Avahana Akhara

against the British government. His found in the eastern part of the state of
political career lasted only four years, Uttar Pradesh, in the region sur-
but his intellect and energy soon made rounding Ayodhya (Avadh). It is recog-
him a leader in the Bengali language nized as the language in which the
and national politics. poet-saint Tulsidas (1532–1623?)
His life was transformed again by a wrote his vernacular retelling of the
stay in prison, during which he Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.
remembered the advice of an ascetic In a linguistic context, Avadhi is
who had told him to focus on his inner one of the dialects of modern standard
self. Aurobindo later had a vision of Hindi spoken throughout the same
Swami Vivekananda, who guided his region. Although it shows similarities
yoga practice, and after he was to the language of Tulsidas, it has
released from prison, Aurobindo with- evolved from that version.
drew from political life. In 1910 he
moved to the French enclave of
Pondicherry in southern India, where Avadhuta
he lived until his death in 1950. (“one who has cast away [all attach-
Aurobindo spent these years develop- ments]”) In its most general sense,
ing his spiritual life, and in his later an avadhuta is an ascetic who does
years he was known as Shri Aurobindo. not adhere to any social or religious
His teachings focus on the insights rules but his (or far more rarely,
found in the Upanishads, and stress her) own. Needless to say, their
the development of true knowledge, behavior is often unpredictable, seem-
which leads to self-realization. ingly capricious, and sometimes
intentionally shocking.
As a more technical title, avadhuta
Auspiciousness is a term of respect for the senior
This is the general term for events or members of the Naga class of the
conditions that cause or promote life, Dashanami Sanyasis, renunciant
prosperity, and overall well-being. ascetics who are devotees (bhakta)
Along with purity and impurity of the god Shiva and who formerly
(ashaucha), auspiciousness and made their living as traders and
inauspiciousness are fundamental mercenary soldiers.
concepts in Hindu life.
The life-giving qualities connected
with auspiciousness make it a state Avahana
that Hindus pursue—whether through (“summoning”) The first of the sixteen
performing rituals, scheduling impor- upacharas (“offerings”) given to a
tant events such as marriage cere- deity as part of worship, which is done
monies for astrologically favorable to treat the deity as an honored guest.
times, or avoiding people and things Although the literal translation of this
deemed to be inauspicious. For exten- word (“summoning”) seems inappro-
sive information of auspiciousness priate for interacting with a god, the
and its importance in Hindu life, see true sense of the word is inviting the
Frederique Apffel Marglin, Wives of deity to become present for worship,
the God-King, 1985. just as one would invite a guest into
one’s house for hospitality.

Avadhi Avahana Akhara

Avadhi is a language known in two dif-
The name of a particular group of the
ferent contexts. In a literary context,
Naga class of the Dashanami Sanyasis,
Avadhi is a dialect of medieval Hindi
which is comprised of renunciant
(and a sister language of Braj Bhasha)
71
 Avalon, Arthur

The ten avatars of the god Vishnu. In Hindu mythology, Vishnu has appeared on earth in different forms:
Fish, Tortoise, Boar, Man-lion, Vamana (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki.

ascetics. The Dashanami Nagas are the northern Indian solar month of
devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva, Simha (the zodiacal sign of Leo). The
organized into akharas, or regiments, existence of several different calendars
on the model of an army. Until the is one clear sign of the continuing
beginning of the nineteenth century, the importance of regional cultural pat-
Nagas’ primary occupation was as mer- terns. One way that the Tamils retain
cenary soldiers, although they also had their culture is by preserving their tradi-
substantial trading interests; both of tional calendar. Tamil is one of the few
these occupations have largely disap- regional languages in India with an
peared in contemporary times. ancient, well-established literary tradi-
The Avahana akhara is one of the tion. See also Tamil months, Tamil
seven main Dashanami Naga akharas, Nadu, and Tamil language.
but for organizational purposes it is
considered a subsidiary of the Juna
akhara. Its name, which means “sum-
Avatar
(“descent”) In Hindu mythology, the
mons,” supposedly comes from its sta-
descent (of a deity), but more colloqui-
tus as the first organized ascetic group,
ally the incarnation, of a deity on earth.
formed in response to the call from the
The concept of avatars has been best
philosopher Shankaracharya to revital-
developed by the devotees (bhakta) of
ize Hindu society.
the god Vishnu, who perceive him as
taking a specific form to help the world.
Avalon, Arthur Examples of avatars can be found for
Pen name of Sir John Woodroffe. other divinities as well.
Hindus draw a distinction between
full avatars, which have the complete
Avani power of the deity, and partial incarna-
Fifth month of the Tamil solar year, tions, or anshavatars. Vishnu has ten
which usually falls within August and full avatars, each of whom has appeared
September. This month corresponds to to restore the cosmic balance when the

72
 Avimukta

world has fallen out of equilibrium. The essentially so that Shiva would also
root cause of such disequilibrium is usu- have these forms. See also Jagannath
ally a demon (asura) who has grown too and Balarama.
strong and uses that power to oppress
others. This imbalance prompts Vishnu
to take form as an avatar, destroy the Avidya
evildoers, and definitively restore the (“lack of [true] knowledge”) Avidya is
cosmic balance. the absence of true understanding
Although there is some variation in and is the fundamental problem in
the list of Vishnu’s avatars, the generally almost all Hindu philosophical and
accepted list is as follows: Fish, Tortoise, religious thought. The presence of
Boar, Man-Lion, Vamana (dwarf ), avidya leads people to misperceive the
Parashuram, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, true nature of reality and to act based on
and Kalki. This list of avatars follows an these misperceptions.
“evolutionary” sequence—the first three The most fundamental of these false
are animals, the fourth a hybrid man- perceptions is to identify the eternal Self
animal, and the ones after that mythic (atman) with the body. As a result of this
heroes and sages; the exception is the misidentification, egoism leads one to
Buddha, a real person who has been try to protect and advance the Self (in its
incorporated into the Hindu pantheon. particular embodied state) and incites
The tenth form, Kalki avatar, is yet to feelings and actions of greed, lust, and
come, and his coming will herald the hatred. These feelings create bondage
end of the age. Vishnu’s partial avatars— for the soul and entrap it in samsara, the
as sages, saints, and gods—are countless cycle of rebirth.
and potentially limitless, providing a In most Hindu philosophical
ready-made way for new Hindu move- schools, the avidya tends to be con-
ments to ascribe divine authority to ceived in epistemological rather than
their founders. metaphysical terms—that is, it is not an
Although the avatar concept is most actual thing in its own right but exists
commonly associated with Vishnu, it as a function of how one comes to
has been applied to other Hindu gods as know things, insofar as that knowledge
well. One example of partial avatars can is inaccurate or incomplete. Once one’s
be seen in the Mahabharata, the later of deficient awareness has been corrected,
the two great Hindu epics, in which all the cause of bondage is removed,
five of the Pandava brothers are partial resulting in the final liberation of the
incarnations of various gods. In addi- soul (moksha).
tion, devotees of the god Shiva have
developed a list of his twenty-one Avimukta
avatars, who are saints, sages, and minor (“unforsaken”) The word Avimukta
deities. This list was probably developed carries two shades of meaning: in a
in response to the Vaishnava doctrine of more general sense, it is a name for the
avatars, but Shiva’s forms are far less city of Benares; in a more specific sense,
important than Vishnu’s; Vishnu’s it refers to the part of Benares consid-
avatars include Rama and Krishna, ered to be the sacred heart of the city, in
who are major objects of worship in the region centered around the
their own right. Vishvanath Temple.
For the Vaishnavas, the avatar Avimukta gets its name from the
doctrine is generally seen as a way belief that Shiva never leaves this
to assimilate existing cults into place, and because of this its proponents
the pantheon by claiming that claim that it is the holiest spot on earth.
various deities are merely different See Benares.
manifestations of Vishnu. The Shaiva
avatars were developed much later,
73
 Avvaiyar

Avvaiyar The sun’s northward journey is

Poet whose compositions appear in considered a more auspicious time
the Sangam literature, which are col- than the southward journey, although
lections of Tamil poems written and many other factors can influence the
compiled in the early centuries of the judgment of a particular day.
common era (approximately 100–300
C.E.). Avvaiyar is notable as a female
poet, indicating that certain women at Ayodhya
that time took an equal part in cul- (“unassailable”) Sacred city (tirtha) on
tured and intellectual society. See also the Sarayu River, in the Faizabad dis-
Tamil language. trict of the state of Uttar Pradesh, and
one of India’s seven sacred cities.
Ayodhya is famous as the setting for
Ayamatma Brahman much of the Ramayana, the later of
(“This Self is Brahman”) In the Hindu the two great Hindu epics, whose prin-
philosophical tradition, one of the cipal character is the god Rama. In the
“great utterances” (mahavakyas) Ramayana, Ayodhya is the capital city
expressing ultimate truth. The truth of Rama’s father, King Dasharatha, the
here is the identity of atman (the indi- birthplace and childhood home of
vidual Self ) and Brahman (Ultimate Rama and his brothers, and the city to
Reality); this identity is the heart of the which Rama returns in triumph after
mystical texts called the Upanishads. his exile is over.
Aside from their importance in a Although historians have raised
philosophical context as fundamental doubts about the Ramayana’s histori-
truths, four mahavakyas were also cal veracity and the reality of the
appropriated as symbols by the four events described there, Rama’s devo-
divisions of the Dashanami Sanyasi tees (bhakta) entertain no such
ascetics. Each division had its own doubts. For them the cult of Rama is
mahavakya, just as each had a differ- deeply entrenched in Ayodhya, and
ent Veda, a different primary sacred various places in the city are associated
center, and a different ascetic quality. with events in the epic that are
Ayamatma Brahman is the mahavakya believed to have actually occurred.
associated with the Anandawara divi- In most cases this has had no ill
sion of the Dashanami Sanyasis. effects, with the exception of the Ram
Janam Bhumi, the site identified as
Rama’s birthplace. Until 1992, this site
Ayana was occupied by the Babri Masjid, a
(“going”) In the estimation of the Muslim mosque supposedly built after
Hindu calendar, the word ayana refers the existing temple was demolished.
to the movement of the sun during its On December 6 of that year, the
yearly course, which is divided accord- mosque was destroyed by teams of
ing to the direction of the sun’s move- activists from the Vishva Hindu
ment. The six months that the sun Parishad, who tore it down in just over
moves in a northerly direction is called six hours. The destruction sparked
the uttarayana, and its southward Hindu-Muslim riots all over India, in
movement in the following six months which thousands of people were killed.
is the dakshinayana. The transition For further information on Ayodhya,
points at which the sun changes direc- see Hans Bakker, Ayodhya, 1986; Peter
tion do not fall on the solstices, as fig- van der Veer, Gods on Earth, 1988;
ured in the Gregorian calendar, but Sarvepalli Gopal, Anatomy of a
about three weeks later on Makara Confrontation, 1991; and Christophe
Sankranti (around January 14) and Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist
Karka Sankranti (around July 14). Movement in India, 1996.
74
 Ayurveda

Ayudhapurusha environmental roots. One possible

An ayudhapurusha is the personified cause is environmental circum-
form of a divine weapon or emblem, stances, such as the stresses that the
which is conceived as either mascu- differing seasons (hot, cold, damp,
line, feminine, or neuter according to etc.) put on varying constitutions.
the gender of the Sanskrit word. For The other possible cause for an
example, the words shakti (“spear”) imbalance is the person’s own
and gada (“club”) are portrayed as behavior—improper diet, poor sleep
feminine, chakra (“discus”) as neuter, habits, deficient or inappropriate
and khadga (“sword”) and trishul bodily exertion, and other habitual
(“trident”) as male. stresses on the body.
In ayurveda, people are conceived
as beings in interaction with their
Ayurveda environment, and ayurveda’s propo-
(“knowledge of life”) Ayurveda is nents recognize that many ailments
the best known of the indigenous may have multiple causes. The ulti-
Indian medical systems and is mate aim of any treatment, whether
primarily based on the two Sanskrit diet, exercise, or medicine, is to restore
medical texts: the Charaka Samhita this lost equilibrium. The equilibrium
(1st c. C.E.) and the Sushruta Samhita being sought will be different for
(4th c. C.E.). everyone, since it will necessarily
The underlying assumption in both reflect each person’s individual make-
of these texts and in ayurveda is the up. For further information see Gopi
theory of the three bodily humors— Warrier, The Complete Illustrated
vata (wind), pitta (bile), and kapha Guide to Ayurveda, 1997; and Judith
(phlegm). Each of these is composed Morrison, The Book of Ayurveda, 1995.
of different elements, and although
everyone has all three humors, their
relative proportions are used to
explain varying body types, metabolic
dispositions, and personalities.
People in whom vata predominates
are said to have quick minds, slender
bodies, and to be full of energy, but
they are also said to get run down
more easily than others. Pitta-domi-
nant people are said to be strong-
willed and good leaders but also
hot-tempered and bothered by heat.
Kapha-dominant people are strong,
healthy, and stable but also have ten-
dencies toward lassitude and inertia.
Each of these humors can thus
have both wholesome and unwhole-
some manifestations, but when the
humors are in relative balance, the five
bodily winds (prana) that are consid-
ered responsible for basic bodily func-
tions will work effectively, and the
person will be healthy.
According to ayurveda, disease is
caused by an imbalance of these
humors that usually has perceivable
75
 Baba

B
send the case to the courts for resolu-
tion, where it languished for almost
forty years.
The early 1980s saw renewed contro-
versy over the site, when the Hindu reli-
gious organization Vishva Hindu
Parishad (VHP) first began calling for its
“liberation” and proclaiming that the
existing structure was an insult to all
Hindus. This campaign portrayed the
Baba mosque as a symbol of Muslim icono-
In its literal meaning, an affectionate clasm. Moreover, it depicted govern-
term of address meaning “father.” ment efforts to protect the mosque as an
Although this can be used to address attempt to appease the Muslim commu-
any older man, it is most commonly nity and retain their votes. In 1986 the
applied to ascetics, either in speaking of VHP’s drive to liberate the site was aided
them as a class or as a respectful way to by the national government headed by
address a particular one. Rajiv Gandhi, which in a patent attempt
to claim Hindu support, unlocked the
compound’s gates so that Hindus could
Babar’s Mosque worship on the site.
See Babri Masjid. The pressure intensified as the
decade progressed, culminating in a
series of campaigns to begin construct-
Babri Masjid ing a Hindu temple on the site. Many of
(“Babar’s Mosque”) Mosque built in these campaigns coincided with national
1528 on the outskirts of the city of elections, and the emotion they generat-
Ayodhya, which was constructed at the ed helped benefit the electoral fortunes
order of Mir Baqi, a general of the of the Bharatiya Janata Party, a political
Moghul emperor Babar (1483–1530). party with close ties to the VHP.
The site has long been a source of con- Eventually, on December 6, 1992, the
troversy between the Hindu and Muslim mosque was demolished. The whole
communities, and British sources operation was carefully planned; the
recorded conflicts there in 1855 and demolition teams were highly trained,
1934. Local tradition holds that the and the first thing they did was to
mosque was built on the birthplace of destroy all the television cameras there
the Hindu deity Rama, and that it was to prevent any media coverage by out-
constructed only after demolishing the siders. It was carried out with the bless-
Hindu temple there, although there is ing of the state government, which
little hard evidence for the latter claim. A made no attempt to protect the build-
few months after India gained indepen- ing. The demolition was followed by
dence in 1947, several local Hindus sur- riots, particularly in the state of
reptitiously installed images of the child Maharashtra, in which over three
Rama, his wife Sita, and his brother thousand people were killed, most of
Lakshmana; they spread the tale that them Muslims.
the images had miraculously appeared Even after the destruction of the
in a ball of light. The government had Babri Masjid, the site remained a bone
only recently quieted the Hindu-Muslim of contention. Immediately following
massacres that accompanied the divi- the demolition, Prime Minister P. V.
sion of British India into India and Narasimha Rao promised to rebuild the
Pakistan, and it was reluctant to rein- mosque on the same spot, but he did
flame religious passions. Its solution was nothing to accomplish this during his
to padlock the compound’s gates and time in office. Various Hindu groups,
76
 Badrinath

Temple to the god Vishnu in the Himalayan town of Badrinath.

Parts of the temple’s architecture suggest that it may have originally been a Buddhist temple.

including traditional religious leaders in the Veda. Because the Vedanta Sutras
such as the Shankaracharyas, have are particularly concerned with the
been calling for the construction of the ideas about the Supreme Reality known
Ram Janam Bhumi temple at the site. as Brahman, they are also called the
Anticipating nothing but trouble ahead, Brahma Sutras. The brevity of the indi-
the government again has sent the mat- vidual sutras—many are only a few
ter to the courts for resolution, where it words—presupposes commentary,
remains to this day and may remain for which was later provided by various
four more decades. For further informa- writers. Badarayana himself considered
tion see Sarvepalli Gopal, Anatomy of a the Upanishads the ultimate source for
Confrontation, 1991; and Christophe his teachings, although his text was
Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist judged equally authoritative by later
Movement in India, 1996. Vedanta writers.

