NAME: BALOGUN CHRISTOPHER

MATRIC NO: 22CA031592

DEPARTMENT: ARCHITECTURE
LEVEL: 200
STRUCTURES
FOR
ARCHITECT
(A Primer)
BY: RAMSEY DABBY AND ASHEWANI BEDI
CHAPTER 1: ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS AND DESIGN
For centuries, the differences between engineers, builders, and architects were minimal. The
world got more complicated when the Industrial Revolution started. In the United States,
architecture developed as a separate profession from engineering and building by the middle of
the 1800s.
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a first-century AD Roman writer, architect, and engineer defined as a
structure that must exhibit the three qualities of firmitas, utilitas, and venustas, that is strength,
having soundness of construction; usefulness, having practical value or purpose; and beauty,
giving pleasure and delight to those who experience it.
Design is the entire process of determining a building’s appearance, the materials and systems
to be used, and their configurations and sizes. Design falls mainly on the shoulders of architects
and engineers.
Architects have responsibility for determining the building’s size and shape, along with the
materials, finishes, and details.
Engineers have responsibility for determining the mechanical, electrical, and structural systems,
along with the many engineering calculations and details.

CHAPTER 2: STABILITY AND STRENGTH

Stability is the various forces that act on a structure kept in balance, preventing the structure
from toppling, sliding, bending, or twisting.
Strength is the size and physical makeup of the structural materials are made sufficient to
withstand the various forces acting on them.
The strongest buildings will fail without stability, while the most stable buildings will crumble
without strength. Not only must the structure meet these two requirements, but each of its
components must as well.

CHAPTER 3: LOADS
Structures are subject to numerous and sometimes complex forces, called loads, that exert
pressure vertically, horizontally, or at some angle in between. Loads can be predictable, such as
fixed mechanical equipment on a roof, or unpredictable, such as wind on a façade; they can be
concentrated, such as a column supported by a beam, or distributed over a wide area, such as
snow falling on a roof. Loads can be static and subject to little or no change over time, or
dynamic and subject to rapid change. With respect to the engineering analysis of structures,
however, all loads are ultimately analyzed as acting statically in either a vertical or a horizontal
direction. For this reason, perhaps the best way to categorize loads is by grouping them into
vertical gravity loads and horizontal lateral loads.
Loads are complex forces that exact pressure vertically, horizontally or at an angle in between
the structure. Loads can be static and subject to little or no change over time, or dynamic and
subject to rapid change. loads are analyzed as acting statically in either a vertical or a horizontal
direction. For this reason, loads are grouped into vertical gravity loads and horizontal lateral
loads.

GRAVITY LOADS:
- Gravity loads act downward, pulling all objects toward the center of the Earth. They may be
classified as dead loads or live loads.
- Dead loads are those that are built into a structure, such as the weight of permanent floors,
roofs, walls, and fixed mechanical equipment.
- Live loads are variable, unpredictable, and mobile, such as people, furniture, snow, rain, and
ice.
LATERAL LOADS:
- Lateral loads are caused by wind and seismic movement which act horizontally.
- Wind loads are dependent upon many factors such as velocity and the shape and height of the
building, as well as the geometry and proximity of adjacent buildings. Wind loads exert pressure
on the sides of a building, causing it to sway.
- Seismic loads are created by random, variable, and erratic motions of the ground during an
earthquake. Seismic loads also cause a building to sway.
Effects of Lateral Loads
(a) bending
(b) base shear

Effect of Wind Load

 Effect of Seismic Load
When wind loads push inward against the building's external surfaces on the windward side,
they produce positive pressure; when they pull outward against the building's exterior surfaces
on the leeward side, they produce negative pressure, or suction.
Wind and seismic loads tend to twist a structure, creating torsion. Wind and seismic loads can
create uplift forces at the base of a structure, tending to overturn it. This is found mostly in
lightweight construction towers.
DYNAMIC LOADS:
Dynamic loads are loads that change rapidly, that are applied suddenly, or that are the result of
an amplified rhythmic movement. Examples of dynamic loads include heavy vibrating
machinery, an elevator starting and stopping in its shaft. A dynamic load ultimately results in an
increase in the static load.
IMPACT LOADS:
Impacts loads are loads that result from a sudden collision or an explosion. The impact force of
the explosion and the impact force from projectiles being hurled about must both be considered
in blast-resistant architecture.
LOADS PATHS:
- Loads Path is the flow of loads through a structure. Whether lateral or gravitational, all stresses
placed on a structure eventually descend via its constituent parts and reach the earth.
- In framed buildings, loads applied to the roof, floors, and vertical supports make their way down
through the structure to the foundations and ultimately to the ground. The ground, in turn, exerts
resisting forces against the foundations, continuing through the structure and opposing the downward
flow of loads creating a Reverse load path.
Structures and Supported Loads

Roofs:

1) Live load weight from roof (snow, wind, etc.).

2) Dead load weight of roof (structural materials, etc.).

Vertical Support (bearing walls, columns):

1) Live and dead loads from above.

2) Dead load weight of vertical supports.

Floors:

1) Live and dead loads from above.

2) Live load weight on floor (people, furniture, etc.).
3) Dead load weight of floor.

Foundations:

1) Live and dead loads from above.

2) Dead load weight of foundations.

CHAPTER 4: STATES OF STRESS

1) Tension: Tension is the tendency of a body to be pulled apart.

