Date of Submission:Novemebr 6, 2023

CHEMISTRY FOR
ENGINEERS
PERFORMANCE INNOVATIVE TASK (MIDTERM) 1ST
SEMESTER 2023-2024

Submitted to:
Mrs. Kriza Mae B. Abriol

BS. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME-1G7
 Table of Contents

Basics of Chemistry ……………………………………………………….1-6

Energy and chemistry …………………………………….……………….6-14

Entropy and the 2nd Law of

Thermodynamics…………………………...……………….…………...14-

Chemical Kinetics…………………………………………………………

References……………………………………………………………….
 BASIC OF CHEMISTRY

Basic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that focuses on the fundamental principles and
concepts of the subject. It lays the foundation for an in-depth understanding of chemistry and
covers essential topics such as measurements, atoms and molecules, chemical reactions, acid-base
chemistry, and the periodic table. These topics are typically covered in introductory or elementary
chemistry courses and provide a basis for more advanced studies in the field.

TOPICS IN BASIC CHEMISTRY

1.) Determining significant figure

2.) Determining chemical balancing
3.) Stoichiometry
4.) Determining mass and moles
5.) Mole and molar mass
6.) Empirical and Molecular formula
7.) Limiting reactant
8.) Percent Yield
9.) Molarity
10.) Dilution

Example.1
How many significant figures are in the number 0.00150?

Answer: 3
Discussion: Therefore, we start analyzing significant values with the 1 standing for 0.00150. The
last 0 has significance since it is a trailing zero that was found after the decimal point. The
supplied number has three significant figures as a result.
Example.2
balance this chemical equation:
KClO3 → KClO4 + KCl
Solution Answer: 4KClO3 → 3KClO4 + KCl
K: 1 =4 K:2 =3+1=4

Cl: 1 =4 Cl:2 =3+1=4

O: 3 =12 O:4 =12

1
Discussions: Since every molecule in the equation contains every atom in the equation except
oxygen, this issue is exceptionally challenging. We shall start with oxygen as it occurs the least
frequently. There are four on the right and three on the left. Finding the smallest common
multiple, in this case 12, allows us to balance these. We may balance the oxygens by adding a
four and a three coefficient on the left and right, respectively.
We can now test the potassium and chlorine levels. They are balanced because there are
four potassium molecules on the left and four on the right. We have concluded with a final
response of since chlorine is likewise evenly distributed, with four on each side.
Example.3
How many grams of C6H12O6 was initially used if of C2H5OH was produced?

Discussions: As you can see that the chemical equation is already balance. Because a reaction can
only take place if the ratio of reactants to products is accurate, this is a crucial chemistry ability to
possess. It also serves as an important foundation for organic chemistry. Since the equation is
balance you need to arrange the problem using stoichiometric ratio. Using the stoichiometric ratio
of reactant to product, you can find the answer. Dimensional analysis is used to go from grams of
C2H5OH to molar mass to mole (stoichiometric) ratio and back to grams.
Example. 4

What mass of chlorine does the decomposition of 64.0 g of AuCl₃ produce?

2AuCl3→2Au+3Cl2
Solution:
1mol AuCl3 3mol Cl2 70.9g Cl2
64g AuCl3 ( )( )( ) = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝒈 𝑪𝒍𝟐
303.3 g AuCl3 2mol AuCl3 1mol Cl2
Discussions
First is balance the chemical equation using a correct coefficient 2AuCl3→2Au+3Cl2
this is already balance. Next by using stoichiometric ratio where Cl2 is required. Input the value
of 64g AuCl3 which to get the mole of AuCl3 ,and from grams to mole of AuCl3 to grams of Cl2
where conversion of units is canceling to come up the result of grams of Cl2 .
Example. 5
How many grams of 10.78 moles of calcium (Ca)?
40.8 𝑔 𝐶𝑎
10.78 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎 ( 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎 ) = 432.1 𝑔 𝐶𝑎

2
Discussions: Multiply moles of Ca by the conversion factor (molar mass of calcium) 40.08 g Ca/
1 mol Ca, which then allows the cancelation of moles, leaving grams of Ca.
Example. 6
How many atoms are in a 3.5 g sample of sodium (Na)?