Badarayana Badrinath
(ca. 400–200 B.C.E.) Philosopher tradi- (“Lord of Badri”) Sacred site (tirtha) in
tionally cited as the author of the the Himalayan area of Chamoli district
Vedanta Sutras. This collection of 555 in the state of Uttar Pradesh, near the
brief sutras, or aphorisms, is the basis of headwaters of the Alakananda River,
the philosophical school known as the largest tributary of the Ganges.
Vedanta, so named because it claims to Badrinath is high in the mountains at an
reveal the ultimate meaning of the reli- altitude of over 10,000 feet. It is connected
gious scriptures known as the Vedas. to Tibet by the Mana Pass, one of the tra-
The sutras attempt to summarize and ditional land routes by which Chinese
systematize the philosophic and reli- goods have come into India. Badrinath’s
gious ideas in the Upanishads, the spec- high altitude also means that it is only
ulative texts that form the latest stratum accessible between late April and
77
 Bahi

October, after which it is closed for the to serve as the temple’s priest. In defer-
winter months; this pattern is echoed at ence to his ascetic predecessors, this
Yamunotri, Gangotri, and Kedarnath, priest was given the title rawal
the three major Himalayan pilgrimage (“deputy”), and his extended family has
sites. The town’s name comes from its run the shrine since then. The rawal is
presiding deity, Vishnu, whose temple the only person allowed to touch the
is the reason for the site’s existence. The image, and as a consequence he is
main image in the temple is claimed to required to remain a bachelor, lest the
have miraculously emerged full-formed ritual impurity (ashaucha) arising from
from a shalagram, a particular type of the birth of a child (sutakashaucha)
black stone containing fossilized render him unable to attend to his
ammonite, which is itself considered a duties. For a long time, the rawals had
“self-manifested” form of Vishnu. sole rights to the offerings given at the
Badrinath has a long history as a ven- shrine, but since 1939 the temple has
erable sacred site. Scholars believe that been managed by a committee, and the
it was occupied by a Buddhist temple rawal has been restricted to ritual duties.
until several centuries into the present
millennium, based on the architecture
of some of the temple’s older parts. Local Bahi
tradition reports that until the middle of (“account book”) Name for the pilgrim
the twentieth century when the Chinese registers maintained by hereditary pil-
sealed the Tibetan border, Buddhists grimage priests (pandas). Each panda
came from Tibet for the temple’s closing family in any sacred site (tirtha) has the
rites in the fall, bringing a hand-woven right to serve pilgrims whose ancestral
blanket to drape around the image. In homes are in a particular place, whether
Hinduism, Badrinath is one of the four or not the pilgrims still reside there. For
dhams (“divine abodes”) connected example, a family from the Marwar
with the philosopher Shankaracharya. region of the state of Rajasthan will
Shankaracharya reportedly chose one always be served by the Marwari panda,
Hindu sacred center in each corner of even if the family has not lived in
the subcontinent to combat the spread Marwar for generations. Pilgrims make
of Buddhism and revitalize Hindu reli- an entry in their panda’s pilgrim register
gion. At each center he established a during each visit, in which they write
Dashanami Sanyasi monastic center down the date, the names of those who
(math) to train learned monks. visited, and the reason or reasons for
Badrinath is associated with the sacred which they have come. These details are
center Jyotir Math in the Himalayan noted on a thick sheet of paper about
town of Joshimath, forty miles south. ten inches wide and three feet long, and
Each winter, the image at Badrinath is there may be multiple entries on a page.
symbolically transported to the One of the page’s narrow sides has holes
Narasimha temple in Joshimath. punched in it, and a string can be
According to Badrinath temple threaded through these holes to tie a
records, for several hundred years tem- number of such sheets together. This
ple worship was performed by the allows the panda to compile registers for
Dandi Sanyasis; they were a group of a particular village or specific family,
ascetics devoted to the god Shiva who and when not in use these bahis are
were also Nambudiri brahmins, the rolled into a circle and tied.
same caste into which Shankaracharya These registers provide not only a
is supposed to have been born. When record of pilgrim visits, but are also the
the last of these ascetics died without a unassailable evidence of the hereditary
successor in 1776, the local king who connection between a panda and a pil-
served as the protector of the shrine grim family. Most pilgrims will demand
invited a non-ascetic Nambudiri brahmin to see the entries for their ancestors as
78
 Bahula Chauth

proof that a particular priest is their see Justin E. Abbott (trans.), Bahina Bai,
hereditary panda. This usually happens 1985; and Anne Feldhaus, “Bahina Bai:
when many years have elapsed between Wife and Saint,” in Journal of the American
visits, and the pilgrims may never have Academy of Religion, Vol. 50, 1982.
met their panda in person. A panda’s
bahis are thus the sole proof of his rights
to a particular pilgrim group, which Bahiryaga
makes these registers extremely valu- (“external sacrifice”) In Hindu worship,
able documents. Most pandas zealously especially in esoteric ritual tradition
safeguard their bahis, since anyone with known as tantra, bahiryaga refers to any
a copy can claim the pilgrims therein. type of religious practice involving
The bahis’ importance also gives them a actions, words, or the manipulation of
high market value. They may be used as concrete objects. This is the only kind of
collateral to gain a loan and can even be worship that most people perform. The
sold outright. This latter course is ultimate goal in tantra, however, is to
extremely unusual, since for working internalize these acts through repeated
pandas their bahis are not only the practice and to transform them into
source of their livelihood, but also their antaryaga (“internal sacrifice”), in
family inheritance. which all external actions have been
replaced by mental acts.

Bahina Bai Bahudaka

(1628–1700) Poet and saint in the (“having much water”) The name for
Varkari Panth, a religious community one of four particular types of Hindu
centered around the worship of the ascetics. Each of these four types
Hindu god Vithoba at his temple at reflects the ascetic’s supposed means of
Pandharpur in the modern state of livelihood, which in practice has been
Maharashtra. Bahina Bai ran counter to much less important for ascetic identity
contemporary assumptions not only than organizational affiliation. The
because she was a female religious fig- Bahudaka is an ascetic who begs for his
ure, but also because she was a brahmin food at sacred bathing places. The other
disciple of the shudra poet-saint three types are the Kutichaka, which
Tukaram, an association that inverted has lower status than the Bahudaka, and
the usual patterns of social status. This is the Hamsa and Paramahamsa, which
because a brahmin is someone of high have higher status.
social standing while a shudra is of the
lowest and least influential class in
Hindu society. According to tradition, Bahula Chauth
Tukaram initiated Bahina as his disciple Religious festival celebrated on the
in a dream because Bahina’s husband— fourth day (chauth) of the dark, or wan-
a learned brahmin who was highly con- ing, half of the lunar month of
scious of brahmin status—had Bhadrapada, the sixth month of the
forbidden her to meet with him. Aside lunar year, which usually falls within
from her devotional poetry, Bahina also August and September. On this day
wrote an autobiography, whose content mothers perform duties for the welfare
was heavily influenced by her religious of their sons. They should refrain from
beliefs. Bahina is notable as one of the all activity and from eating wheat or rice
only women bhakti (devotional) figures (the staple food grains). As a symbolic
who was able to reconcile the demands indication of allowing mothers to care
of her marriage with her commitment to for their children, on this day cows are
God, although these issues were not not milked, and their calves are allowed
resolved without considerable trouble to suckle as much as they want.
and heartache. For further information
79
 Baiga

A baiga, or healer, uses spiritual techniques to remedy a person’s physical or emotional troubles.

Such motherly concern for their sons and prets. A baiga’s power is based on
reflects not only normal maternal his command of mantras, sacred
instincts but the importance of male sounds either acquired from a relative as
children in traditional Hindu life. his hereditary birthright or bought from
According to the customary pattern, at a knowledgeable person. Baigas minis-
least in northern India, daughters leave ter to people’s immediate troubles,
their natal homes to live with their whether caused by illness, misfortune,
husbands’ families, whereas sons bring accident, or alleged possession. This
their brides into the family home. One’s pervasive connection with people’s
sons thus ensure the continuity of everyday concerns makes them impor-
the family, in addition to taking care of tant figures in urban as well as rural
the parents in their old age. Sons are India. The most successful baigas are
also important because only they can those who radiate the greatest air of
perform the annual shraddhas, or authority, and thus instill in their
memorial rites to the ancestors, patients the confidence that the baiga
although couples without any natural can and will alleviate their distress. For a
sons can satisfy this requirement short account of the baiga’s work, see
through adoption. Lawrence Babb, The Divine Hierarchy,
1975; for a more developed perspective
on Indian healers and healing, see
Baiga Sudhir Kakar, Shamans, Mystics, and
(probably a corruption of the word Doctors, 1991.
vaidaga, or “healer”) A sorcerer, healer,
and ritual technician connected with
spirits at the lower levels of the pan- Baijnath
theon; a baiga sometimes acts as a Sacred site (tirtha) and archeological
medium for village deities and at other area in the Himalayan foothills of the
times as an exorcist for witches, bhuts, state of Uttar Pradesh, about forty-
80
 Baithak

five miles north and west of the town of Baisakhi

Almora. Baijnath contains a temple Annual festival taking place in the
complex believed to date from the thir- lunar month of Baisakh (April–May),
teenth century C.E. Many of the temples for which it is named. Baisakhi marks
are quite well-preserved, although only the sun’s transition into Aries, which
one is still used as a place of worship. according to the Indian estimation
Although the name of the site is a ver- occurs around April 14. This festival
nacular form of Vaidyanath, a form of marks the beginning of the solar year
the god Shiva, the presiding deity in the on the traditional calendar. Baisakhi
temple is Shiva’s wife Parvati. Her main is celebrated mainly in the north, par-
image is over four feet tall and is a mag- ticularly in the state of Punjab and its
nificent work of art, carved from a piece surrounding regions. In the days when
of rose-colored granite. Smaller figures pilgrims still traveled through the
carved into the image itself illustrate the Himalayas on foot, this festival
mythic story of Shiva’s wife Sati, her marked the beginning of the
rebirth as Parvati, and Parvati’s remar- Himalayan pilgrimage season; during
riage to Shiva. The statue is clearly the the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
work of a master sculptor, and it far turies, Baisakhi was the occasion for
exceeds the quality of the artwork one a great trading festival in the town of
normally finds in such isolated places. Haridwar, the gateway to the
Another temple in a nearby village has a Himalayan shrines. Although this fair
statue of Vishnu made from a similar has long been eclipsed, Baisakhi is
type of stone and carved in a similar still the climactic bathing (snana)
style. The simplest explanation for this day for the Haridwar Kumbha Mela
correspondence is that a single and Ardha Kumbha Mela, each of
sculptor was commissioned to create which is a bathing festival that occurs
both images. about every twelve years when
Jupiter is in the sign of Aquarius (for
the Kumbha Mela) or Leo (for the
Bairagi Ardha Kumbha Mela).
(“dispassionate”) This is the general
name for any ascetic whose patron deity
is Vishnu, but it is particularly applied to Baithak
the fighting ascetics known as Nagas. See (“seat”) In the Vaishnava sect
also Chatuh-Sampradayi Nagas. known as the Pushti Marg, a reli-
gious community whose members
are devotees (bhakta) of the god
Baisakh Krishna, the baithaks are a group of
According to the lunar calendar by 108 sacred sites (tirthas). Each site
which most Hindu religious festivals is somehow associated with the life
are determined, Baisakh is the second and activities of the philosopher
month of the lunar year, usually falling Vallabhacharya, the Pushti Marg’s
within April and May. This is estab- founder. Most of these baithaks are
lished as one of the months of spring, in well-established sacred areas that
but in northern India the weather is were considered holy long before
beginning to get quite warm at this Vallabhacharya’s time, but the char-
time, especially in the middle of the ter story for each baithak records
day. The major holidays in Baisakh are some activity of the philosopher in
Shitalashtami, Baruthani Ekadashi, that particular place, to further
Parashuram Jayanti, Narasimha sanctify it for his followers. These
Jayanti, Baisakhi, Mohini Ekadashi, baithaks create a sectarian network
and Buddha Purnima. within the existing pilgrimage
81
 Bajrang Dal

places and imbue each one with cious man-eating demon. To preserve
additional significance for the their lives, the local villagers send
Pushti Marg. Bakasur a daily sacrificial victim who
is chosen by lot, along with a wag-
onload of food that the demon also
Bajrang Dal eats. One day the lot falls to the brah-
(“Hanuman’s Host”) The Bajrang Dal min who is hosting the Pandavas, the
is a modern Hindu organization that five heroic brothers who are the epic’s
has strong connections with the Hindu protagonists. When the brothers’
nationalist Vishva Hindu Parishad common wife, Draupadi, discovers
( VHP ), although both are nominally what has happened, she asks one of
independent. The Bajrang Dal is the brothers, Bhima, to deliver the
sometimes characterized as the VHP’s food in the brahmin’s place. Bhima
“youth wing,” and its primary function drives the wagon to the cave, goads
is to aid the VHP in carrying out its reli- the demon into battle by eating the
gious, political, and social campaigns, food in front of him, and then slays
particularly by supplying members to Bakasur with one mighty blow.
build a crowd. The god Hanuman is
best noted for his prodigious strength,
and it is this quality that the Bajrang Baksheesh
Dal seems to have emphasized in (from the Persian word bakhshidan,
choosing him as their symbol. meaning “to give”) A gift, usually of
Membership is open to young men money, given to facilitate service. This
from all social strata, but the organiza- is usually paid in advance but can also
tion reportedly draws much of its fol- be given after the fact. In some cases
lowers from lower-caste groups. this is unabashed bribery, but most
Although local chapters of the Bajrang often it is simply a way to ensure con-
Dal often perform social services and tinuing service and attention, or a gra-
philanthropic activities (as one might tuity for services already rendered.
find with any organized group), as a
whole the organization is widely seen
as an instrument of the VHP, to be used
Balabhadra
Epithet of the mythic hero Balarama,
when the situation calls for producing
the god Krishna’s older brother.
a crowd, intimidation, or violence.
Although he is a fairly minor mythic
figure, he is important for his connec-
Baka tion with the temple of Jagannath in
In Hindu mythology, a demon killed by the city of Puri. The temple’s presid-
the god Krishna during Krishna’s ing deity is Jagannath (“Lord of the
childhood in Braj. Baka is one of the World”), a tribal god who has been
demon assassins sent by Krishna’s assimilated into the Hindu pantheon
wicked uncle, Kamsa, to try to get rid as a form of Krishna. The image of
of the god. He comes to Braj in the Jagannath appears together with two
form of a giant crane (baka) and swal- other images, Balabhadra and their
lows Krishna and his companions, but sister Subhadra, and the three deities
he is killed when Krishna expands to invariably appear as a group.
such a giant size in Baka’s stomach that The poet Jayadeva, in his list of the
the demon explodes. ten avatars (“divine incarnations”)
typically associated with the god
Vishnu, named Balabhadra as the
Bakasur eighth avatar, the place normally
In the Mahabharata, the later of the occupied by Krishna. According to
two great Hindu epics, Bakasur is a fero- Jayadeva, Jagannath/Krishna is not a

82
 Balarama

form of Vishnu but the Ultimate Reality people possessed by malevolent spirits
from whom all the avatars spring. known as bhuts and prets. The
exorcisms proceed in a quasi-judicial
fashion, with the spirits being hauled
Balaji into the divine court, tried, and
Popular epithet of the god Venkateshvara, banished from the sufferer with the
the presiding deity of the temple of the underlying assumption that these rites
same name at Tirupati in the state of succeed through Balaji’s irresistible
Andhra Pradesh. See Venkateshvara. healing powers. As Sudhir Kakar has
masterfully shown, the language associ-
Balaji ated with possession and exorcism,
(2) Presiding deity of the Balaji temple when understood in the context of tradi-
in Mehndipur village, Rajasthan, who tional Hindu culture, can be seen as
is considered a form of the monkey- a way of describing what modern
god, Hanuman. As an infant, Hanuman psychiatrists might call the diagnosis
is continually hungry, and one day he and treatment of mental illness. See
attempts to eat the sun. Indra, the king Sudhir Kakar, Shamans, Mystics, and
of the gods and ruler of heaven, is Doctors, 1991.
incensed at Hanuman’s action and
strikes him with a thunderbolt, break-
ing his jaw (hanu). The wind-god, who
Balakrishna
Figure of Krishna in the form of a child
is Vayu, Hanuman’s father, goes on
(bala). Devotees (bhakta) who worship
strike to protest this punishment. Since
this form of Krishna are partaking in the
in traditional Indian physiology, winds
devotional relationship known as
are considered responsible for all inter-
vatsalya bhava, which parallels the
nal functions, including digestion, res-
connection between parent and child.
piration, and elimination, Vayu’s strike
The unusual twist is that the devotee
means that no one can live a normal
takes the role of the parent, lavishing
life. After a short time, the gods realize
love and care on the deity in its child
their predicament and beg Vayu for for-
form in a warm, protective, and
giveness; the deity is placated when
intimate relationship.
each of the gods promises to give
Hanuman a divine gift. By virtue of
these gifts, Hanuman gains great Balarama
power; not only is he immensely Krishna’s older brother. According to
strong, but he is an expert healer, most estimations, Balarama is a partial
through both his skill in using herbs avatar, or incarnation, of Shesha, a ser-
and natural medicines and his magical pent upon whom the god Vishnu
abilities to protect people from malev- reclines as on a couch. Shesha takes
olent supernatural beings. human form as Balarama, and Vishnu
These powers and healing qualities takes human form as Krishna, to destroy
make Hanuman a strong protective the evil king Kamsa. Kamsa has impris-
deity, and he is often worshiped on days oned their parents, Vasudeva and
and at times deemed inauspicious or Devaki, because on their wedding day a
unfavorable. These protective attributes disembodied voice has foretold that
have made him enormously important Devaki’s eighth child will kill Kamsa.
in contemporary Hindu life despite Kamsa kills Devaki’s first six children at
his theoretically intermediate place in birth by flinging them onto stones, but
the divine pantheon, and these qualities Balarama is saved when the embryo in
are especially evident in his form as Devaki’s womb is magically transplant-
Balaji. His temple has gained regional ed into the womb of Vasudeva’s second
prominence as a healing center for wife, Rohini. Because of the unusual
83
 Bali