Direct Tensile Stress (Tension)

Direct tensile stress (tension) on a body act in a direction perpendicular to its cross section.

2) Compression: Compression is the tendency of a body to be crushed.

Direct compressive stress (compression)

Direct compressive stress (compression) on a body act in a direction perpendicular to the cross
section.
3) Shears: Shear is the tendency of a body to be sliced.

Direct shear stress (Shear)

Direct shear stress (Shear) on a body act in a direction parallel to its cross section.

4) Torsion: Torsion is a type of shear in which a body tends to be twisted, resulting in shear
stresses.

Torsion

5) Bending: Bending is the tendency of a body (e.g. a beam), to bow, creating stress in the body.
When bowed, the body compresses along one edge and stretches along the other. The bending
of a simply supported beam under load produces tension along the bottom of the beam and
compression along the top. Bending is also referred to as flexure. A beam under load will
produce shear stress, both perpendicular (i.e. vertical) and parallel (i.e. horizontal) to the length
of the beam.
The computation of tensile, compressive, and shear stresses in beams is more complicated than
that of members under direct load because these stresses can change at any point along the
beam's length.
STRUCTURES
AND
ARCHITECTURE

BY: ANGUS J. MACDONALD

INTRODUCTION
The introduction emphasizes the significance of structure in architecture, citing Vitruvius and Wooton's
principles of firmness, commodity, and delight. It emphasizes the role of structural elements in a
building's functionality, aesthetics, and durability, and the choice of incorporating or hiding them in
design.

The introduction discusses the relationship between structure and architecture, highlighting examples of
buildings with different forms and structures. It highlights high-tech architecture where structural
elements shape the plan and arrangement, while early modern buildings were influenced by steel and
reinforced concrete structures.

The book explores the relationship between structure and architecture, offering technical information
for architectural critics, historians, students, and professionals.

CHAPTER 1: THE RELATIONSHIP OF STRUCTURE TO BUILDING

An architectural structure is a part of a building that resists loads imposed on it, forming an envelope
that encloses and divides space to create a protected environment. The envelope, including walls, floors,
and roof, is subjected to various types of loading, including climatic, gravitational, and weight-carrying
loads. A structure is essential to prevent a building from collapsing due to loads that distort its envelope.
It provides the necessary strength and rigidity to conduct loads from the building's origin to the ground,
allowing them to be resisted.

The relationship between the envelope and structure in most buildings is more complex due to the
greater extent of interior partition by internal walls and floors.

Buildings have structures supporting the envelope, which can be integrated or separate, and their form is
closely related to the overall building form, affecting architecture quality.

CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS

Fundamental characteristics of a structure

1) Equilibrium: A structure must achieve balance through reactions at the foundations to counter
applied loads.
2) Stability: Preserving the structure's shape and enabling its elements to withstand loads.
3) Strength: The structure's ability to endure applied forces without failure.
4) Rigidity: Maintaining the structural integrity and resisting deformation when under load.
  EQUILIBRIUM: Architectural structures must achieve equilibrium under applied load by
balancing all applied loads by reactions generated at their foundations, ensuring they are
connected to their foundations in all directions.
 GEOMETRIC STABILITY: Geometric stability is the property which preserves the geometry of a
structure and allows its elements to act together to resist load.
 ACHIEVING GEOMETRIC STABILITY: Geometric stability requires arrangements that can achieve
equilibrium under forces from three mutually perpendicular directions. By subjecting the
structure to sets of trial forces that are perpendicular to each other, the stability of the structure
may be assessed.
 Considerations in architectural design: Potentially unstable geometries may be adopted by
designers in order to satisfy certain design specifications. Stabilization methods include the use
of rigid joints, diagonal elements, and rigid diaphragms. Each stabilization method has its
limitations and drawbacks.

The stability of frameworks depends on achieving balance when subjected to perpendicular forces.

1) Structural Systems: Buildings can be made of materials like concrete, timber, or a combination.
Loadbearing wall structures utilize walls for stability.
2) Load Assessment: Load assessment involves predicting circumstances that impose loads on the
building and estimating their magnitudes. Loading standards guide designers in determining
maximum load conditions.
3) Wall Panel Stability: Wall panels are stable within their own plane but unstable in the out-of-
plane direction. To ensure stability, vertical panels are grouped in pairs at right angles, and the
connections between panels must resist shear forces.
4) Strength and Rigidity: Structures require sufficient strength and rigidity to withstand internal
and external forces caused by loads. Strength is achieved by providing appropriately sized
elements, while rigidity is ensured through structural calculations and analysis.
5) Bracing Requirements: Frameworks need adequate bracing in three orthogonal planes. Vertical-
plane bracing is usually symmetrically arranged internally or around the building's perimeter,
impacting space planning in tall buildings with significant wind loading.
6) Analysis Calculations: Structural analysis determines internal and external forces under
unfavorable load conditions. Complex structures require combined analysis and element-sizing
calculations, often aided by computer-aided design.

Internal forces in structural elements

1) Shear Force: It acts perpendicular to the element's axis, causing shear stress due to unbalanced
external forces on one side of a cross-section.
2) Bending Moment: It induces rotation or bending in the element, resulting from unbalanced
moments of external forces on one side of a cross-section, leading to bending stress.
3) Axial Thrust: It acts parallel to the element's direction, representing unbalanced external forces
at a specific location. It can be tensile (pulling apart) or compressive (pushing together).