Discussions: In this example, multiply the grams of Na by the conversion factor 1 mol Na/ 22.98
g Na, with 22.98g being the molar mass of one mole of Na, which then allows cancelation of
grams, leaving moles of Na. Then, multiply the number of moles of Na by the conversion factor
6.02214179×1023 atoms Na/ 1 mol Na, with 6.02214179×1023 atoms being the number of atoms
in one mole of Na (Avogadro's constant), which then allows the cancelation of moles, leaving the
number of atoms of Na.
Example. 7
The molecular formula of ethanol may be written in three different ways: CH3CH2OH
(which illustrates the presence of an ethyl group, CH3CH2−, and an −OH group), C2H5OH, and
C2H6O; all show that ethanol has two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom.

24.022 amu + 6.0474 amu + 15.9994 amu = 46.069 amu

Discussions: First is Determine the number of atoms of each element in the molecule.
Obtain the atomic masses of each element from the periodic table and multiply the atomic mass of
each element by the number of atoms of that element. Add together the masses to give the
molecular mass then have a result of 46.069amu.

3
Example. 8
For 35.00 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2), which is used in inks for ballpoint pens,
calculate the number of moles and molecules.

C: (2 atoms) (12.011 amu/atom) = 24.022 amu

H: (6 atoms) (1.0079 amu/atom) = 6.0474 amu

O: (2 atoms) (15.9994 amu/atom) = 31.9988 amu
C2H6O2= 61.068 amu
The molar mass of ethylene glycol is 62.068 g/mol

1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2 𝐻6𝑂2
1.) 35.00 g of C2H6O2 ( )= 0.6 mol 𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔 𝑶𝟐
61.068 𝑔 𝐶2 𝐻6 𝑂2

6.022×1022
2.) 0.6 mol 𝐶2 𝐻6 𝑂2 ( 1
)= 3.396×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

Discussions: To get the compound's molecular mass in grams per mole, use the molecular formula.
Divide the supplied mass by the molar mass of the chemical to convert it to moles. By dividing
the number of moles by Avogadro's number, you may convert from moles to molecules. Prior to
performing the actual computation, it is usually a good idea to approximate the solution. Since the
mass provided (35.00 g) is less than the molar mass in this situation, the correct response should
be less than 1 mol. Since the predicted result (0.5639 mol) is definitely less than 1 mol, there was
probably not a significant mathematical error.
Example. 9

The empirical formula of Boron Hydride is BH3. Calculate the molecular formula when
the measured mass of the compound is 27.66.

B: 1 (10.81) = 10.81 g/mol

H: 3 (1) = 3 g/mol
BH3= 13.81 g/mol
27.66 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
=2
13.81 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
2(BH3)

MF= B2H6

Discussions: Since Empirical formula is already given, we must to find the mass of BH3 by
seeing in periodic table. By looking the gram of Boron and hydrogen and then multiply by its
mol and total the result of BH3. After that you must divide the given compound of BH3 which is

4
27.66g/mol with the final result of 13.81g/mol then the result is approximately 2. Multiply the
result by its subscript of BH3 then the result is B2H6 which is our Molecular formula.

Example. 10

If 28.2 g of P4 is allowed to react with 18.3 g of S8, which is the limiting reactant?

Discussion: We knew already that limiting reactant is the quantity of product produced. Seeing
the Problem 28.2 g of P4 is allowed to react with 18.3 g of S8. To determine the limiting reactant,
we will use stoichiometry to identify which value suitable for limits. Hence Molar mass of P4 =
123.9 g/mol, Mass of P4 reacting = 28.2 g using stoichiometry ratio then input values in a equation.
So, 28.2 g of P4 requires 21.9 g of S8 to react completely. We have only 18.3 g of S8, so there is
not enough S8 to react with all of the P4. Therefore, S8is the limiting reactant.

Example. 11

Use the balanced chemical reaction below. If 40g of Acetylene (C2H2) and 65g of Oxygen are
used, and 13g of water are produced, what is the percent yield?

Discussions: Percentage yield is a reaction efficiency. First, you should calculate the theoretical
yield of your experiment; usually, this will involve stoichiometric calculations. By first looking
at the chemical equation and information given, you can get an idea of what is reacting and how
the product is forming. We have here a 40g of C2H2 and 65g of H2O using stoichiometry ratio
solve first the C2H2 to H2O then the result is 27.67g H2O this analysis equation is to properly

5
find the whole equation to required appropriate H2O. Second solve the ratio of O2 then the result
is 14.63g of H2O. finally, you can now solve the percent yield of the problem. Which you can
divide the actual an theoretical the multiply by 100 then the come up result is 88.86%.
Example. 12
A solution is prepared by dissolving 42.23g of NH4ClNH4Cl into enough water to
make 500.0mL of solution. Calculate its molarity.