Hindu temple in Bali, Indonesia. In the early centuries of the common era,
Hinduism was introduced to Bali by merchants and traders,
where it was transformed by the influence of both Buddhist and indigenous religious beliefs.
circumstances surrounding his develop- place left by Krishna’s promotion to
ment in utero, Balarama is also known supreme god.
as Sankarshana (“dragging away”).
Balarama is raised with Krishna in
Nanda and Yashoda’s household and Bali
takes part in many of Krishna’s adven- In Hindu mythology Bali is a demon
tures, including the slaying of Kamsa. who is tricked by Vishnu into granting
Balarama is usually portrayed as hav- the god three paces of land of his own.
ing a fair complexion, whereas Krishna Bali does this with little thought because
is dark. According to one story, when the Vishnu has come in the form of a dwarf
gods approach Vishnu to take form on (vamana), but when the gift has been
earth, he plucks both a white hair and a given, Vishnu grows immensely large
black hair from his head. The former is and claims the whole universe, relegat-
born to Rohini as Balarama, the latter to ing Bali to the Patala underworld. See
Devaki as Krishna. also Vamana avatar.
Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda presents a
different picture of Balarama. Jayadeva Bali
is closely linked to the Jagannath tem- (2) In Hindu mythology, a monkey-king
ple in Puri, whose presiding deity in the Ramayana, the earlier of the two
(Jagannath) has been assimilated into great Hindu epics. Bali and Sugriva are
the pantheon as Krishna. For Jayadeva, brothers who together rule the kingdom
Jagannath/Krishna is not a form of of Kishkindha, but enmity develops
Vishnu but the Ultimate Reality from between them, and Bali drives away his
whom all the avatars spring. Jayadeva brother and takes Sugriva’s wife. After
incorporates Balarama into the pan- the abduction of the god Rama’s wife
theon as the eighth avatar, to fill the Sita, Sugriva meets with Rama and the
84
 Bania

god’s brother Lakshmana, and they

agree that Rama will help Sugriva regain
his wife and kingdom if Sugriva and his
monkey-subjects will help to search for
Sita. Sugriva challenges Bali to battle but
cannot compete with his superior
strength. Although Rama has agreed to
shoot Bali with an arrow, he is unable to
tell which of the monkeys he is. In a sec-
ond battle, when Sugriva is marked by a
garland, Rama shoots Bali with an arrow
from behind and kills him. The bana linga, an egg-shaped stone,
is believed to be a manifestation of the god Shiva.

Bali hundred poems dedicated to the

(3) Island in Indonesia that has the last differing forms of the Goddess.
surviving remnant of the Hindu-
Buddhist culture that pervaded the
region after the early centuries of the
Bana Linga
An egg-shaped stone considered a
common era. Indian beliefs were first
svayambhu (“self-manifested”) form of
brought by traders and merchants, and
the god Shiva. As with all svayambhu
inscriptions reveal that the Balinese
images, the bana linga is considered to
kings patronized a variety of sects, both
be extraordinary, since in it the god has
Hindu and Buddhist. In time, Indian
spontaneously revealed himself. Bana
sacred geography was transferred and
lingas are only found in certain places,
transposed to Bali, native deities were
particularly on the banks of the
gradually assimilated into the pantheon,
Chambal River in the state of Madhya
and all the competing sects finally were
Pradesh, where they can be found in
fused into the new entity known as
large numbers. They come in a wide
Balinese religion.
spectrum of colors and can be several
feet in width, although most are smaller.
Bana The smaller ones are movable and may
(“arrow”) One of the characteristic even be carried by wandering ascetics as
objects in Hindu iconography, which is portable objects of worship. The larger
associated with various deities—the ones are usually found only in temples,
Goddess, Shiva, and Vishnu—and is not only because of the limits on motion
thus emblematic of no particular one. It imposed by their greater size, but also
is often found in images in which the because they are believed to be so pow-
figure carries a bow (dhanus). erful that they should be kept in a care-
fully maintained place.

Bana
(2) (7th c. C.E.) Poet and author who was Bania
a contemporary of the northern Indian (variant of Baniya) In traditional north-
emperor Harsha (r. 606–647), and one of ern Indian society, a merchant or shop-
the leading members of Harsha’s court. keeper often but not exclusively
Bana is widely acclaimed as one of the belonging to the vaishya varna, which is
great Sanskrit writers, based on his two the third of four social classes in Hindu
best works: the Harshacharita, a pane- culture. Aside from their merchant
gyric narrative of Harsha’s deeds, and activities, the more prosperous ones
Kadambari, a romance left unfinished often engaged in moneylending, some-
at his death. He is also famous for his times at prodigious rates of interest, as a
Chandishataka, a collection of one way to further increase their capital. In
85
 Banjara

traditional lore, banias are invariably functioned as virtual currency in much

painted as greedy and avaricious people of India, since in some cases they were
who care about nothing but money. used in twenty or thirty transactions
Although they were often stereotyped as before eventually being returned to the
parasites, banias were a necessary part issuing family for cashing. This system
of the traditional agricultural economy, made a merchant family’s creditworthi-
because they gave farmers goods on ness its most valuable asset. Once this
credit to be repaid after the harvest. was lost, the family’s hundis were no
They also lent farmers money to get longer honored, and they were unable to
started again after a bad harvest. Both conduct business. Since the evaluation
groups thus depended on one another— of a family’s credit was often tied to
the farmers for capital, the banias for judgments about its character, mer-
continuing consumption and patron- chant families strove to cultivate the
age. For a masterful reconstruction of image of seriousness, dependability,
the ethos in the northern Indian mer- and thrift. In this ethos the only accept-
chant family, in which Hindu piety was able forum for lavish expenditures was
an important element, see C. A. Bayly, for religious endowments, since these
Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars, 1983. reinforced the family’s pious image and
thus enhanced their creditworthiness.
With part of their surplus capital, these
Banjara families would usually engage in
The model for traditional Indian society moneylending as one way to increase
was a collection of endogamous sub- their wealth; the largest families
groups known as jatis (“birth”). These routinely lent money to royalty, which
jatis were organized (and their social provided them with even greater status.
status determined) by the group’s hered- For a masterful picture of the merchant
itary occupation. In traditional northern family ethos in northern India, see
Indian society, the Banjaras were a jati C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, and
whose hereditary occupation was dri- Bazaars, 1983.
ving pack animals, either as peddlers
selling retail goods to people in more
remote places or as transporters Barahmasa
conveying commodities from one seller (“twelve months”) Poetic genre in which
to another. They appear in poems by each of the poem’s verses, or stanzas, is
some of the bhakti (devotional) poets, devoted to one month of the year, with
particularly by Ravidas, as a symbol of the months treated in chronological
human heedlessness or as a person who order. This is a purely vernacular genre
never stops moving to reflect on where for which there are no known instances
he has been. in Sanskrit. Barahmasa poems often
reveal a great deal about everyday life
and can be subdivided into several basic
Banking categories: an enumerative type, which
In traditional Hindu culture, banking describes appropriate activities for each
was often an extension of a merchant month such as farming or religious
family’s economic life, particularly in practice; a narrative form, which
times and places in which centralized recounts a woman’s longing (viraha) for
banking did not exist. In most cases her absent lover; and a type describing a
these families transacted their business young wife’s trial of chastity as she with-
using letters of credit known as hundis, stands various temptations during an
which enabled them to conduct busi- extended separation from her husband.
ness over large distances without the For further information see Charlotte
risk of transporting gold and silver bul- Vaudeville, Barahmasa in Indian
lion. By the early 1800s, these hundis Literature, 1986.
86
 Basavanna

Barat prescribed rites, usually involving fast-

One of the common elements in a ing (upavasa) and worship, and often
modern northern Indian marriage promise specific benefits for faithful
ceremony, in which the groom is performance. Those observing this rit-
brought in a procession to the wed- ual should abstain from anger and
ding site, escorted by his (mostly backbiting and eat food that is pre-
male) relatives and friends. The barat pared without salt or oil. The name
evokes the symbolism of a royal pro- Baruthani means “armored” or “pro-
cession in which the groom is the king, tected,” and faithfully observing this
at least for the day. The groom most festival is believed to protect one from
commonly rides a gaily decorated all evil and grant enormous good for-
white mare, although any means of tune. In the charter myth, an ascetic
transportation representing his whose foot has been chewed off by a
importance is acceptable—from an wild beast regains the limb by per-
elephant to a horse-drawn carriage to forming this ritual.
an automobile strung with garlands.
In keeping with the royal imagery, the
groom often wears a crown or orna-
Basavanna
(1106–67/68) Poet-saint and religious
ments made of tinsel. The entire pro-
leader in the Lingayat community, a
cession is usually accompanied by a
bhakti (devotional) group that wor-
marching band, in the role of the her-
ships Shiva as the single supreme God
alds who march before the royal pres-
and rejects all caste regulations. The
ence; the band will often stop along
Lingayats were formed in the south-
the way to play, at which time the par-
ern Indian state of Karnataka where
ticipants will dance around them.
they still have a considerable pres-
Although the groom usually remains
ence, and the collections of poetry
reserved throughout the barat—in
that form their most important reli-
keeping with the gravity of the occa-
gious texts are composed in the
sion—for the rest of his companions, it
Kannada language. According to tra-
is a time for joking, laughing, dancing,
dition, from his youth Basavanna was
and celebration immediately before
a great devotee (bhakta) of Shiva,
the wedding. The barat may also
whose piety was so intense that he
involve the consumption of liquor,
rejected all notions of ritual and caste.
although many more conservative
After spending much of his youth as a
Hindus frown upon this element.
religious seeker, Basavanna became
minister to a king named Bijjala.
Barsana Basavanna used his position’s wealth
A village in the Braj region of the state of and influence to care for Shiva’s wan-
Uttar Pradesh, which is most famous as dering devotees (jangama), and
the birthplace of the god Krishna’s lov- Bijjala’s court became a magnet for
ing companion, Radha. many important figures, including the
poet and religious leader Allama
Prabhu. Basavanna’s patronage was
Baruthani Ekadashi vital in forming the Lingayat commu-
Festival falling on the eleventh day nity, and as a token of his importance,
(ekadashi) of the dark, or waning, half the suffix anna (“elder brother”) was
of the lunar month of Baisakh, which attached to his name, Basava. As the
takes place within April and May. The Lingayat community grew stronger,
festival is dedicated to the worship of their public opposition to ritual wor-
Vishnu, especially in his Vamana ship and caste distinctions generated
avatar, which is his fifth incarnation. intense hostility from more tradition-
Most Hindu festivals have certain al groups. This conflict finally came to
87
 Basohli

a violent head when the fledgling Bathing

Lingayat community apparently arranged See snana.
a marriage between an untouchable boy
and a brahmin girl. Traditionalists
became so enraged that they executed the Baudhayana
bride and groom’s fathers. The Lingayat (6th–3rd c. B.C.E.) Sage, writer, and com-
community was dispersed, and mentator. Baudhayana is the author of
Basavanna died soon afterward. For fur- one of the three surviving religious texts
ther information see A. K. Ramanujan known as the Kalpa Sutras. Apastamba
(trans.), Speaking of Siva, 1973. and Hiranyakeshin wrote the other two
Kalpa Sutras. Each of the surviving
works contains the three elements dic-
Basohli tated for a Kalpa Sutra: prescriptions for
A town west of Jammu in the state of Vedic rituals (Shrauta Sutras), prescrip-
Jammu and Kashmir, close to the bor- tions for domestic rites (Grhya Sutras),
der of Himachal Pradesh. Although it is and prescriptions for appropriate
an insignificant place in modern times, human behavior (Dharma Sutras). All
in the seventeenth century, Basohli was three of the authors belonged to the
the capital of a small kingdom in the same school, the Taittiriya school of the
Shiwalik Hills. It was in Basohli that the Black Yajur Veda. According to tradition,
Pahari style of miniature painting first Baudhayana was the oldest, Apastamba
appeared. The Basohli version of that was his disciple, and Hiranyakeshin was
style is characterized by highly defined Apastamba’s disciple. This relative
profiles, sharply flattened perspective, chronology is supported by the texts
and broad bands of a single intense themselves, since Baudhayana’s work is
color for backgrounds. It serves as a much less organized than the others, his
transitional style between the so-called language is more archaic, and he is often
Rajasthani and the more developed less strict in his opinions. His texts gain
techniques of the Pahari schools. their primary importance as a source for
his successors.
Bath, Mohenjo-Daro
One of the most striking structures exca- Begampura
vated at Mohenjo-Daro, the first city of Fictional city named in one of the
the Indus Valley civilization to be dis- poems written by the poet-saint
covered. This bath is an oblong pool, Ravidas (ca. 1500). The word begam can
thirty-nine by twenty-three feet in area mean either “queen” or “without pain.”
and eight feet deep. It is built of brick The poem clearly shows the city as an
and sealed with pitch. The tank could be idealized place far from the tribulations
drained through an opening in one cor- of ordinary human life, such as pain,
ner, and it was surrounded on all four sorrow, taxes, wrongdoing, and to a
sides by small rooms reminiscent of lesser extent, class distinctions.
changing rooms. The Indus Valley cities Although Ravidas was born a tanner
gave great attention to plumbing, sani- (chamar), an occupation that was
tation, and sewers, suggesting that looked down upon, this is one of his
bathing (snana) may have been con- only poems that speaks about social
nected with ritual purity as in modern issues, however indirectly.
Hindu life. With this in mind, the bath
was probably not a swimming pool but
rather had some deeper connection Begging
with religious life. For further informa- One of the recognized means of liveli-
tion see Walter Ashlin Fairservis, The hood in traditional Hindu society that is
Roots of Ancient India, 1975. a sign of either very low or very high

88
 Begram

Beggars sitting outside of a religious fair in Allahabad.

