. The Oxford
Learner’s Dictionary defines a consonant as “a speech sound made by completely or partly stopping the
flow of air through the mouth or nose”.

Consonant Sounds in English

Like vowels, consonants can also be better perceived by learning their sounds. A consonant sound is a
speech sound that is produced by the partial or complete obstruction of air by the lips, teeth, tongue or
throat. The Collins Dictionary defines a consonant sound as “a sound such as ‘p’, ‘f’, ‘n’, or ‘t’ which you
pronounce by stopping the air flowing freely through your mouth”. There are 44 speech sounds in total in
the English language. Among them, 24 are consonant sounds. Let us look at what they are and how they
are classified.

Classification of Consonant Sounds

Consonant sounds are divided into categories based on two aspects, namely,

 The place of articulation – with reference to the parts of the mouth that are used to pronounce the
particular sounds.

 The manner of articulation – with reference to the movement of air from the lungs and through
and out of the nose and mouth.

Read on to learn more about the various places and manners of articulation.
Place of Articulation

 Bilabial – the upper lip and lower lip come in complete contact with each other.

 Dental – the tip of the tongue touches the teeth mildly.

 Labio-dental – the lower lip and the upper teeth come in contact with each other.

 Palatal – the body of the tongue touches the hard palate.

 Alveolar – the tip or blade of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge.

 Palato-alveolar – the blade/tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, and the body of the
tongue approaches the hard palate.

 Velar – the body of the tongue comes in contact with the soft palate (also called the velum).

 Glottal – the vocal cords come into contact and produce friction.

Manner of Articulation

 Plosive – a sound produced by the air being blocked inside the vocal tract followed by the release
of air from the mouth.

 Fricative – a sound produced by positioning the mouth in a particular manner so as to partially

block the air coming out of the mouth.

 Affricate – a combination of a plosive and fricative manner, in which sound is produced by the
blocking of air and finally releasing it through a partial passage.

 Nasal – a sound produced when the air passes and escapes through the nose.

 Lateral – a sound produced by the air escaping from the mouth and sides of the tongue.

 Approximant – a sound produced when the tip of the tongue slightly touches the alveolar ridge,
and the air escapes through the gap between the tongue and the alveolar ridge.

 Tone: Rising & Falling:

Intonation is the way the voice rises or falls when communicating. In short, it is the music of speech.
It focuses more on how you say it rather than what is being said. This is important in English
communication because sentences may vary in meaning depending on the intonation. It also yields
dynamics on your speech and makes it more compelling to hear.
So what are common types and rules of intonation?
The most common types of Intonation we have in English are the following:
 Falling intonation
 Rising intonation
 Falling–rising intonation
 Rising–falling intonation
Falling Intonation
One of the most common intonation patterns in the English language is the rules of falling intonation.
This is when the pitch of the voice falls at the end of a sentence. We commonly use them in statements,
commands, WH-questions, confirmatory question tags, and exclamations.
Below are some examples where we use the falling intonation:
In statements, we say:
Pleased to meet ↓you.
Mom wants to buy that ↓bag.
We should keep ↓going.
In commands, we say:
Show me the way to the ↓station.
Take your shoes ↓off.
Leave them on the ↓desk.
In WH-questions, we say:
What food do you ↓want?
Where do you come ↓from?
Whose book is ↓this?
In question tags, we use the rules of falling intonation only when we seek confirmation or invite
agreement.
For example, we say:
He thinks he’s so smart, doesn’t ↓he?
They didn’t enjoy the party, did ↓they?
She’s the one you told me about, isn’t ↓she?
In exclamations, we say:
That’s a perfect ↓gift!
How nice of ↓you!
What a beautiful ↓performance!
Rising Intonation
Another intonation marking used in the English language is the rules of rising intonation.
This is when the pitch of the voice rises at the end of the sentence. It is commonly used in yes or no
questions, and question tags that show uncertainty.
In question tags showing uncertainty, we say:
You’re new here, aren’t ↑you?
He prefers the beach, doesn’t ↑he?
The rules were changed, weren’t ↑they?
In yes or no questions, we say: Do you like your new ↑shirt? May I borrow your ↑book?
Will she ↑agree?
Rising-Falling Intonation
We do not only use rising or falling intonations alone, but we can likewise use a combination of both.
Consider the rules of rising-falling intonation.
This is generally used for giving out a list, a set of choices, partial and conditional statements.
In stating a list, use rising intonation in the first series of items. Then, use a falling intonation on the last
item to indicate that the list has ended. For instance:
She bought some ↑bread, ↑meat, ↑pasta, and ↓apples.
He enjoys outdoor activities such as ↑mountain climbing, ↑trekking, and ↓camping.
This bag comes in colors of ↑white, ↑gray, ↑black, and ↓yellow.
When used in choices, we say:
Would you like to have ↑tea or ↓coffee?
Is Jane coming ↑today or ↓tomorrow?
Did you say ↑east or ↓west?
We also use the rising-falling intonation in partial statements. This is when the speaker is hesitant to
fully express his ideas and is unable to finish his statement.
For example:
What was the place like? –Well, it ↑seemed ↓nice… (but it’s too small.)
So did you enjoy the trip? –Hmmm, ↑yes I ↓did… (but it was too short.)
Do Ethan and Ricky know you? –Well, ↑Ethan ↓does… (but not Ricky.)
In conditional statements, we use the rising intonation in the first clause, then gradually shift to the
falling intonation in the second clause.
So we say:
If you have any ↑questions, send me a ↓message.
Ever since you came ↑here, everything’s doing ↓well.
Unless she ↑asks, I’ll stay ↓silent.
Falling-rising intonation
Finally, one of the familiar rules of intonation is the usage of the falling–rising intonation within a word.
This is often used when the speaker is uncertain of an answer to a question or shows reluctance.
For example:
Should we ↓re↑port this incident?
Do you think it is ↓va↑lid?
Would he ↓su↑pport the team?