Given:
Mass =42.23gNH4Cl
Molar mass NH4Cl= =53.50g/mol
Volume solution =500.0mL=0.5000L

DISCUSSIONS: The molarity (M) of a solution is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one
liter of solution. To calculate the molarity of a solution, divide the moles of solute by the volume
of the solution expressed in liters. Our mass of solute in the problem is 42.23 g NH4Cl. While our
volume of solution in the given problem mL since but we need to use Liters of volume unit of
molarity. So, we need to convert it and the result is 0.5000L. Using the stoichiometry get first the
mol of NH4CL to use as moles of solutes. After that, we can now input the value to get molarity
where we can divide mole of solute/liters of solution then we have the result of 1.579 M.

ENERGY AND CHEMISTRY

As chemical processes include the exchange or transformation of energy in various
forms, energy plays a crucial role in chemistry. The following are some crucial facets of the
connection between energy and chemistry:

TOPICS IN ENERGY AND CHEMISTRY

1. Energy
2. Molar Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
3. Calorimeter
4. Enthalpy

6
 5. Stoichiometric of Thermochemical Equation
6. Hess Law
Example.1
If 515 J of heat is added to a gas that does 218 J of work as a result, what is the change
in the energy of the system?

given:
q: 515J
w: -218 J
ΔE= q + w= 515 J +(-218 J) = + 297 J
Discussions: This problem involve of energy consumption which we can identify by absorb or
works done. In the problem given 515J of heat is added which has a positive sign since it
indicates the problem “heat is added” and 218 J of work where the sign is negative since the
problem given indicate “work is done”. The formula of getting Change in the energy is ΔE= q +
w where you can input value by appropriate requirement and adding the heat and work then the
result is + 1297 J.
Example.2
If 408 J of work is done on a system that releases 185 J of heat, what is the energy change in the
system?

q: -185J
w: +408J

ΔE= q + w= -185J +408 J= 223J

Discussions: Same concept in the example.1 where the problem indicates 408 J is
work done which is a positive sign where 185J of heat is releases which is a negative
sign. By analyzing the problem, you can identify its sign and solve the required
problem. Next using the formula of change of energy you can add the two-given
value of heat and work then the result is positive 223J.
Example.3
A 500-gram cube of lead is heated from 25 °C to 75 °C. How much energy was required to heat
the lead? The specific heat of lead is 0.129 J/g°C.

7
Given:
m = 500 grams
c = 0.129 J/g°C
ΔT = (Tfinal – Tinitial) = (75 °C – 25 °C) = 50 °C

Solution:
Q = mcΔT
Q = (500 grams) · (0.129 J/g°C) · (50 °C)
Q = 3225 J
Discussions: Specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass needed to increase the
temperature of a material by one degree Celsius or Kelvin. Using specific heat formula Q
= mcΔT is a method to calculate Hear where m stands for mass(g) and c is the specific heat and
T for Temperature. To solve this problem shown un example.3 we need to determine its given
such as m= 500g, C= 0.129 J/g°C and ΔT= (Tfinal – Tinitial) = (75 °C – 25 °C) = 50 °C we need to
subtract the final temp and initial temp, because it gives the maximum temperature into change
in temperature. After all determining the equation by its given we just need to multiply all values
that we plug in the formula which result Q = 3225 J.
Example.4
A 25-gram metal ball is heated 200 °C with 2330 Joules of energy. What is the specific heat of
the metal?

Given: Unknown: C
m = 25 grams
ΔT = 200 °C
Q = 2330 J
Solution:
𝑄
Q = mcΔT to 𝐶 = 𝑚𝛥𝑇
2330𝐽
C=25𝑔 (200°𝐶) = 0.466 J/g°C

Discussions: In this scenario we can see that our problem is to find a specific heat of the metal.
𝑄
Hence our formula Q = mcΔT we can derive by 𝐶 = 𝑚𝛥𝑇 by cancelling out the equation to get
𝑄
C= specific heat formula 𝐶 = 𝑚𝛥𝑇. After deriving the simplification of formula input the values
where in given is plug and delivered. By dividing the heat and mass multiply by final given
temperature then we have results of 0.466 J/g°C.