When beggars receive alms, they are also believed to receive the giver’s bad luck.

status, depending on the circumstances. ferent category. In the ideal case, these
Some beggars are simply people who are are people who have given up all visible
desperately poor, disabled, or unable to means of support as part of an effort to
provide for themselves and their fami- renounce the world; this differentiates
lies and who must depend upon gifts them from the poor, who are part of
(dana) to survive. Such beggars have ordinary society, albeit at the lowest
extremely low social status, although level. There is general social approval for
they may make a fairly decent living, supporting ascetics, at least the ones
particularly if they live in a favorable who are considered genuine spiritual
environment such as a pilgrimage place seekers, and doing so is widely seen as a
(tirtha), where giving gifts is a common source of religious merit. Although it is
religious act. Aside from all of the obvi- sometimes difficult to distinguish poorer
ous disadvantages—low social status, an ascetics from ordinary beggars, in the
uncertain income, and having to endure case of the most respected ascetics the
scorn and verbal abuse—these beggars distinction is very clear. Such respected
also suffer the stigma of living on ascetics confer status on people by
charity, rather than earning an income. accepting their gifts, and consequently
This is karmically undesirable since they tend to screen the donors and their
giving gifts is one of the methods by motives very carefully to protect their
which people get rid of inauspiciousness, reputations. See also karma.
which is transferred to the receiver
along with the gift. In many cases such a
beggar is considered nothing more Begram
than an instrument to be used, and the Architectural site west of the city of
most common word for such a person is Kabul in modern Afghanistan.
patra (“vessel”). Excavations there have revealed arti-
Some ascetics also make their living facts from Kushana culture, primarily
by begging but fall into a completely dif- relief carvings on ivory plaques.
89
 Bel

Bel Belur Math

Another name for the bilva tree. World headquarters of the Ramakrishna
See bilva. Mission, a modern religious organiza-
tion. The Ramakrishna Mission was
founded in 1897 by Swami
Belagave Vivekananda, the most famous disciple
Village in the Shimoga district of the of the nineteenth-century Bengali
state of Karnataka. Belagave was the mystic Ramakrishna. The Mission is
most important center for the equally dedicated to both social service
Kalamukhas, which was an ascetic sect and spiritual uplift, based on
of devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva. Vivekananda’s realization that India
The Kalamukhas had an important his- needed concrete development as much
torical role in southern India between as religious teaching. Belur Math was
the tenth and thirteenth centuries, constructed in 1899, two years after
but they disappeared some time after the Ramakrishna Mission was founded.
that. Their ritual center in Belagave It is located just north of Calcutta on
was the temple of Kedareshvara, which the west side of the Hugli River, quite
was Shiva in his form as the lord of close to the Dakshineshwar temple
Kedara. Although the Kalamukhas where Ramakrishna lived for most of
have disappeared, their presence and his adult life.
prominence in the region are confirmed
by the inscriptions at this and
numerous other temples. Benares
City and sacred center (tirtha) on the
banks of the Ganges in the state of Uttar
Belur Pradesh. Benares is an anglicized form
Town in the state of Karnataka, about of Varanasi, one of the traditional Hindu
sixty miles northwest of the modern city names for the city, as well as Kashi and
of Mysore. As at its sister site, Halebid, Avimukta. All three of these names are
Belur is known for a magnificent collec- used to designate the entire city, but in a
tion of temples built by the Hoysala more specific context, they denote con-
dynasty, which ruled western Karnataka centric sacred zones surrounding the
from the eleventh to thirteenth cen- Vishvanath temple; Avimukta is the
turies C.E. At both sites the temples were smallest, then Varanasi, and finally
built from a particular type of stone— Kashi. As with all other pilgrimage
variously described as chlorite schist, places on the Ganges, Benares is consid-
steatite, or soapstone—that was quite ered sacred because of its proximity to
soft when newly quarried but gradually the river, particularly because at Benares
hardened with exposure to the air. This the Ganges flows in a northerly direc-
initial malleability made the stone easy tion, which is considered auspicious.
to carve and facilitated the lush detail The Ganges is an integral part of the
characteristic of Hoysala temples. identity of Benares, and much of the
Architecturally speaking, these temples city’s religious life centers around it.
have certain unique features: a central The most important sacred presence
hall connecting three star-shaped sanc- in the city, however, is the god Shiva.
tuaries, and temple towers (shikharas) Benares is the city of Shiva, his dwelling
composed of well-defined horizontal place on earth, and the site he never
tiers rather than the continuous upward leaves, hence the name Avimukta
sweep characteristic of the northern (“never forsaken”). Temples to Shiva are
Indian Nagara architectural style. scattered throughout the city—some
old, some new, some nearly forgotten—
but the most important is the
Vishvanath (“Lord of the Universe”)
90
 Betel

temple. Vishvanath is one of the twelve Benares Hindu University

jyotirlingas, a group of sites deemed Indian educational institution founded
particularly sacred to Shiva. The original in 1916 by the nationalist figure Madan
Vishvanath temple was destroyed by the Mohan Malviya (1861–1946). The World
Moghul emperor Aurangzeb, who built War I era marked a more activist orien-
a mosque on the site; the present tation to the Indian independence
Vishvanath temple was rebuilt next to movement. One of the ways this
the original location. Shiva’s eternal activism manifested itself was in found-
presence makes Benares one of the ing educational institutions, which gave
seven sacred cities, in which death Indians greater control over the univer-
brings liberation of the soul (moksha). sities’ mission, tone, and curriculum.
At the moment of death, Shiva is Benares Hindu University was founded
believed to come to the dying person to uphold Hindu cultural and philo-
and impart his salvific wisdom. Shiva’s sophical traditions, but also to educate
presence is also evident at the crema- its students in the sciences and thus pre-
tion ground at the sacred site pare them for the modern world. This
Manikarnika Ghat, which is in the very mission reflected the modernist think-
heart of the city rather than at the mar- ing of its founders as well as their pas-
gin as in most other places. Here too sionate commitment to traditional
Shiva teaches human beings a lesson; Hindu culture. It is still one of the finest
specifically, Shiva reminds them of their universities in India, particularly for the
imminent death. This is not to distress study of classical Indian culture.
or depress them, but to spur them on to
serious religious life.
The presence of the Ganges and Bengali
Shiva make Benares an ideal place to Modern Indian language in the Indo-
die, or to immerse oneself in spiritual European language family, spoken in
life; what is often overlooked is that the region of modern Bengal, for which
Benares is also an unusually vibrant it is named. Like many of India’s region-
place to live. It has a long history as a al tongues, Bengali has a long history as
trading center and market town, and it a literary language in its own right. In
remains so today even though the creak- the nineteenth century, Calcutta was the
ing wooden boats traversing the Ganges most important cultural center in India
have been supplemented by other as well as a hotbed of resistance to
means of transport. Benares is famous British rule. As the vernacular tongue,
for its artisans, particularly weavers and Bengali was used in that era’s revolu-
metalworkers, many of whom are tionary politics, particularly by Bankim
Muslim. It has also been renowned as a Chandra Chatterjee and Aurobindo
cultural center for at least a thousand Ghose; it was also the language used by
years. Benares is still one of the most religious figures such as Ramprasad
important centers in India for all and Ramakrishna.
branches of traditional Sanskritic learn-
ing, from grammar to astrology to med-
icine. It is likewise a center for music,
Betel
Common name for the small, hard nut
dance, and all of the arts and has been
from the areca palm tree, which is con-
home to a galaxy of Indian religious fig-
sumed by mixing slices of the nut with
ures, including the poet-saints Tulsidas,
lime, tobacco, and spices and wrapping
Ravidas, and Kabir. For a detailed expo-
the whole thing up in a betel leaf. This is
sition of the city and its life, see Diana
not eaten but lodged against the cheek
Eck, Banaras, 1999.
and slowly chewed, to let the juices flow.
This method of gradually absorbing the
juice may be the reason for its most

91
 Bhadrakali

Betel nuts wrapped in a leaf. These nuts are taken from acacia palm trees,
dried, wrapped in betel leaves, and chewed to aid digestion.

common name, pan (“drinking”). The dashes them to the ground. The first takes
nut turns the saliva a bright red color, form as Virabhadra, a wrathful and terrify-
which is the reason for the distinctive ing form of Shiva, and the second takes
crimson smears adorning many Indian form as Bhadrakali. Just as Virabhadra
buildings. Chewing betel is widely represents Shiva’s destructive aspect,
believed to be good for the digestive Bhadrakali symbolizes the ferocious and
tract, a genuine concern in a country dangerous side of the Goddess, in contrast
where intestinal upsets are still quite with the gentle and loyal Sati. Shiva orders
common. Chewing betel is such a the two to destroy Daksha’s sacrifice, which
deeply embedded part of sophisticated they do with great abandon.
Indian cultural life that it even has its Bhadrakali also appears in the stories
own aesthetic, and folding betel is one connected with the birth of the god
of the sixty-four arts mentioned in the Krishna. While Krishna is developing in
Kama Sutra . his mother, Devaki’s, womb, Bhadrakali
enters the womb of Krishna’s foster
mother, Yashoda. The two children are
Bhadrakali born on the same night, and under cover
(from bhadra, meaning “blessed” in of darkness they are switched with one
Sanskrit) In Hindu mythology, the epithet another. The next morning the baby girl is
of a powerful and terrifying form of the snatched from Devaki by her stepbrother,
Goddess. According to one version of the Kamsa, the wicked king of Mathura, who
story, Bhadrakali’s birth is associated with dashes out the child’s brains on a rock;
the death of Shiva’s first wife, Sati. Sati goes this is just as he has done with Devaki’s six
to a great sacrifice sponsored by her father, other children because it has been fore-
Daksha. When Daksha intentionally and told that one of them will kill him. From
publicly insults her husband Shiva, in her the infant’s corpse arises an eight-armed
anger and shame, Sati immolates herself in figure of the Goddess, who taunts Kamsa
the sacrificial fire. When Shiva learns of that his destroyer has already escaped
Sati’s death, he is so enraged that he plucks and then disappears.
two matted locks (jata) from his head and

92
 Bhagavad Gita

Bhadrapada Mahabharata, the later of the two great

According to the lunar calendar, by Hindu epics. The parts of the epic before
which most Hindu religious festivals are the Bhagavad Gita chronicle the growing
determined, Bhadrapada is the sixth strife between the Pandavas and the
month of the lunar year, usually falling Kauravas, the two branches of a royal
within August and September. This is family who are the epic’s main charac-
one of the months associated with the ters. The parts following the Bhagavad
monsoon rains. The major festivals in Gita detail the battle that ultimately
Bhadrapada are Kajari Teej (Teej), destroys the entire family. The Bhagavad
Bahula Chauth, Janmashtami, Gita itself is set in that moment of calm
Radhashtami, Aja Ekadashi, Hartalika just before the battle begins, and it is
Teej (Teej), Ganesh Chaturthi, written as a dialogue between the
Rishi Panchami, Parivartini Ekadashi, Pandava prince Arjuna and the
Anant Chaturdashi, and in southern supreme divinity Krishna, here dis-
India, Onam. guised as Arjuna’s charioteer. Arjuna is
the world’s greatest archer and can dec-
imate his enemies with ease. But as he
Bhadrasana looks at the faces of the enemy, he real-
(“decent posture”) In yoga practice this izes that the people he is about to fight
is one of the sitting postures (asana) and kill are his relatives, teachers, and
described in commentaries to the Yoga friends. Not surprisingly, the prospect
Sutras. In this position the legs are leaves him cold, and it is up to Krishna
crossed with the feet tucked under the to give him divine guidance.
thighs so that the crossed heels form a The Gita’s second chapter opens with
cavity around the scrotum. This is called Krishna trying to shame Arjuna into
the “decent posture” because the fighting (in essence, saying “everyone
cupped hands are placed over the cavity will think you were afraid and make fun
made by the heels, covering the private of you”), but when this tactic fails,
parts. In Hindu iconography this is one Krishna has to give more substantive
of the common postures in which advice, which makes up the rest of the
images of the deities are portrayed. text. Different parts of the Bhagavad
Gita invoke all three of the generally
accepted paths to liberation of the
Bhagabhadra soul (moksha): the path of wisdom
Monarch in the Sunga dynasty, which (jnanamarga), the path of action
was centered in the Malwa region in the (karmamarga), and the path of
western part of the state of Madhya devotion (bhaktimarga).
Pradesh, in the centuries following the The path of wisdom is rooted in the
decline of the Maurya dynasty just teachings of the speculative texts known
before the turn of the common era. as the Upanishads. This path stresses
Despite the fragmentation of the the realization of one’s essential nature
Maurya state, rulers seem to have main- as the eternal Self (atman). The atman is
tained contact with the Greek-speaking identical with the universal reality
kingdoms to the west, since a pillar known as Brahman; once one has
inscription records that Bhagabhadra accepted this, all dualistic ideas and
received an ambassador named false knowledge disappear. The path of
Heliodorus from the king of Takshasila, action stresses acting without selfish
in modern Pakistan. desire—performing one’s duty as duty,
but without attachment to the ultimate
outcome. This path thus upholds and
Bhagavad Gita reinforces the rigid social structure pro-
One of the best-known Hindu scrip-
pounded in the dharma literature. As a
tures, which is itself a section in the
warrior in that social system, Arjuna’s
93
 Bhagavan

job is to kill people. At the same time, labor for Indian independence but to
the path of action provides a way to do so without attachment or hope for
transform socially sanctioned duty into personal gain. The text has become
religious practice. The path of devotion even more important as a “scripture”
entails surrendering all one’s actions to during the past two centuries, largely
God and performing one’s role as an because of pressure from Christian
instrument of divine will. missionaries. One sign of this is that
The Bhagavad Gita shows no clear in modern Indian courtrooms, the
preference for any of these paths, which Gita is the text upon which Hindus
implies that different writers reworked take the oath of truthfulness when
the text over time. Professor Arthur being called to take the stand. For an
Llewellyn Basham has speculated that accessible translation of the text
the “original” Bhagavad Gita ended with itself, see Barbara Stoller Miller
verse 2.38, after a section establishing (trans.), The Bhagavad-Gita, 1991; for
the morality of fighting in a just war, Dr. Basham’s analysis of the text, see
thus giving Arjuna his rationale to fight. Arthur Llewellyn Basham, The Origins
It is believed that this “original” text was and Development of Classical
then reworked by a philosopher of Hinduism, 1991.
the upanishadic type, who conceived
of the Ultimate Reality as the imper-
sonal Brahman and of liberation in Bhagavan
terms of mystical realization. The (“Blessed One”) Name denoting both
final sections were most likely added respect and reverence. In different con-
by a passionate devotee (bhakta) of texts this name can be used as an epi-
Vishnu, particularly in his form as thet of either the god Krishna (as in the
Krishna. According to Basham, this Bhagavad Gita) or the god Shiva. In
last author not only inserted verses in modern usage, at least in northern
some of the earlier books but also India, it is also the word that comes clos-
added some completely new ones. est to expressing the notion of abstract
One of these, Arjuna’s vision of divinity, much like the word “God” in
Krishna’s cosmic form in the Gita’s English. It is often used to denote God
eleventh chapter, is considered by Hindus who are religious but who do
among the most brilliant religious not worship particular deities.
texts ever written. Although some
scholars might take issue with
specific points, Professor Basham’s Bhagavata
theory seems the most convincing (“devotees of the Blessed One”) General
explanation for a highly varied text. name for the earliest devotees (bhakta)
In the roughly two thousand years of Vishnu, particularly the devotees of
since the Bhagavad Gita was com- Krishna-Gopala, a deified cowherd hero
piled, different commentators have who later became identified with
interpreted its message according to Vishnu. Until the development of
their own proclivities. The ninth- sectarian Vaishnavism in around
century philosopher Shankaracharya the eleventh century C.E., the word
saw it as sanctioning the path of wis- bhagavata was a blanket term for all
dom, while the eleventh-century Vaishnavas except the Pancharatrikas,
philosopher Ramanuja was con- who were followers of the secret ritual
vinced that it stressed devotion. The tradition known as Pancharatra.
most recent pivotal interpreter,
Mohandas Gandhi, understood the
text as commanding action. He saw in
Bhagavata Purana
Sectarian religious text that is by far the
Arjuna’s struggle a blueprint for his
most important text for the worship of
own time and work, urging him to
94
 Bhagirathi

the god Krishna as the single Supreme

Being. Internal evidence hints that it was
written in southern India in the ninth or
tenth century, making it much later than
many of the other puranas. The bulk of
the text focuses on Krishna’s early life in
the village of Brindavan—infancy, child-
hood, and adolescence—but gives little
attention to his later exploits as a king
and hero. This purana’s best-known sec-
tion is the tenth book, which describes
Krishna’s amorous exploits with the local
herd girls (gopis) as they pass the nights
in a circle dance (ras lila) on the shores of
the Yamuna River. The image of Krishna
throughout the text is that of a god in
constant play with the world. For
Krishna’s devotees (bhakta), the supreme
felicity comes with the opportunity to
take part in that divine play (lila).

Bhagirath
In Hindu mythology, the single person
most responsible for bringing the celes-
tial Ganges down to earth. The river
Ganges and the goddess Ganges are the
same, hence the river is considered holy.
Bhagirath is the great-great-grandson of
King Sagar, whose 60,000 sons have
As a tributary of the Ganges, the waters of the
been burned to ash by the sage Kapila’s
Bhagirathi River are considered sacred and its
magic power when they erroneously banks contain several pilgrimage sites.
accuse Kapila of being a thief. The sage
later tells Anshuman, King Sagar’s mountains to the sea, where she touches
grandson and sole surviving descen- his ancestors’ ashes, after which they
dant, that the only way to bring peace to find peace at last.
their souls is to bring the Ganges from
heaven down to earth. Anshuman Bhagirathi
strives to do this for the rest of his life, as Epithet for the Ganges as both river and
does his son Dilip after him, but both goddess. The word Bhagirathi is derived
are unsuccessful. Dilip’s son Bhagirath from the name Bhagirath, the single
takes their efforts to heart and retires to person most responsible for bringing
the Himalayas, where he performs the Ganges to earth. Bhagirathi is also
asceticism until the gods finally agree to the name for a Himalayan tributary of
send the Ganges down to earth. Yet the river; the Ganges itself is formed
Bhagirath’s efforts are not over. He next when the Bhagirathi unites with the
has to appease the god Shiva so that the Alakananda River at Devaprayag.
deity will agree to take the shock of the Although the Alakananda is longer and
falling river on his head, since its force wider, the Bhagirathi flows through
will otherwise destroy the earth. When Gangotri, the sacred site (tirtha) cele-
all is finally in place, the Ganges falls to brated as the source of the Ganges. As
earth onto the head of Shiva. From there with all the Himalayan tributaries of the
Bhagirath leads the river out of the Ganges, the Bhagirathi is considered
95
 Bhairava

sacred. Important pilgrimage places devotees (bhakta) of Shiva who formerly

along this tributary include Gangotri made their living as traders and merce-
near its headwaters, Uttarkashi, and nary soldiers; this group sees him as a
Devaprayag. divine image of themselves. Some of the
ambivalence associated with Bhairava is
symbolized by his animal vehicle, the
Bhairava dog, which in Hindu culture is almost
(“terrible”) A wrathful and powerful invariably a scavenger and considered
divine attendant of the god Shiva who is highly impure.
often identified as a form of Shiva him-
self. According to the Shiva Purana, a
sectarian scripture, Bhairava is produced Bhairava Akhara
when the god Brahma insults Shiva, and Another name for the Juna akhara, a
Shiva’s rage takes concrete form as particular subgroup of the Naga class
Bhairava. After his birth, Bhairava’s first of the Dashanami Sanyasis, who are
act is to cut off one of Brahma’s heads— devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva. See
the one whose mouth has uttered the Juna akhara.
insult—thus leaving the god with four
remaining heads. Since Brahma is con-
sidered a brahmin priest, this act makes Bhairava Jayanti
Bhairava guilty of brahmin murder, the Annual festival on the eighth day of
most serious of the four great crimes the dark, or waning, half of the
(mahapataka). As a sign of the enormity lunar month of Margashirsha
of his act, Brahma’s severed head sticks (November–December), which is cele-
to Bhairava’s hand; as penance brated as the birthday of Bhairava.
(prayashchitta) Bhairava has to wander Bhairava is a wrathful and powerful form
the countryside as a beggar, displaying of the god Shiva and is actually the god’s
Brahma’s severed head as a continual anger personified. He emerges from
advertisement of his crime. In his travels Shiva’s forehead after Shiva has been
Bhairava visits many pilgrimage places insulted by the god Brahma, and
(tirtha), but none of them have the Bhairava’s first act is to cut off the head of
power to cleanse him from the sin of Brahma that has uttered the insult, leav-
brahmin murder. He finally obtains a ing the god with four heads. Bhairava’s
pardon in the city of Benares, at a site wrath gives him an aura of danger but
named Kapalamochana (“releasing the also the power to help his devotees
skull”). As soon as Bhairava bathes there, (bhakta), who worship him to attain
Brahma’s head falls from his hand into success, remove obstacles, and recover
the Ganges—a sign that his crime had from disease. On this festival people
been expiated. worship Bhairava, Shiva, and Shiva’s
Although often seen as Shiva’s atten- wife, Parvati, as well as Bhairava’s ani-
dant, Bhairava is important in several mal vehicle, the dog. People are encour-
different contexts. He is often portrayed aged to worship through the night and to
as the consort of powerful, independent pass this time by telling mythic stories of
goddesses such as Durga and Kali, Bhairava, Shiva, and Parvati.
although he is subordinate to them,
befitting their status as supreme deities. Bhairavaprakasha
Bhairava’s associations with wrath and (“brilliance of Bhairava”) Name given to
power have made him popular with the spear that is the symbolic weapon of
practitioners of the secret ritual tradition the Mahanirvani akhara, a particular
known as tantra, who may invoke him group of the Naga class of the
for magic powers or other favors. Dashanami Sanyasis. The Dashanami
Bhairava is also popular with the Naga Nagas are devotees (bhakta) of the god
class of the Dashanami Sanyasis, ascetic Shiva and are organized into different
96
 Bhakta

akharas, or regiments, much like an for most of her life a woman’s primary
army. Until the beginning of the nine- protectors will be her brothers. A woman
teenth century, the Nagas’ primary without brothers is in a position of
occupation was as mercenary soldiers, relative weakness. If nothing else, these
although they also had substantial yearly visits give brothers the chance to
trading interests; both of these have assess their sister’s happiness and the
occupations largely disappeared in state of affairs in her married home.
contemporary times. All of the akharas Such visits also notify the husband’s
have particular features, including this family that they are still concerned with
spear, which signify their organiza- her welfare.
tional identity.

Bhajan
Bhairavi (“sharing”) General name for a religious
Feminine form of Bhairava and an or devotional hymn, which is almost
epithet of the Goddess. Bhairavi is one always sung in a vernacular language. As
of the ten Mahavidyas, a group of an expression of personal devotion, bha-
goddesses who are both extremely jans have no prescribed forms and in
powerful and potentially dangerous. contemporary times are often set to the
melodies of film songs. As a genre, bha-
jans can have any or all of the following
Bhaiya Duj themes: detailing the deeds of a particu-
Annual festival falling on the second lar deity, praising the deity, addressing
day (duj) of the bright, or waxing, half the god in a tone of complaint or humble
of the lunar month of Kartik supplication (vinaya), reminding the
(October–November). This festival is cel- deity of the speaker’s difficulties from
ebrated to emphasize the bond between internal or external sources, or warning
a brother (bhaiya) and sister. During the listeners to examine and reform their
Bhaiya Duj, married women invite their lives. Singing and listening to such
brothers into their homes, apply tika hymns was, and remains, a major form
marks on their brothers’ foreheads as a of religious activity in the bhakti (devo-
sign of respect, and feed them sweets tional) movement. During these
and a hearty meal. Sisters also tie a string sessions, devotees (bhakta) “share”
around their brothers’ right wrists to their songs and experiences with one
symbolize the emotional bond between another. Although one can find bhajans
them and the brother’s obligation to pro- dedicated to all the gods in the
tect his sister throughout her lifetime. pantheon, from a historical perspective
Unmarried women host their brothers in this singing tradition has been strongest
the same way in their natal homes. In among the devotees of Vishnu.
either case, on this day women should Vaishnava devotional literature is full
pray that their brothers have long lives of tales of Vishnu coming in disguise to
and that they themselves be happily take part in bhajan sessions, since the
married. The brothers, in turn, give pre- company of his devotees is said to be
sents to their sisters. heaven on earth.
Aside from reaffirming the normal
family love between brother and sister,
this festival also emphasizes the protec- Bhakta
tive role that brothers play in their sis- (“sharer”) In Hinduism, this word
ters’ lives, particularly after women are denotes a devotee of any particular
married. The traditional pattern in deity. The word’s literal meaning,
northern India is for married women to “sharer,” has a twofold sense. On one
live with their husbands’ families. Since hand, the devotee shares in the deity’s
women generally outlive their fathers, grace by virtue of his or her piety. On the

97
 Bhaktamal

although internal evidence suggests that

it was completed early in the seven-
teenth century.

Bhaktavijaya
(“Triumph of [God’s] Devotees”) Text
written by Mahipati, an eighteenth-cen-
tury writer and hagiographer of the
devotional (bhakti) poet-saints. The sto-
ries in the Bhaktavijaya focus mainly
on the saints connected with the
Varkari Panth, a religious group
centered around the worship of the god
Vithoba at his temple at Pandharpur.
This focus is understandable since
Mahipati himself was a Varkari. In
keeping with the trend toward unifica-
tion often promoted by the devotional
movement, he also included tales of
other great devotees (bhakta), most
notably Kabir, Namdev, Jnaneshvar,
A family makes an offering in a burning tray. and Narsi Mehta. The stories in the
Offerings are a sign of religious Bhaktavijaya present each of these
devotion (bhakti) to a deity. saints as a paradigm of devotion and
other hand, since most Hindu devotion- stress the power of piety to overcome all
alism involves a community of obstacles. This theme also marks
worshipers, the devotee also gets to Mahipati’s other major work, the
share in the company and community of Bhaktililamrta. The Bhaktavijaya has
like-minded people. been translated by Justin E. Abbott and
Narhar R. Godbole as Stories of Indian
Saints, 1988.
Bhaktamal
(“Garland of Devotees”) Text written by
Nabhadas (ca. 1600) in which he gives
Bhakti
(“sharing”) The most common word
short (six-line) biographical accounts of
denoting devotion to God. This is one of
over two hundred bhakti (devotional)
the three traditional paths to gain final
figures. Although Nabhadas himself was
liberation of the soul (moksha), and it
a Ramanandi, and thus a devotee
has been the most widespread type of
(bhakta) of the god Rama, his work not
religious practice for well over a thou-
only includes devotees of all sectarian
sand years. The word’s literal meaning
persuasions but is generally considered
conveys the sense of relationship. On
unbiased. The text is notably free of
one hand, it refers to an intense and pas-
astonishing and miraculous events.
sionate love between devotee (bhakta)
Instead, the main emphasis is on the
and deity, and on the other, it refers to
devotee’s personal qualities, which serve
separate communities of people bound
as a model for others. In many cases the
together by their common love of God.
Bhaktamal gives the earliest reliable
Although references to bhakti can be
account of these figures, which makes it
found in such early texts as the
an extremely important source for
Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the
northern Indian literary and religious
Bhagavad Gita, the bhakti propounded
history. It is all the more interesting that
here is radically different from later
the text cannot be definitively dated,
98
 Bhaktililamrta

usages. In both these texts, bhakti is pre- associations, as with the Lingayat com-
sented as a form of yoga in which one munity. In all cases these devotees were
contemplates God as part of a con- keenly aware of those who had preceded
trolled and disciplined practice. This is a them and their connections with one
far cry from the abandonment and pas- another. Such communities were both
sionate involvement in later times. formed and reinforced through satsang,
The beginnings of this latter sort of the “company of good people” whose
bhakti arose in the Tamil country of influence over time was believed to have
deep southern India between the sixth the power to transform. This was a type
and ninth centuries B.C.E. It had an of “sharing” that bound devotees to
intensity that was radically different each other and to their teacher, and
from earlier notions, a devotional “heat” through these two vehicles carried them
as opposed to the “coolness” of yoga. to God.
Tamil bhakti expressed, and continues These are general characteristics,
to express, its devotion through songs and bhakti’s regional manifestations
sung in vernacular languages, convey- often take on a distinct flavor marked by,
ing an intimate relationship with a per- if nothing else, the differing languages.
sonal god. The Padma Purana speaks of bhakti
These characteristics basically held (a feminine noun) as a maiden who
throughout history. The use of vernacu- was born in southern India, attained
lar speech was especially significant, maturity in the state of Maharashtra,
for this was the language of ordinary and was rejuvenated in northern
life and marked the egalitarianism that India. Although this is a metaphor, it
was one of the hallmarks of bhakti accurately charts the historical diffusion
devotion. Bhakti devotees were men and of bhakti devotion, as well as its changes
women from all strata of society, from as it moved north. All forms of
the highest to the lowest; here was an bhakti are shaped by specific times,
opportunity for religious life based places, and circumstances.
solely on the depth and sincerity of one’s
devotion rather than on one’s birth.
Despite this religious egalitarianism, Bhaktililamrta
devotees rarely tried to restructure (“Nectar of the Play of Devotion”) Text
their hierarchical societies. The idea was written by Mahipati, an eighteenth-
that religious equality was supposed century writer and hagiographer of the
to transcend rather than reform devotional (bhakti) poet-saints.
human society. Mahipati belonged to the Varkari
Aside from egalitarianism and per- Panth, a religious group centered
sonal experience, bhakti worship also around the worship of the god Vithoba
stressed community, based on the inter- at his temple at Pandharpur. The
connections between devotees. Though Bhaktililamrta gives extended accounts
each devotee was an individual (and of Varkari saints, such as Eknath,
indeed, bhakti poets had real personali- Tukaram, Ramdas, and Bhanudas. The
ties, as the many hagiographies bear text presents each of these saints as a
witness), they also fell into “families,” all paradigm of devotion and stresses the
of which were connected with each power of worship to overcome all obsta-
other. Many of the bhakti saints fell into cles. This theme also marks his other
recognizable groups: Some were cen- major work, the Bhaktavijaya. Parts of
tered around a particular sacred place, the Bhaktililamrta have been translated
such as the temple at Pandharpur in the by Justin E. Abbott as The Life of Eknath,
state of Maharashtra; some were con- 1981; and The Life of Tukaram, 1980.
nected as teachers and students, such as
Nammalvar and his disciple
Nathamuni; and some had long-term
99
 Bhaktimarga

Bhaktimarga that is, that all things are nothing but the
(“path of devotion”) Along with the path formless, unqualified Brahman despite
of action (karmamarga) and the path of the appearance of diversity. For the
wisdom (jnanamarga), this is one of Advaitins, this assumption of diversity is
Hinduism’s three generally accepted a fundamental misunderstanding of the
ways to gain final liberation of the soul ultimate nature of things, or avidya.
(moksha). The bhaktimarga seeks Although often translated as “igno-
release of the soul through bhakti, or rance,” avidya is better understood as
passionate devotion to God. a lack of genuine understanding,
which ultimately causes human beings
to be trapped in karmic bondage,
Bhaktirasabodhini reincarnation (samsara), and suffering.
(“Awakening the Delight in Devotion”) Bhamati Advaita is based on the
Name of a commentary on the ideas of Mandana Mishra, although the
Bhaktamal of Nabhadas; this commen- school takes its name from a commen-
tary was written by Priyadas in 1712. In tary written by Mandana’s disciple
the Bhaktamal, Nabhadas had given Vachaspati Mishra. Mandana was a
brief six-line biographies of over two contemporary of the philosopher
hundred contemporary bhakti (devo- Shankaracharya, Advaita Vedanta’s
tional) figures. These biographies are greatest exponent, and took definitive
notably free of astonishing and miracu- stands on several philosophical points
lous events and usually stress the devo- on which Shankaracharya had remained
tee’s personal qualities, to serve as a silent. One such point was the location
model for others. In the of avidya, which Mandana claimed must
Bhaktirasabodhini, Priyadas gave great- be each individual Self because it was
ly expanded accounts for each devotee absurd to conceive of Brahman as sub-
mentioned by Nabhadas, often narrat- ject to ignorance. For Mandana there
ing amazing stories to which Nabhadas were clearly multiple, separate selves,
made no reference. In his biography of since one person’s liberation did not
the poet-saint Ravidas, Nabhadas drew bring liberation for all.
from the texts written by the biographer Mandana’s comments presupposed
Anantadas, but in other cases his the existence of a common, if illusory,
sources are not clear. The accounts in world, which his followers explained as
the Bhaktirasabodhini are suspect as the activity of one primal ignorance;
genuine biographies of these saints, however, they also had to explain how a
given Priyadas’s penchant for miracu- single primal ignorance could simulta-
lous events and his chronological dis- neously affect multiple souls. This was
tance from his subjects. Still, the text is done using philosophical models known
extremely valuable as a mirror of his as limitationism and reflectionism,
time, and careful analysis can reveal although it is the former that has been
much about contemporary religious more commonly associated with the
tensions and issues. Bhamati school. Limitationism assumes
that there are some things (i.e., the color
red) that we do not conceive of as
Bhamati Advaita divided, even when different red colors
A later branch of the Advaita Vedanta
appear in different places. In the same
philosophical school. The Advaita
way, the Bhamati school argued, avidya
school upholds a position known as
can be found in multiple souls at
monism, which is the belief that a single
the same time but is complete and
Ultimate Reality lies behind all things
undivided in each of them.
and that everything is merely a differing
Reflectionism is based on the idea of a
form of that reality. Advaita proponents
mirror’s image, which is different from
believe that reality is nondual (advaita),
the original but made from it. Therefore
100
 Bhang

the avidya found in any particular soul is the traditional mastery of Sanskrit texts
a “reflection” of the original avidya. For with critical and objective research, a
further information see Karl H. Potter project that until then had been con-
(ed.), Presuppositions of India’s fined to European scholars. Bhandarkar
Philosophies, 1972. is emblematic of Indian intellectuals in
the late nineteenth century, who began
by learning from the Europeans but
Bhandara were then able to work with the best of
(“storehouse”) A banquet given for large them. Bhandarkar authored two
numbers of people—either by special Sanskrit workbooks and numerous
invitation, restricted to certain classes of scholarly texts, but his most significant
people (such as ascetics), or open to the legacy is the Bhandarkar Oriental
general public. Sponsoring such a ban- Research Institute; it was founded in
quet is believed to generate consider- 1917 by his students, friends, and admir-
able religious merit, but this is also a ers and is still a highly respected
conspicuous opportunity for both the research institution.
donor and attendees to enhance their
status. Issues of status are also marked
among the attendees. The most honored Bhandarkar Oriental
guests confer status on the donor simply Research Institute
by deigning to come, and accordingly (BORI) Research institute founded in
such guests will be treated differently 1917 and named after the great scholar
from the common lot. The rest of the R. G. Bhandarkar (1837–1925). The
guests generally get no such special Institute is devoted to the study and
treatment. They give status to the host preservation of traditional Indian cul-
by eating the food he (or she) has had ture, and it is respected in scholarly cir-
prepared, but they get little in return cles throughout the world. Its two most
other than the meal itself, which is usu- important publications have been P. V.
ally of poor quality since the food is pre- Kane’s History of Dharmasastra and a
pared in large quantities. multivolume critical edition of the
Based on these considerations, Mahabharata, the later of the two great
ascetics with sufficient resources of their Hindu epics. Aside from its publications,
own will usually avoid such banquets the Institute is also noted for its vast col-
because of both the quality of the food lection of Sanskrit manuscripts, which
and the concerns over status. To eat at a makes it one of the finest research
bhandara is not only to confer prestige establishments in all of India.
on the donor, but to lower one’s own
status by appearing as though one
needs to do this to survive. The main Bhang
exception is when one has been invited Paste or dough made from crushed mar-
as an honored guest, but even in these ijuana (Cannabis sativa), which is often
cases it is not unusual for such guests to mixed with spices or other flavorings
eat little or nothing, thereby giving before being formed into a ball. It is
status by their presence but losing none taken as an intoxicant, either eaten, or
through consumption. mixed into a “cooling” milk-based drink
called thandai. In general, eating bhang
is disapproved of by respectable people,
Bhandarkar, R. G. although it is fairly common in certain
(1837–1925) Sanskrit scholar and intel- circles, particularly among ascetics.
lectual who was the first Indian to serve Despite this basic disapproval, bhang is
as professor of Sanskrit at Deccan widely consumed as part of the festival
College, in Poona. Bhandarkar was one celebrations for Shivaratri and Holi,
of the first Indian academics to combine even by people who avoid it the rest of
101
 Bhanita