8
Example.5
How much heat is needed to increase the temperature of 5 mol of mercury (Hg) by 10 K? The
specific heat of mercury is 27.8 J/mol-K.

Given:
n = 5 mol
C = 27.8 J/mol-K
ΔT = 10 K
q =?
Solution:
Q = nCΔT
Q = 5 mol (27.8 J/mol-K) 10 K= 1390 J/mol-K
Discussions: This part is a molar heat capacity problem solving. The molar mass multiplied by
the specific heat is the standard formula for determining the molar heat capacity of a compound
or element. In this situation mol is determine to find molar heat capacity. In the given n= 5mol,
C= 27.8 J/mol-K and ΔT = 10 K. Input all given value in the equation then multiply as an easy.
Then the result will be 1390 J/mol-K.
Example.6
A glass contains 250.0 g of warm water at 78°C. A piece of gold at 2.30 °C is placed in the
water. The final temperature reached by this system is 76.9 °C. What was the mass of gold? The
specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g °𝐶 and that of gold is 0.129 J/g °𝐶.

Given:
Mwater= 250g Mgold=?
Tf=76.9°𝐶 Tf=76.9°𝐶
Ti= 78°𝐶 Ti= 2.30°𝐶
ΔT= 76.9°𝐶 – 78°𝐶= -1.1°𝐶 ΔT= 76.9°𝐶 – 2.30°𝐶= 74.6°𝐶
Cwater= 4.184 J/g °𝐶 Cgold= 0.129 J/g °𝐶.
Solution:

Qsolid=-Qwater
Msolid Csolid ΔTsolid = -Mwater Cwater ΔTwater
−𝑀𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ) (ΔT𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
Mgold= (𝐶𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑 ) (ΔT𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑)

9
 J
−250𝑔 (4.184 °𝐶)(1.1°𝐶)
g
Mgold= J = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒈
(0.129 °𝐶)(74.6°𝐶)
g

Discussions: We will cover all of the common calorimetry question types in this set of practice
questions, such as heat capacity, heat of reaction, determining the mixture's final temperature,
constant pressure calorimetry, and constant-volume calorimetry. As we can see in the problem
there is a given where solid and water is indicated where 4.18 J/g °C is the Cwater. Thus, the amount
of energy acquired or lost by the water in the coffee cup calorimeter may be computed if the mass
and temperature change of the water can be monitored. The basic concept of calorimeter is Qsolid=-
Qwater where solid to negative water is evolve basically the function of energy to absorb heat. The
problem there is to find the Mass of gold where given of water is Mwater= 250g, ΔT= 76.9°𝐶 –
78°𝐶= -1.1°𝐶, Cwater= 4.184 J/g °𝐶 and for the gold is ΔT= 76.9°𝐶 – 2.30°𝐶= 74.6°𝐶, Cgold= 0.129
J/g °𝐶. With required to solve the mass of gold. As you can see the formula of calorimeter is basic
simplification which consist of, heat, specific heat and change in the temperature. So, first thing to
do since we already identify all the given, we need to derived or simplifying the formula to find
−𝑀𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ) (ΔT𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
mass of gold. This is the result of deriving the formula M gold= , and after
(𝐶𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑 ) (ΔT𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑)
that input all values into indicated formation, after plug in all values you can now calculate the
mass of gold where the result is 120g.
Example.7
A calorimeter is to be used to compare the energy content of some fuels. In the calibration
of the calorimeter, an electrical resistance heater supplies 100.0 J of heat and a temperature
increase of 0.8508C is observed. Then 0.245 g of a particular fuel is burned in this same
calorimeter, and the temperature increases by 5.238C. Calculate the energy density of this fuel,
which is the amount of energy liberated per gram of fuel burned.