the year. The former festival is dedicated Atri, and Vishvamitra. All brahmins are
to Shiva, who is famous for his love of believed to be descended from these
the drug, whereas Holi is associated seven sages, with each family taking the
with overturning social boundaries, giv- name of its progenitor as its gotra name.
ing greater license to do things normally In modern times, these gotra divisions
proscribed. Aside from being consumed are still important, since marriage with-
during certain celebrations, it can also in the lineage is forbidden. After her
be taken in special places, particularly marriage the bride adopts her husband’s
when on a pilgrimage. Several of the gotra as part of her new identity. See also
most famous Hindu sacred sites marriage prohibitions.
(tirthas)—among them Benares, Puri,
and Haridwar—have government-run
bhang stands where pilgrims can fulfill Bharadvaja
their needs. (2) (5th c. B.C.E.?) Religious scholar
named as the author of a Shrauta Sutra
(manual on prescriptions for Vedic ritu-
Bhanita als) and a Grhya Sutra (manual on
In poetry, particularly the vernacular domestic rites). The period during
form of the bhakti poets, a signature which he flourished is uncertain but
line in which the author is identified by must precede Panini, since this gram-
name. This line has two major functions: marian mentions Bharadvaja in the
to identify the poet and to provide a Ashtadhyayi. Given their interest in
summation of the poem’s message. The strengthening the authority of their
word bhanita comes from a verb mean- sacred texts, many Hindus identify this
ing “to speak,” and by adding a signature author with the legendary sage
line the poet is stamping his or her Bharadvaja, although there is no hard
authorship on the poem. Of course, evidence for this claim.
there is nothing to prevent others from
doing this as well. In a performance con-
text, the poet’s name comes at the Bharata
beginning of the final line and alerts the In Hindu mythology, the son of King
audience to pay special attention to that Dushyanta and the maiden Shakuntala;
line, which often sums up the entire Bharata is considered a partial incarna-
poem’s message. tion of the god Vishnu. Dushyanta and
Shakuntala are married in secret in a
gandharva marriage executed by their
Bharadvaja mutual consent. Dushyanta must return
In the Ramayana, the earlier of the two to his capital and leaves Shakuntala at
great Hindu epics, Bharadvaja is an her home. While he is gone, she is cursed
important ascetic and sage. His ashram, by the sage Durvasas that her lover will
or abode, is at Chitrakut; this is now a forget her. In time, Bharata is born and
town in the southeastern area of the Shakuntala goes off to search for her
state of Uttar Pradesh, but the epic beloved. She has to endure many trials
describes the place as a forest her- before the curse is broken. Since
mitage. When Rama, his wife Sita, and Shakuntala and Dushyanta have been
his brother Lakshmana are beginning married in secret, it takes some time
their fourteen years of exile, they come before Bharata is accepted as
to Bharadvaja to seek his blessings Dushyanta’s legitimate son, and thus heir
(ashirvad). In a broader mythological to the throne. When Bharata finally
context, Bharadvaja is one of the seven ascends the throne, he reigns for a long
sages whose names mark exogamous time. After his reign the land of India
gotra (“lineages”); the others are becomes traditionally known as Bharata.
Kashyapa, Bhrgu, Vasishtha, Gautama,

102
 Bharatanatyam

Bharata
(2) In the Ramayana, the earlier of the
two great Hindu epics, Bharata is the
son of King Dasharatha by his wife
Kaikeyi and the righteous younger
brother of the god Rama, the epic’s pro-
tagonist. Bharata’s loyalty to his family
has to endure several tests. The strictest
one comes early in the epic when,
through Kaikeyi’s treachery, Rama is
sent into exile in the forest for fourteen
years, and Bharata is named king in his
place. Despite the obvious temptations
of wealth and power, Bharata refuses to
assume the throne in place of his
brother, curses his mother for her
deceit, and sets off to live in exile with
Rama. Rama commands Bharata to
return to Ayodhya and rule during
his exile, on the premise that the people
will suffer without a king. Bharata
reluctantly agrees to act as a temporary
king, but with two symbolic adjust-
ments: He moves the court from the
capital city of Ayodhya to the village A dancer performs in the classical
of Nandigrama as a symbol of Rama’s Bharatanatyam form. She assumes the pose of
exile, and throughout his rule sits at Nataraja, the “Lord of the Dance.”
the foot of the royal throne; a pair of
Rama’s sandals are placed upon the
throne as a symbol of the rightful king.
Many characters in the Ramayana Bharatanatyam
are paradigms for Indian cultural values, One of the classical dance forms of
and Bharata stands for the ideal younger India; some of the others are Kathak,
brother. In the traditional joint house- Orissi, Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Chau,
hold the brothers are the heart of the and Manipuri. Bharatanatyam has its
family, since it is they who remain at home in the temple towns of the state of
home their entire lives, whereas their Tamil Nadu, particularly Tanjore city’s
sisters live with their husbands’ families Brhadeshvar temple. This temple is
after they are married. The eldest brother dedicated to the god Shiva, whose most
in every generation eventually becomes famous form is Nataraja, the “Lord of
the head of the joint family after the the Dance.” According to tradition the
older members have passed away. He name bharata comes not from the sage
carries primary authority and responsi- Bharata, the reputed author of the text
bility for the family as a whole but can- on dance called the Natyashastra , but
not succeed without the cooperation of from an acronym of the dance’s three
his younger brothers, who must most important elements: “bha” from
acknowledge and support his authority. bhava (“feeling”), “ra” from raga
By refusing to usurp his elder brother’s (“melodic mood”), and “ta” from tala
rightful leadership, Bharata is a para- (“rhythm”). The second word in the
digm for the ideal younger brother, who name, natyam, simply means “dance.”
puts aside his own desires and opportu- Bharatanatyam’s historical roots are
nities to uphold and promote the wel- uncertain. The existence of dance can
fare of the family as a whole. be dated to the early centuries C.E. since
103
 Bharati Dashanami

it is mentioned in the two Tamil epic different name—in this case, bharati
poems, Shilappadigaram and (“Indian”). Upon initiation, new mem-
Manimegalai. Carvings at the Shiva bers are given this name as a surname to
temple in Kanchipuram suggest that their new ascetic names, thus allowing
this dance was well developed in the for immediate group identification.
Pallava dynasty (6th–9th c. C.E.), but Aside from their individual identity,
hard evidence for structured temple these ten divisions are divided into four
dance, including the hereditary dancers larger organizational groups. Each
known as devadasis, did not appear group has its headquarters in one of the
until the Chola dynasty (9th–14th c. C.E.). four monastic centers (maths) suppos-
Although royal patronage was an impor- edly established by Shankaracharya, as
tant factor in its survival, well as other particular religious associ-
Bharatanatyam was performed primari- ations. The Bharati Dashanamis belong
ly in the temples until the twentieth cen- to the Bhuriwara group, which is affili-
tury, when the dance began to be ated with the Shringeri Math in the
performed on stage. southern Indian town of Shringeri. The
As an artistic form, the dance’s pre- Bharati division is elite because it is one
sent technique was codified in the early of the few that will initiate only brah-
nineteenth century by four brothers in mins. Other such divisions are the
the service of Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore. Saraswati Dashanamis, Tirtha
Stylistically, Bharatanatyam presents a Dashanamis, and Ashrama Dashanamis.
sharply geometric line. The most char- The Bharatis are unusual, however,
acteristic posture has a stiff upper torso, since only part of the division is
with the knees flexed outward in line restricted to brahmins.
with the rest of the body, and the feet
spread gently outward. This posture is a
recurring motif in any performance. As Bharatiya Janata Party
in all the Indian dances, Bharatanatyam (BJP) Modern Indian political party with
has a well-developed vocabulary of ges- a strong Hindu nationalist (Hindutva)
ture and expression, which makes it orientation. The party was formed as the
possible for the dancer to tell complex political wing of the Hindu nationalist
stories. Like most other Indian dance organization known as Rashtriya
forms, Bharatanatyam has been influ- Svayamsevak Sangh (RSS), and many of
enced by the shift from temple to the BJP’s leaders have been RSS members
stage as its primary theater. Although its for decades. The BJP was formed in 1980
roots lie in worship and devotion, the after the dissolution of its predecessor
move to the stage has inevitably disrupt- organization, the Jana Sangh. The latter
ed some of these religious connections. was an RSS affiliate as well, several of the
For further information see Mohan whose leaders, notably Lal Krishna
Khokar, Traditions of Indian Classical Advani and Atal Behari Vajpayee, have
Dance, 1984. also led the BJP. At first the BJP took a
moderate political stance and fared
quite poorly, winning only two seats in
Bharati Dashanami the 1984 elections. In the later 1980s it
One of the ten divisions of the took a far more militant tone, stressing
Dashanami Sanyasis, renunciant as its focal issue the campaign to build
ascetics who are devotees (bhakta) of the Ram Janam Bhumi temple in
Shiva. The Dashanamis were supposedly Ayodhya. As the Indian electorate grew
established by the ninth-century more religiously polarized, the BJP
philosopher Shankaracharya in an climbed to eighty-six seats in 1989 and
effort to create a corps of learned men 120 seats in 1991. In the 1996 elections it
who could help to revitalize Hindu life. won 160 seats, becoming the largest sin-
Each of the divisions is designated by a gle party in India’s 535-seat Parliament.
104
 Bharatmilap

The president of India invited the BJP to Moreover, it suggests that India is one
form a government, but this failed when unified culture despite its striking
it was unable to gain enough support regional diversity. These ideas can be
from other parties to muster a majority found in specific areas, particularly in
of votes in Parliament. the networks of tirthas knitting the
The BJP’s traditional constituency has country together, yet in contemporary
been brahmins and members of the times this image’s underlying purpose is
trading communities, both of whom often political rather than religious.
tend to be religiously conservative and At times it simply represents
supportive of the Hindutva message. In national pride, but at other times it has
the mid-1990s the BJP muted its Hindu a more sinister hidden agenda. This
nationalist rhetoric in an attempt to identification of Indian culture with the
reach beyond these traditional con- motherland can be used as a way to
stituencies and to gain more widespread marginalize religious minorities—pri-
support by moving closer to the political marily Muslims and Christians, whose
center. Despite these changes, many of holy places lie in other countries—as
the established secular parties still view “foreigners,” and people whose patrio-
the BJP with suspicion and have refused tism and connection to the Indian
to ally themselves with the organization. nation are potentially suspect.
The BJP’s inability to mobilize such sup-
port among the larger body politic was a
major factor behind the collapse of its Bharatmilap
short-lived government in 1996. The (“Meeting Bharata”) A particular scene
country was then run by a coalition of in the dramas known as the Ram Lila,
thirteen secular political parties, whose which are reenactments of the
single binding commitment is their Ramayana, the earlier of the two great
opposition to the BJP. However, since Hindu epics. This scene records the
1998 the BJP has succeeded in building meeting between the god Rama and his
coalitions to form a government. For brother Bharata, which takes place after
further information see Walter K. Rama has been in exile for fourteen
Andersen and Shridhar D. Damle, The years, during which Bharata has faith-
Brotherhood in Saffron, 1987; and fully served as ruler in his brother’s
Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu place. According to connoisseurs of the
Nationalist Movement in India, 1996. Ram Lila, this brief scene is filled with
some of the most rapturous emotion in
the play. Certainly there is the exaltation
Bharat Mata that the time of separation has ended,
(“Mother India”) Modern Hindu “deity” but the scene’s popularity also comes
whose primary image is a map of the from the way it reflects certain basic cul-
subcontinent, often prominently tural values. The brothers are consid-
marked with the network of India’s ered the heart of the traditional Indian
sacred sites (tirthas). The presupposi- joint family since they remain at home
tion behind most of these particular their entire lives, whereas their sisters
sacred sites is that the land itself is holy, become part of their marital families.
but the idea of Bharat Mata takes this The eldest brother in every generation
idea to a more abstract level, sanctifying eventually becomes the head of the joint
the whole subcontinent. Although this household, but he cannot succeed with-
map and its image of Mother India are out the support and cooperation of his
usually not actual objects of worship, younger brothers. Rama and Bharata are
they carry important symbolic mes- thus models for the brothers in a tradi-
sages. In an abstract way, the holiness of tional joint family: Rama for treating his
Mother India unites all Hindus regard- younger brother with love and care, and
less of their sectarian affiliation. Bharata for obediently carrying out his
105
 Bharavi

(“Three Hundred”), a three-part collec-

tion of poems on political life, love, and
renunciation. According to legend,
Bhartrhari was born the son of the brah-
min Vidyasagara and his shudra wife,
Mandakini. Vidyasagara was the adviser
to the king of Kalinga and was given the
kingdom upon the ruler’s death; after
Vidyasagara’s death Bhartrhari’s brothers
designated him as king. Bhartrhari was
very happy until he realized that his wife
was being unfaithful to him. When her
secret was discovered she tried to poi-
son him. Completely disillusioned,
Bhartrhari renounced the world to live
as an ascetic, during which time he
reputedly composed his poetry.
Although this is a good story, since
many of these poems stress the degra-
dation inherent in courtly life,
Bhartrhari was most likely a courtier. His
poetry treats all of the conventional pur-
poses of life. The first two sections are
about power (artha), sensual desire
An image of the god Vithoba. Bharud poetry was
(kama), and righteous action (dharma),
composed by poet-saints in the Varkari Panth,
whereas the final section is concerned
a religious community devoted to Vithoba.
with the ultimate end, or liberation of
older brother’s wishes for the good of the the soul (moksha). For further informa-
family as a whole. tion see Barbara Stoller Miller (trans.),
The Hermit and the Love-Thief, 1978.
Bharavi
(6th c. C.E.) Sanskrit dramatist who is Bhartrprapancha
best known as the author of the drama (7th c. C.E.) In Indian philosophy, the
Kiratarjuniya. This play describes the first exponent of the Bhedabhada
meeting between the god Shiva, dis- (“identity-in-difference”) philosophical
guised as the tribal hunter Kirata, and school. The period during which
the warrior-hero Arjuna. Arjuna is one Bhartrprapancha flourished is uncer-
of the five Pandava brothers, who are tain, but he precedes the eighth-century
the heroes of the epic Mahabharata. In Bhedabhada commentator Bhaskara.
Hindu mythology, Arjuna is the world’s The Bhedabhada position identified
greatest warrior, but he is also afflicted three levels of being: the Ultimate
with pride. The play describes how the Reality known as Brahman, the “wit-
arrogant Arjuna becomes humbled at ness” consciousness (sakshin) in the
the hands of this tribal hunter, who in human being, and the world. This
contemporary terms would be of very school paradoxically asserted that these
low social status. In the end, however, three levels were identical, yet different.
Shiva reveals his true form to Arjuna and Thus the world is identical to Brahman
blesses him for his valor. but subject to change and decay, unlike
Brahman. In the same way, while each
Bhartrhari human soul is identical to Brahman, it is
(5th c. C.E.) Sanskrit poet-philosopher also subject to bondage and reincarna-
who authored the Shatakatrayam tion (samsara), unlike Brahman. The
106
 Bhaskara

bondage of the soul was caused by the The need for commentary was presup-
primal ignorance known as avidya, but posed in most texts on Hindu philoso-
it could be erased by a combination of phy as well as in the secret ritual
action and awareness (jnanakar- tradition known as tantra. Philosophical
masamucchaya). The basic philosophi- works were often nothing more than
cal problem for Bhartrprapancha collections of brief aphorisms, which
and his followers came from their belief were intentionally kept short to
that Brahman was actually transformed facilitate memorization but which
into both the world and the Self, a clearly needed further explanation. In
philosophical outlook known as parina- the case of tantra, commentary was
mavada. Since they believed that essential because the texts were written
Brahman underwent real changes, it using coded language to conceal their
was subject to bondage and ignorance. contents from the uninitiated. This
This position was untenable and unac- may have been in the form known as
ceptable from a religious perspective sandhabhasha, which often uses
because Brahman was deemed to be erotic language to indicate religious
perfect and unchanging. This difficulty practice, or it may simply have been
may account for the school’s relatively a technical language in which
short life. everyday words had contextual meanings.