10
Discussions: As we know that the measurement of heat flow is referred to as calorimetry. This
area of study highlights the necessity of using caution when interpreting thermodynamic
signals. estimations. Fuel should have q since it releases heat upon combustion. adverse. However,
the energy density would be given as a positive value, leading to in the last step's extra negative
indication. First is to determine the Calorimeter then determining the heat of fuel which is q. After
calculating all missing equation, we can now solve the energy of required problem which is
2.51kJ/g
Example. 8
If the activation energy is equal for both forward and backward reactions, then
ΔH=0
Discussion: If the activation energy is equal for both forward and backward reactions, then Δ H
should be zero.
Example. 9
Calculate the change in enthalpy, ΔH, when 1.00 g of hydrogen peroxide decomposes.
H2O2(l) → H2O(l) + 1/2 O2(g); ΔH = -98.2 kJ

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂2 −98.2 𝑘𝐽
ΔH = 1.00 g H2O2 ( ) (1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 )
34𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂2 2 𝑂2

ΔH = -2.89 kJ
Discussions: Unless the change in enthalpy is provided to you (as it is in this case), you will need
to use a table to solve this kind of problem. A conversion factor may be derived using the

11
thermochemical equation, which states that ΔH for the breakdown of one mole of H 2O2 is -98.2
kJ. To calculate the solution, you must know how many moles of the pertinent chemical there are
after you have determined the change in enthalpy. When the masses of the hydrogen and oxygen
atoms in hydrogen peroxide are added up using the Periodic Table, the molecular mass of H 2O2 is
found to be 34.0 (2 x 1 for hydrogen + 2 x 16 for oxygen), meaning that 1 mol H2O2 = 34.0 g
H2O2. The change in enthalpy, ΔH, when 1.00 g of hydrogen peroxide decomposes = -2.89 kJ.
Example. 10
Sulfur dioxide gas reacts with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide in an exothermic
reaction according to the following thermochemical equation.
2SO2(g)+O2(g)→2SO3(g); ΔH=+198 kJ
Calculate the enthalpy change that occurs when 58.0 g of sulfur dioxide is reacted with excess
oxygen.
Given:
mass SO2 = 58.0 g
molar mass SO2 = 64.07 g/mol
ΔH =−198 kJ for the reaction of 2 mol SO2
Unknown
ΔH =? kJ

Discussions: Chemistry problems that involve enthalpy changes can be solved by techniques
similar to stoichiometry problems. As shown in the problem we have here a enthalpy change
which value of =+198 kJ base on the problem by the mass of 58g of SO2 what was the enthalpy
change of the compound. Using the stoichiometric we can solve the enthalpy change rapidly. By
follow the stoichiometry ratio values are in appropriate formation. Which result by -89kJ.

Example. 11
Calculate the enthalpy for this reaction:

2C(s) + H2(g) → C2H2(g) ΔH° = ??? kJ

12
 Given the following thermochemical equations:

C2H2(g) + 5⁄2O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + H2O(ℓ) ΔH° = −1299.5 kJ

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔH° = −393.5 kJ
H2(g) + 1⁄2O2(g) → H2O(ℓ) ΔH° = −285.8 kJ

Reverse equation:

2CO2(g) + H2O(ℓ) → C2H2(g) + 5⁄2O2(g) ΔH° = +1299.5 kJ

2C(s) + 2O2(g) → 2CO2(g) ΔH° = −787 kJ
H2(g) + 1⁄2O2(g) → H2O(ℓ) ΔH° = −285.8 kJ

Answer: Add up ΔH values for our answer:

+1299.5 kJ + (−787 kJ) + (−285.8 kJ) = +226.7 kJ

Discussions: We know that any process's enthalpy change is independent of the specific method
the procedure is followed. The fundamental notion that underpins this concept is that the state
function is enthalpy. Chemical processes' enthalpy changes are significant in a variety of scenarios.
So, in the problem it said the desire enthalpy for the reaction by seeing in thermochemical equation.
First thing to do is reverse all equation since enthalpy is exothermic process.

ΔH° = +1299.5 kJ
ΔH° = −787 kJ
ΔH° = −285.8 kJ
Second: multiply the second equation by 2 to get 2C. Third: do nothing. We need one H2 on the
reactant side and that's what we have ΔH° = −285.8 kJ. After applying all equation examine what
to cancel in same compound

2CO2 ⇒ first & second equation

H2O ⇒ first & third equation

5
⁄2O2 ⇒ first & sum of second and third equation

Were almost done. You can now sum up the equation +1299.5 kJ + (−787 kJ) + (−285.8 kJ) =
+226.7 kJ

13
Example. 12
Use tabulated data to find the heat of combustion of 1 mole of propane, C3H8, to form
gaseous carbon dioxide and liquid water.