Bharud Bhaskara
The name for a specific genre of bhakti In Indian philosophy, an eighth-cen-
(devotional) poetry, found particularly tury proponent of the Bhedabhada
among the Varkari Panth, a religious (“identity-in-difference”) school. The
community centered around the wor- Bhedabhada position identified three
ship of the Hindu god Vithoba at his levels of being: the Ultimate Reality
temple at Pandharpur, in the modern known as Brahman, the “witness”
state of Maharashtra. The bharud is consciousness (sakshin) in the
essentially a dramatic poem in which human being, and the world. They
the speaker takes on one or more roles paradoxically asserted that these three
to convey the message of devotion to levels were identical, yet different.
God. It was especially favored by the Thus the world is identical to Brahman
poet-saint Eknath, who used the genre but subject to change and decay,
to adopt the personae of women, unlike Brahman. In the same way,
untouchables, Muslims, and other mar- while each human soul is identical
ginal people. In modern times these to Brahman, it is also subject to
bharuds have become the basis for pop- bondage and reincarnation (samsara),
ular dramas, usually performed during unlike Brahman. The bondage of the
the biannual Varkari pilgrimage to soul was caused by the primal
Pandharpur. While singing the songs of ignorance known as avidya, but
the earlier saints during a pilgrimage is it could be erased by a combination
an important religious act, these mod- of action and awareness (jnanakar-
ern renditions are mainly for entertain- masamucchaya). The basic philosoph-
ment. The actors playing the roles in ical problem for the Bhedabhada
these bharuds frequently add in their school was that because they believed
own words and actions, which are often that Brahman was actually trans-
quite bawdy. formed into the world and the Self
(parinamavada), it followed that
Brahman was subject to bondage and
Bhashya ignorance. This idea was difficult to
(“commentary”) Any commentary, defend, since the transcendence of
whether on a text or an oral teaching. Brahman was well established by
107
 Bhasmasur

sacred texts such as the Upanishads, description of this evil ascetic and his
and this problem may account for the disciples is one of the earliest datable
school’s relatively short life. references to the Shaiva form of asceti-
cism, and therefore important from a
historical perspective.
Bhasmasur
In Hindu mythology, a demon with great
power but limited intelligence. Bhavani
According to tradition, the god Shiva (feminine form of Bhava) Epithet of the
has given Bhasmasur the power to god Shiva’s wife, Parvati. See Parvati.
change anyone to ash (bhasma) simply
by placing his hand on that person’s
head. Bhasmasur falls in love with Bhavas
Shiva’s wife Parvati and attempts to (“states”) In Indian aesthetics the
place his hand on Shiva’s head, and the bhavas are a set of nine states consid-
god has to flee. Bhasmasur is destroyed ered the most basic unadulterated emo-
when the god Vishnu tricks him into tions: sexual excitement, laughter, grief,
putting his hand on top of his own head, anger, energy, fear, loathing, wonder,
which instantly transforms him into ash. and peace. To these nine bhavas corre-
In metaphorical usage, the term spond the nine rasas (“tastes”), or
Bhasmasur denotes any problem that moods transmitted by various types of
has grown out of hand through lack artistic expression: the erotic, comic,
of foresight. compassionate, cruel, heroic, terrifying,
loathsome, marvelous, and peaceful.
Although these bhavas and rasas clearly
Bhava correspond to one another, there is an
(“being”) Epithet of the god Shiva. important difference between them. A
See Shiva. person’s emotive states come and go in
response to circumstances that are often
beyond one’s control. Because such nat-
Bhavabhuti urally occurring emotions usually can-
(early 8th c. C.E.) Sanskrit dramatist and not be sustained, they are generally not
playwright noted for his ability to objects of aesthetic satisfaction. This is
express and transmit emotions through not true in the case of rasa, since mood
language. His best-known play, the can be artificially generated by an artis-
romance Malatimadhava , is famous tic endeavor. Any particular rasa can
not only in its own right, but because the thus be sustained and satisfying. The
primary villain is an evil ascetic believed single most dominant aim in all the
to be a member of the defunct ascetic Indian arts, therefore, is to create such a
group known as Kapalikas. The mood or moods for the audience.
Kapalikas were devotees (bhakta) of
Shiva, and their reputed practices emu-
lated Shiva in his wrathful form as Bhave, Vinobha
Bhairava. They wore their hair long and (1895–1982) Social and religious
matted, smeared their bodies with ash reformer whose basic principles reflected
(preferably from the cremation his long association with Mohandas K.
ground), and carried a club and a skull Gandhi, to whom Bhave came as a disci-
bowl (kapala). According to some ple in 1916. Bhave was one of Gandhi’s
sources, they also indulged in forbidden close associates in the struggle for inde-
behavior—drinking wine, eating meat, pendence and was particularly
using cannabis and other drugs, per- absorbed with Gandhi’s idea of village
forming human sacrifice, and orgiastic self-sufficiency. In the years after inde-
sexuality—which caused them to be pendence, he traveled around India on
avoided and feared. Bhavabhuti’s foot to meet the people. It was on one
108
 Bhima

such tour that he started the Bhoodan Vindhya Mountains, in the eastern part
(“land gift”) movement, the purpose of of the state of Madhya Pradesh. They
which was to obtain donations of land are historically associated with the for-
for the poor. Much of Bhave’s life after est, particularly with hunting and gath-
independence was devoted to village ering honey. As with many tribal groups,
development, in particular through a their homeland is often in marginal
movement called Sarvodaya (“welfare of lands, and most of them are quite poor.
all”), which sought to solve problems
through collective involvement and ser-
vice to one another. Bhima
The third of the five Pandava brothers
who are the heroes in the
Bhedabhada Mahabharata, the later of the two great
(“identity-in-difference”) Philosophical Hindu epics. Bhima is born when his
school whose best-known figures were mother, Kunti, uses a powerful mantra
Bhartrprapancha and Bhaskara. The (sacred sound) to have a son by the
Bhedabhada position identified three wind-god, Vayu. Of all the Pandavas,
levels of being: the Ultimate Reality Bhima is the largest and strongest, and
known as Brahman, the “witness” con- his favorite weapon is the club, which
sciousness (sakshin) in the human requires great physical strength. This
being, and the world. The school para- strength is one of the sources of enmity
doxically asserted that these three levels between the Pandavas and the
are identical, yet different. Thus the Kauravas (cousins of the Pandavas),
world is identical to Brahman but is sub- since during their adolescent training,
ject to change and decay, unlike Bhima can always draw on his superior
Brahman. In the same way, while each power to outdo his cousins. His earthy
human soul is identical to Brahman, it is and untamed nature is evident through
also subject to bondage and reincarna- his consumption of strange foods as well
tion (samsara), unlike Brahman. The as from his liaison with the rakshasi
bondage of the soul was caused by the (female demon) Hidambi, by whom he
primal ignorance known as avidya, but has a son, Ghatotkacha. Bhima’s notable
it could be erased by a combination of deeds tend to be feats of strength. In
action and awareness (jnanakar- many cases this involves killing demons,
masamucchaya). The basic philosophi- such as Bakasur or Hidamba in hand-to-
cal problem for Bhartrprapancha and hand combat; but Bhima is also a major
his followers was that because they figure in the Mahabharata war, in which
believed that Brahman was actually he uses his club to kill great masses of the
transformed into the world and the Self Kaurava army.
(parinamavada), it followed that Besides his strength and unusual
Brahman was subject to bondage and appetites, which make him a figure sub-
ignorance. Thus, if one must destroy ject to caricature, Bhima is also
avidya to gain liberation, one must also absolutely devoted to his brothers and
destroy part of Brahman. These were to their common wife, Draupadi.
difficult ideas to defend since the tran- Whenever her honor is at stake, Bhima is
scendence of Brahman was well estab- the person to whom she turns. When
lished by sacred texts such as the Draupadi is molested by Kichaka during
Upanishads, and this problem may the year that the Pandavas spend incog-
account for the school’s relatively nito at the court of King Virata, Bhima
short life. disguises himself as Draupadi, goes to
meet Kichaka, and kills him. It is also
Bhima who vows to kill the two
Bhil Kaurava brothers, Duhshasana and
The name of a tribal (adivasi) group Duryodhana, because of their behavior
found in greatest numbers in the toward Draupadi after Bhima’s brother
109
 Bhima River

western ghats and meeting with the

Krishna in the state of Karnataka. At the
Bhima’s headwaters can be found
Bhimashankar, which is one of the
twelve jyotirlingas, a group of sacred
sites (tirthas) deemed especially holy
to the god Shiva. Aside from
Bhimashankar, another important reli-
gious site on the Bhima is the temple of
Vithoba at Pandharpur.

Bhimashankar
(“Bhima’s Shiva”) One of the twelve
jyotirlingas, a group of sacred sites
(tirthas) deemed especially holy to the
god Shiva. Bhimashankar is the name of
both the place and the presiding deity. It
is located in Maharashtra’s Pune district
at the source of the Bhima River, hence
its name. Unlike many of the other
jyotirlingas, Bhimashankar is visited little
during the year since it is far from urban
Bhima River at Pandharpur, centers and relatively inaccessible. The
in the state of Maharashtra.
major pilgrim traffic comes on the festi-
Yudhishthira loses an important game val of Shivaratri, which usually falls
of dice. Duhshasana drags Draupadi within February and March.
into the hall by her hair, her garments
stained with menstrual blood, and
Duryodhana bares his thigh (a Bhishma
euphemism for the genitals) toward In the Mahabharata, the later of the two
Draupadi and directs her to sit on his great Hindu epics, Bhishma is the son of
lap. Bhima vows that to avenge these King Shantanu and an uncle and coun-
insults he will rip open Duhshasana’s selor to both warring factions, the
chest so that Draupadi can wash her Pandavas and the Kauravas. His name
hair in his blood, and smash as a child is Devavrata; he receives the
Duryodhana’s thigh with his club. name Bhishma (“terrible”) as an
Although it takes thirteen years before acknowledgment of his extremely diffi-
he carries out these promises, in the end cult vow. King Shantanu has fallen in
he avenges Draupadi’s honor. After the love with the maiden Satyavati, who
Mahabharata war, Bhima aids his agrees to marry him on the condition
brother Yudhishthira in reigning as king. that her sons will rule instead of
After Yudhishthira abdicates the throne, Devavrata, who has already been
Bhima travels with him and their other anointed the heir apparent. Bhishma
brothers on a great journey to the not only agrees to give up the throne but
Himalayas, where Bhima eventually takes the solemn vow that he will never
dies of exposure. marry, so that there will be no claimants
from his lineage to compete for the
throne. When Bhishma takes his dread-
Bhima River ful vow, he is also given the option of
A central Indian tributary of the choosing the time of his death.
Krishna River, rising in the state of Bhishma faithfully keeps this vow,
Maharashtra, on the inland side of the and his adherence to it eventually costs

110
 Bhogawara

him his life. It is Bhishma who abducts Bhishma Ashtami

Amba, Ambika, and Ambalika, the Festival celebrated on the eighth day
daughters of the king of Kashi, to (ashtami) of the light, or waxing, half of
be married to his stepbrother the lunar month called Magh
Vichitravirya. Ambika and Ambalika (January–February), marking the death
happily marry Vichitravirya, but when of Bhishma. Bhishma is an uncle to
Amba confides that she has already both the Kauravas and the Pandavas,
given her heart to King Salva, Bhishma warring factions in the Hindu epic
releases her to go to him. Salva rejects Mahabharata. He is well known for his
Amba on the grounds that her virgin- bravery, continence, and truthfulness.
ity is suspect, since she has been He also has the power to choose the
abducted by another man. Amba time of his death. Although he is mortal-
returns to Bhishma and demands that ly wounded in the great Mahabharata
he marry her since he is responsible war, he remains alive until weeks later
for her plight, and when Bhishma (delivering discourses and advice to the
refuses to break his vow, Amba is victorious Pandavas the entire time),
determined to get revenge. She is delaying his death until the sun has
reborn as the man-woman Shikhandi, resumed its northward course
behind whom the Pandava prince (uttarayana). On this day parents give
Arjuna hides to shoot the arrows that offerings of food and water in
eventually kill Bhishma. Bhishma’s name in the hope that their
Bhishma is a great man who is sons may have his good qualities.
respected by all. His skill with arms
makes him one of the finest warriors of
his time, but he is most famous as a wise Bhogamandapa
and generous counselor to both the (“food pavilion”) The outermost
Pandavas and the Kauravas. Although entrance hall in the style of architecture
he ultimately sides with the Kaurava found in the largest temples in Orissa.
prince Duryodhana in the war At the temple of Jagannath in Puri, the
between the two groups, before its term bhogamandapa specifically refers
outbreak Bhishma repeatedly advises to the area where the food offered to
Duryodhana to make peace with the Jagannath as prasad (“favor”) is cooked.
Pandavas and share the kingdom with Jagannath’s temple is unusual in that the
them. He fights valiantly in the normal restrictions regarding commen-
Mahabharata war and destroys a large sality are suspended. Everyone eats
part of the Pandava armies, but finally together rather than being segregated by
he is hit by so many of Arjuna’s arrows caste, signifying Jagannath’s ultimate
that he lays upon them like a bed. lordship over all beings. The promi-
Although Bhishma is mortally wounded nence of this particular rite makes the
by Arjuna, he delays his death (through bhogamandapa all the more important.
the boon given by his vow) until the sun
resumes its more auspicious northern
path (uttarayana). During this time he
Bhogawara
One of the four major organizational
gives the victorious Pandavas copious
groups of the Dashanami Sanyasis,
instruction on state affairs and related
renunciant ascetics who are devotees
topics. Bhishma’s unswerving commit-
(bhakta) of the god Shiva; the other
ment to a vow that deprives him of the
three groups are Kitawara, Bhuriwara,
joys of family life, and his inability to
and Anandawara. Each of these divi-
avert the fratricidal conflict between his
sions has its headquarters in one of the
nephews, through which the family is
four monastic centers (maths) suppos-
ultimately destroyed, make him a lonely,
edly established by the philosopher
somewhat tragic figure.
Shankaracharya. Each group also has

111
 Bhoja

certain religious associations: with one never to return. The story tells how
of the four Vedas, with a particular quar- Krishna sends his companion Uddhava
ter of the Indian subcontinent, with one back to Braj with a message for the
of the “great utterances” (mahavakyas) gopis, the cowherd women who are
expressing ultimate truth, with a Krishna’s dear companions, and who are
specific ascetic quality, and with several virtually insane with longing because of
of the ten Dashanami divisions. The his absence. Uddhava tries to reassure
Bhogawara group is affiliated with the the gopis by telling them not to dwell on
Govardhan Math in the city of Puri on Krishna’s physical absence. Uddhava
the Bay of Bengal, and it is therefore further reminds them that since Krishna
connected with the eastern quarter of is the all-pervading divinity, he will
India. Their Veda is the Rg Veda, their always be with them even though he
mahavakya is Prajnanam Brahman might not be visible. In the bhramargit
(“Knowledge is Brahman”), and their poems, the gopis scornfully reject
ascetic quality is to remain indifferent to Uddhava’s notions, asserting that this
worldly pleasures. The particular view of Krishna is abstract, lifeless, and
divisions associated with this group suitable only for those who have never
are the Aranya Dashanamis and known Krishna in his embodied form.
Vana Dashanamis. The genre’s name comes from this
story’s earliest appearance, in the
Bhagavata Purana. Here the gopis
Bhoja address their complaints about
(r. 918–955 C.E.) Medieval Hindu king in Krishna’s absence to a large black bee,
the Malwa region of the modern state of which in their passion and loneliness
Uttar Pradesh. Bhoja was famous both they mistake for Krishna.
as a scholar and as a dam builder who
created lakes for irrigation.
Bhramari
(“circling”) Powerful form of the
Bholanath Goddess. Bhramari takes form to
(“simple lord”) Common epithet of the oppose the demon Aruna, who in his
god Shiva. In ordinary usage the word hubris is trying to compromise the
bhola carries a negative connotation: chastity of the gods’ wives. They implore
“simple,” “guileless,” and even “foolish.” the Goddess to help them, and in her
Yet in using this word to designate Shiva, form as Bhramari, she kills the demon
his devotees (bhakta) are not intention- and removes the threat. Bhramari is
ally insulting him but celebrating his worshiped on the eighth night of
boundless generosity to those with Navaratri, a nine-day festival in which
whom he is pleased. Shiva’s devotees one goddess is appeased every night.
can give the simplest offerings (such as
leaves, fruit, and water) and in turn ask
for wealth, success, and power. Shiva’s Bhrgu
nature is considered “simple” because In Hindu mythology, one of the sons of
he willingly participates in such unequal Brahma and one of the seven sages
exchanges, providing sharp contrast to whose names mark exogamous clan
the world economy, which demands “lineages” (gotra); the others are
equal value. Kashyapa, Bharadvaja, Vasishtha,
Gautama, Atri, and Vishvamitra. All
brahmins are believed to be descended
Bhramargit from these seven sages, with each
(“songs to the bee”) Poetic genre in the family taking the name of its progenitor
devotional poetry of the god Krishna, as its gotra name. In modern times these
which is set in the time after Krishna has divisions are still important since
gone to claim his kingdom in Mathura,
112
 Bhushundi

marriage within the gotra is forbidden. famous for wearing serpents, especially
After her marriage the bride adopts cobras, as ornaments around his
her husband’s gotra as part of her arms and torso. This is just one of the
new identity. attributes that marks him as different,
Bhrgu is most famous for testing the powerful, and potentially dangerous.
three major Hindu gods, which results The prescriptive canons for the creation
in Vishnu being declared the greatest of of Hindu images have followed up on
the three. Bhrgu first goes to Brahma’s this tradition, and Shiva is invariably
house where the god does not pay Bhrgu shown wearing these bracelets.
appropriate respect, and in revenge
Bhrgu curses Brahma to receive no wor-
ship. Next he goes to see Shiva, who Bhuriwara
refuses to meet with him because he is One of the four major organizational
making love to his wife Parvati at the groups of the Dashanami Sanyasis,
time. In turn, Bhrgu curses Shiva to be renunciant ascetics who are devotees
worshiped as the linga, the pillar- (bhakta) of the god Shiva; the other
shaped symbol that has undeniable three groups are Kitawara, Bhogawara,
phallic associations. Lastly he visits and Anandawara. Each of these groups
Vishnu and, finding him asleep, gives has its headquarters in one of the four
him a sound kick in the chest. Vishnu monastic centers (maths) supposedly
wakes up, but shows no anger at this dis- established by the philosopher
respect. Instead he massages Bhrgu’s Shankaracharya. Each division also has
foot, gently inquires whether it has been certain religious associations: with one
hurt, and promises to retain its mark on of the four Vedas, with a particular quar-
his chest forever, where it appears as the ter of the Indian subcontinent, with one
shrivatsa. Vishnu’s magnanimous of the “great utterances” (mahavakyas)
behavior leads Bhrgu to proclaim him expressing ultimate truth, with a partic-
the best of all the gods. Not surprisingly, ular ascetic quality, and with several of
this version of the tale appears only in the ten Dashanami divisions. The
Vaishnava sectarian literature. See also Bhuriwara group is affiliated with the
marriage prohibitions. Shringeri Math in the southern Indian
town of Shringeri and is thus connected
with the southern quarter of India. Their
Bhubaneshvar Veda is the Yajur Veda, their mahavakya
Capital city of the modern Indian state is Aham Brahmasmi (“I am Brahman”),
of Orissa. Bhubaneshvar reportedly has and their ascetic quality is to renounce
over 500 temples, of which the most all wealth and to live on food growing
prominent is the Lingaraja Temple. It is wild in the jungles. The specific divi-
dedicated to Shiva in his form as sions associated with this group are
Tribhuvaneshvar (“Lord of the Triple Saraswati Dashanami, Bharati
World”), from which the city also gets Dashanami, and Puri Dashanami.
its name.