Discussions: The heat of production of a material is measured in kJ/mol units. But

in We shall use kJ as our chosen unit of measure for expressing the enthalpy change
of a chemical process. kJ/mol, not kJ/mol. The answer in this scenario exemplifies
why we do it. The worth ΔH°=-22219.9 kJ is the computed value for a reaction in
which 1 mole of propane reacts. 5 moles of oxygen are combined to produce 3 moles
of carbon dioxide and 4 moles of water. So If we said "22219.9 kJ/mol," we'd have
to be very specific about whatever material we're talking about. to which "mol"
alludes. With this in mind, we opt to express the H value in kJ. That it relates to the
written reply. This is also consistent in terms of dimensions with

ENTROPY AND THE 2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Entropy is a measure of how much disorder or unpredictability exists in a system. It
measures the degree of chaos or uncertainty in particle arrangement within a system. In layman's
terms, systems tend to develop over time from ordered, low-entropy states to disordered, high-
entropy states.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics is one of the fundamental principles of

thermodynamics, and it is often expressed in various forms. The most common statement of the
second law is that in any energy exchange, if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential
energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state. In other words, the total
entropy of an isolated system always increases over time.

Example.1
How can the Third Law of Thermodynamics be practically applied to improve the
efficiency and sustainability of energy conversion processes, such as in power plants or renewable
energy technologies? Discuss the role of absolute zero entropy in optimizing these systems.

14
Answer:
1. Thermoelectric Materials for Improved Power Plants:
When it comes to thermoelectric materials in particular, the Third Law of Thermodynamics
has a major impact on improving the efficiency of power plants. A system's entropy decreases with
decreasing temperature, and more thermoelectric efficiency might result from materials with low
entropy at absolute zero. Waste heat recovery and effective electricity generation depend on this
relationship.

2. Low-Entropy Materials in Cryogenic Energy Storage:

The development of sophisticated energy storage devices, especially for renewable
energy technologies, is impacted by the Third Law of Thermodynamics. It is feasible to create
effective energy storage systems by choosing materials with low entropy at or close to absolute
zero. Low-entropy materials are necessary for cryogenic energy storage, which stores energy in
gases that have been cryogenically liquefied, in order to increase energy density and overall
efficiency.

3. Challenges and Practical Considerations:

Temperatures near absolute zero present a barrier for the Third Law's practical
application. To accomplish these conditions, advanced cryogenic technologies are needed. To
put these systems into practice practically, it is essential to understand how effective they are and
what elements go into them.

Discussions: The Third Law of Thermodynamics, in summary, offers a theoretical foundation for
energy conversion system optimization in power plants and renewable energy technologies. One
viable approach to improving sustainability and efficiency and ultimately leading to cleaner and
more efficient energy solutions is the use of materials with decreased entropy at very low
temperatures.

Example.2

(I) Examine the connection between the Third Law of Thermodynamics and the Gibbs free
energy. (II) How does the Third Law predict phase transitions and the stability of several phases
of a substance?

. Answer:
(i)

15
 The Gibbs free energy and the Third Law of Thermodynamics are fundamental concepts
in thermodynamics, and their relationship is vital for projecting phase transitions and the stability
of various phases of a substance. Gibbs free energy is a quantity used to calculate the maximum
amount of work done in a thermodynamic system with constant temperature and pressure.

a. The Third Law of Thermodynamics

According to a study on the Third Law of Thermodynamics by Bahman
Zohuri (2018), when the temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a
system approaches a constant value. At absolute zero, a system's entropy is
generally zero and is determined exclusively by the number of different ground
states it has. The entropy of a pure crystalline material (perfect order) is 0 at
absolute zero temperature.
b. Gibbs Free Energy (G)
Josiah Willard Gibbs invented Gibbs energy in the 1870s. He first referred to this
energy as "available energy" in a system. The energy associated with a chemical process
that may be used to produce work is the sum of its enthalpy (H) and the product of the
system's temperature and entropy (S). This figure is defined as follows:
ΔG=ΔH−TΔS
change in free energy change in enthalpy (temperature) change in entropy

where:
ΔG is the Gibbs free energy. ΔH is the enthalpy.
T is the absolute temperature. ΔS is the entropy.

(ii)
Phase Transitions: The change in Gibbs free energy (G) indicates whether or not a phase
transition will occur. When G becomes negative, a phase transition occurs, suggesting that the new
phase is more stable. The Third Law of Thermodynamics has two significant implications: it
defines the sign of the entropy (S) of every substance at temperatures above absolute zero as
positive, and it gives a constant reference point from which we may measure the absolute entropy
of any substance at any temperature.
Stability of Phases: At low temperatures, the solid phase of a substance has the lowest chemical
potential (assuming the pressure is not too low) and is hence the most stable phase. However, the
chemical potentials of the different phases alter in distinct ways as temperature rises. A system at
absolute zero has only one accessible microstate - the ground state. According to the third rule of
thermodynamics, the entropy of such a system is exactly zero.

Example.3

Calculate the change in entropy associated with the Haber process for the production of
ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gas.

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 𝑁2(𝑔) + 3𝐻2(𝑔) ⇌ 2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔)

At 298K as a standard temperature:

S0(NH3) = 192.5 J/mol K

S0(H2) = 130.6 J/mol K
S0(N2) = 191.5 J/mol K

Solution:

by using this formula

∆𝑆° = [2𝑚𝑜𝑙(𝑆°𝑁𝐻3 ) ] − [1𝑚𝑜𝑙(𝑆°𝑁2) + 3𝑚𝑜𝑙(𝑆°𝐻2 )]

𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆° = [2𝑚𝑜𝑙(192. 𝐾) ] − [1𝑚𝑜𝑙(191.5 𝑘 + 3𝑚𝑜𝑙(130.6 𝑘)]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
∆𝑺° = −𝟏𝟗𝟖. 𝟑 𝐉/𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐊
Discussions: First to solve this determine the thermochemical compound from reactant to
product, you must reverse the chemical reaction. The process appears to result in a drop in
entropy, example decrease in disorder. This is to be expected because the quantity of gas
molecules is decreasing. In other words, the N2(g) gas molecules used to float independently of
the H2 gas molecules. Following the reaction, the two are bound together and cannot float away
from one another. To determine S° from standard molar entropies, we apply the well-known
"products minus reactants" method, in which the absolute entropy of each reactant and product in
the balanced chemical equation is multiplied by its stoichiometric coefficient. Then the result
would be
∆𝑺° = −𝟏𝟗𝟖. 𝟑 𝐉/𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐊
Example.4

Let's consider a solid material, and we want to calculate the change in entropy as it is cooled
from 100 Kelvin to 10 Kelvin.

Solution:

Given:

∆T= 100k to 10 kelvin

Unknown:

∆𝑺 =?

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T (0) = 0

Now, we want to calculate the change in entropy (ΔS) as the material is cooled from 100 Kelvin
to 10 Kelvin.

ΔT = Tfinal - Tinitial

We assume that the entropy change is linear over this temperature range. So:

ΔT = (10 K) and T(initial) = S(100 K)

Let's say the entropy at 100 Kelvin (S(100 K)) is 50 J/(mol·K), and at 10 Kelvin (S(10 K)) it's 10
J/(mol·K).

ΔS = 10 J/(mol·K) - 50 J/(mol·K) = -40 J/(mol·K)

Discussions: When a result, the change in entropy (S) when the material cools from 100 Kelvin
to 10 Kelvin is -40 J/(molK). This indicates that when the temperature is reduced, the entropy
drops, which is compatible with the Third Law of Thermodynamics. The Third Law of
Thermodynamics states that as a system approaches absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin), its
entropy approaches a minimum value. In most cases, this minimum value is taken as zero. So,
we assume:

Example. 5

A sample of a pure crystalline substance has an entropy of 30 J/(mol·K) at 50 Kelvin.

Calculate the molar entropy of the same substance at absolute zero (0 Kelvin).

Given:

T=50 Kelvin unknown: S°=?

∆𝑺 = 30 J/(mol · K)

Solution:

T (0) = 0

To find T (0) from T(50 K), we can use the Third Law assumption:

S(50 K) - S(0) = 30 J/(mol·K) - 0 J/(mol·K)

S(50 K) - S(0) = 30 J/(mol·K)

Now, we can isolate S(0):

S(0) = S(50 K) - 30 J/(mol·K)

S(0) = 30 J/(mol·K) - 30 J/(mol·K)

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S(0) = 0 J/(mol·K)

Discussions: So, the substance's molar entropy at absolute zero (0 Kelvin) is 0 J/(mol K), which
is compatible with the Third Law of Thermodynamics, which states that entropy approaches a
minimum as temperature approaches absolute zero.

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