Bhushundi
Bhudevi A character in the Ramcharitmanas,
See earth. the version of the Ramayana written by
the poet-saint Tulsidas (1532–1623?).
Bhushundi is a crow who symbolizes the
Bhujangavalaya power of devotion to God to redeem
(“snake bracelet”) In Hindu iconogra- even the lowest of creatures. One of the
phy, the name of a particular ornament most pronounced differences between
worn by the god Shiva. The bhujan- the original Valmiki Ramayana and the
gavalaya is a bracelet shaped in the form Tulsidas Ramayana is that Tulsidas puts
of a snake. In Hindu mythology Shiva is
113
 Bhut

Women praying at a shrine in Bihar. This northern Indian state is home to many sacred sites.

far greater stress on devotion to Rama, violent death or died with certain unful-
of which Bhushundi is a perfect exam- filled desires, particularly relating
ple. In Indian culture, crows are consid- to marriage and family life. In cases
ered unclean birds since they are where both these factors are present, the
scavengers who will eat anything. Yet in likelihood of the departed becoming a
one of the narrative levels of the bhut is deemed much greater. Bhuts
Ramcharitmanas, it is the “unclean” make themselves known to the living
crow Bhushundi who narrates the story through either dreams or possession. In
to the “sacred” eagle Garuda—the vehi- some cases they have specific requests
cle of the god Vishnu. As part of his and can be placated by worship and
account in the Ramayana, Bhushundi offerings. In such cases the dreams and
relates the terrifying experience of being possession are methods of communi-
given an unmediated vision of Rama in cating with the living, who can perform
all his majesty, and how he (as did the the necessary actions. Some bhuts
sage Markandeya) went into Rama’s resort to possession as an attempt to
mouth and perceived the entire uni- realize their unfulfilled desires by
verse inside. directly using a living person’s body.
These spirits are far more malevolent,
and the only way to remove them is
Bhut through exorcism. For further informa-
(“[someone who] was”) The spirit of a tion on the care of restless family spirits,
person who has recently died, which is see Ann Grodzins Gold, Fruitful
still inappropriately connected to the Journeys, 1988; for a masterful psycho-
world of the living. This is often a trou- logical interpretation of spirits, posses-
bling or malevolent presence, either to sion, and healing, see Sudhir Kakar,
the departed’s family or the general pop- Shamans, Mystics, and Doctors, 1991.
ulation. Bhuts and other malignant spir-
its, such as prets or churails, have
generally either suffered an untimely or

114
 Bihar

Bhuta Bhutayajna
Epithet of the god Shiva. See Shiva. (“sacrifice to creatures”) One of the five
great sacrifices (panchamahayajna)
that is prescribed in the texts on reli-
Bhutalingas gious duty (Dharma Shastras). These
(“elemental lingas”) A network of five five great sacrifices are daily religious
southern Indian sacred sites (tirthas), observances for a “twice-born” house-
four in the state of Tamil Nadu and one holder, that is, a householder born into
in Andhra Pradesh, all dedicated to the one of the three “twice-born” groups in
god Shiva. In each of these centers, the Indian society—brahmin, kshatriya,
most sacred object is the linga, a pillar- and vaishya—who is eligible to receive
shaped form representing Shiva. What the adolescent religious initiation
makes these sites unique is that the known as the “second birth.” Each sacri-
linga is supposedly composed of one of fice (yajna) is directed toward a different
the five primordial elements. Thus the class of beings, from the Ultimate
linga in Tiruvannamalai is formed from Reality down to animals, and is satisfied
fire; the linga in Jambukeshvar is by specific actions. The bhutayajna is
formed from water; the one in directed toward animals and outcasts
Kanchipuram is made from earth; that (and in some understandings, ghosts),
in Kalahasti, the sacred site in Andhra and it is satisfied by putting out food for
Pradesh, is formed from air; and the them to eat. In the time since the
linga in Chidambaram is made from Dharma Shastras were composed,
space. Between them, these five sites Hindu life has undergone significant
comprise a symbolic cosmology that changes, and this particular sacrifice is
encompasses all created things. rarely performed today.

Bhutam Bidhai Samaroh

(7th c. C.E.) With Pey and Poygai, one of (“farewell celebration”) In northern
the first three Alvars, a group of twelve India, the formal departure of a new
poet-saints who lived in southern India bride for her marital home. This is a
between the seventh and tenth cen- momentous event for several different
turies. All of the Alvars were devotees reasons. A marriage is the start of a fam-
(bhakta) of the god Vishnu. Their stress ily, and through her marriage a young
on passionate devotion (bhakti) to a woman gets the opportunity to become
personal god, conveyed through hymns a wife and mother; these roles are still
sung in the Tamil language, trans- seen as a woman’s highest fulfillment
formed and revitalized Hindu religious and happiness. Yet according to the tra-
life. According to tradition, the three ditional model of the Indian joint family,
men were caught in a torrential storm, after marriage a woman goes to live with
and one by one they took shelter in a and becomes part of her husband’s fam-
small dry spot, with each making room ily. Thus the act of seeing off a new bride
for the next. As they stood together they carries bittersweet feelings—happiness
felt a fourth presence, which was for her marriage and hopes for her good
Vishnu. The Alvars were such great fortune, but also the sense that things
devotees that their combined energy have irreversibly changed.
was sufficient to provoke Vishnu’s mani-
festation. Overwhelmed with ecstasy,
the three burst into song, which formed Bihar
the first of their compositions. For fur- One of the states in modern northern
ther information see Kamil Zvelebil, India, sandwiched between Uttar
Tamil Literature, 1975. Pradesh and West Bengal, with Nepal
on its northern border. Bihar has an

115
 Bijak

incredibly rich history; it was the ances- concepts: stress on individualized, inte-
tral homeland of the Maurya dynasty, rior religion leading to a personal expe-
which ruled over much of the Indian rience of the divine; disdain for external
subcontinent between the fourth and ritual, particularly image worship; faith
third centuries before the common era. in the power of the divine Name; and a
The capital city was at Pataliputra, iden- tendency to ignore conventional caste
tified with modern Patna. Bihar also distinctions. Of all the sants, Kabir is the
contains the town of Bodh Gaya, where most iconoclastic with regard to estab-
the Buddha attained enlightenment, lished religious practices and authori-
in addition to many other places ties. He invariably emphasizes the need
associated with events in his life. for individual searching and realization.
Despite this lush past, modern Bihar Given the content of Kabir’s message,
is an extremely difficult place to live; it is notable that the Bijak is the scrip-
illiteracy and infant mortality rates are ture of the Kabirpanth, a religious com-
very high, life expectancy is fairly low, munity claiming to be his followers.
and social conditions can best be Certainly Kabir himself would have con-
described as feudal. Most of its citizens demned the notion of making him the
can barely make a living and do so founder of anything, or of his verses
through agriculture, while a small per- gaining the authority of a scripture. In
centage are fabulously wealthy. Bihar is content, the Bijak contains verses of
also a textbook example of what modern varying types: short epigrams that have
Indians call the “criminalization of poli- become proverbial wisdom, longer stan-
tics,” in which known criminals are zas in the chaupai form, and shorter
either agents for politicians or are them- two-line verse (doha). Linguistic fea-
selves holding political office. Although tures identify the Bijak as belonging to
Bihar has abundant mineral resources, the eastern part of the Hindi language
its pervasive corruption virtually ensures region, hence its common name as the
that their benefits will reach only a few. “eastern” recension. For translations of
Despite all of these disadvantages, Bihar the text itself, see Linda Hess and
does have well-known sacred sites Shukdev Singh (trans.), The Bijak of
(tirthas). One of these is the town of Kabir, 1983.
Gaya, famous as a place to perform
funerary rites (antyeshthi samskara).
Another sacred place is the temple at Bijakshara
Vaidyanath, which is one of the twelve (“seed syllable”) In the esoteric ritual
jyotirlingas, a group of sites especially tradition known as tantra, a bijakshara
sacred to the god Shiva. For general is a particular set of syllabic utterances
information about Bihar and all the that is believed to have an intimate con-
regions of India, an accessible reference nection with a deity—either as a way of
is Christine Nivin et al., India. 8th ed., gaining access to the god’s power or as
Lonely Planet, 1998. the subtlest form of the deity itself.
These syllables are usually meaningless
sounds (for example, aum, hrim, klim),
Bijak although at times they may contain
(“inventory”) One of the three main col- actual words. Bijaksharas are important
lections of verse ascribed to the poet- not for their meaning but for the power
saint Kabir (mid-15th c.?); the other two inherent in the sounds themselves. The
are found in the Adigranth and the transmission of such seed syllables and
manuscripts of the religious organiza- the entitlement (adhikara) to use them
tion Dadupanth. Kabir is the best is an important feature of tantric initia-
known of the sants, an umbrella term tion (diksha). For further information
for a group of central and northern see Swami Agehananda Bharati, The
Indian poet-saints who share several Tantric Tradition, 1977; and Douglas
116
 Birth

Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three Bindusara

Cities, 1990. (3rd c. B.C.E.) Son of Chandragupta
Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan
empire, and father of Ashoka, the
Bilva empire’s greatest figure. At Bindusara’s
The wood-apple tree (Aegle marmelos).
accession the Mauryans controlled the
Although this tree is known for its deli-
Indus and Ganges river basins.
cious fruit, its primary religious impor-
Bindusara not only consolidated his
tance is its leaves. These are used in the
father’s gains, but also expanded
worship of Shiva and are usually placed
Mauryan control into the Deccan
as an offering on the god’s image or
region as far south as Mysore. He was
linga (pillar-shaped symbol). These
reportedly a man of universal tastes,
leaves are believed to be dearer to him
since tradition holds that he asked
than any other offering. In everyday lan-
Antiochus I, the Seleucid ruler of Syria,
guage this tree is also commonly known
for sweet wine, dried figs, and a sophist.
as the bel.
Antiochus apparently sent the first two
items but declared that Greek philoso-
Bimbisara phers were not for export. See also
(d. 494 B.C.E.) King of Magadha, the Maurya dynasty.
region corresponding to modern Bihar,
whose reign ended shortly before the
traditionally accepted date for the death
Birla, Ghanshyamdas
(1894–1983) Patriarch of the Birla indus-
of the Buddha. Bimbisara was an ener-
trial family. The Birlas made a fortune in
getic administrator who had designs on
opium in the early decades of the twen-
ruling a much larger empire. To this end,
tieth century and then diversified into a
he tried to conquer and control large
variety of other industrial ventures.
parts of the Ganges basin. Bimbisara is
Ghanshyamdas was a close friend of
believed to have been the first king to
Mohandas K. Gandhi and the major
conceive of ruling a large empire,
financial supporter for Gandhi’s politi-
although he was deposed and murdered
cal organization, the Indian National
by his son Ajatashatru before he saw it
Congress, to which Birla had given an
become a reality.
estimated 100 million rupees by the
time of independence. In his later years,
Bindu he devoted considerable money and
(“drop”) In the Shrividya school, a par- attention to building temples, sponsor-
ticular branch of the esoteric ritual tra- ing religious and charitable trusts, and
dition known as tantra, the bindu is the performing other honorable deeds.
name for the dot in the very center of the
shrichakra, which is a Shrividya sym-
bolic diagram (yantra) used in worship.
Birth
At its most basic level, birth is a biologi-
The shrichakra is composed of nine
cal event, but it becomes a cultural
interlocking triangles—four pointing up
event by virtue of the rites performed for
and five pointing down—surrounded by
and significance given to it. Different
a double series of lotus petals and exte-
Hindu communities show considerable
rior circular and angular walls. The
regional and sectarian variation in the
bindu symbolizes the ultimate unity of
ways that they mark a birth, but several
the divine principles, Shiva and Shakti,
themes remain fairly constant. Although
and by extension the unity of all reality.
the birth of a child is a highly auspicious
For further information see Douglas
occasion, it is also considered impure
Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three
because of the various bodily tissues
Cities, 1990.
and fluids coming with it (blood,

117
 Black Yajur Veda

amulets, is also quite common. For fur-

ther information see Lawrence Babb,
The Divine Hierarchy, 1975; and
Doranne Jacobsen, “Golden Handprints
and Redpainted Feet: Hindu Childbirth
Rituals in Central India,” in Nancy Falk
and Rita M. Gross (eds.), Unspoken
Worlds: Women’s Religious Lives in Non-
Western Cultures, 2000.

Black Yajur Veda

Along with the White Yajur Veda, one of
the two major forms of the Yajur Veda,
one of the oldest Hindu religious texts.
The major difference between these two
forms is in the placement of explanatory
notes on the Vedic mantras (sacred
sounds) and their significance. The four
recensions of the Black Yajur Veda
Depiction of the god Vishnu’s Boar avatar. include these notes in the text itself. In
Vishnu appears on earth in the shape contrast, the one recension of the White
of a boar to combat a demon.
Yajur Veda gathers these notes into an
membranes, amniotic fluid, placenta, appendix known as a Brahmana, which
etc.). Thus, birth rituals usually include gives its name to the second major stra-
rites of purification for both mother and tum of Vedic texts.
child, to remove this birth impurity
(sutakashaucha). For the mother this is
fairly simple: a bath after the birth fol- Blessing
lowed by baths during a period of seclu- See ashirvad.
sion (7–10 days). The final rite for the
child, the head shaving known as the
chudakarana samskara, may not come Blood
for years after the birth. As with all bodily fluids, blood is consid-
Aside from impurity (ashaucha), ered ritually impure and a source of pol-
another constant theme is the threat of lution upon contact. Blood is also
potential danger. Immediately after deemed a “hot” and powerful substance,
birth, both mother and child are seen as not only by virtue of its impurity
highly vulnerable, not only from envi- (ashaucha), but also because of its con-
ronmental stresses such as cold, fatigue, nection with life. Witches are popularly
or infection, but from ills brought on by seen as deriving their nourishment from
witchcraft or the evil eye (nazar). Given human blood. This highlights both their
this concern, it is not surprising that the malevolent character, since they can only
placenta and all other childbirth live by destroying others, and also their
byproducts are carefully collected and marginal, antisocial quality, since they
disposed of, lest they be used for spells. feed on a substance considered violently
The period of seclusion after the birth is impure. In another context, blood from
intended both to prevent contact with animal sacrifice is often offered to vil-
such malevolent forces and to ward lage deities or to certain powerful and
them off through rites of protection. terrifying forms of the Goddess. Any
The mother is usually given massages deities taking blood sacrifice are consid-
and fed strengthening foods to bolster ered “hot,” meaning that they are power-
her resistance. The use of charms, or ful enough to grant favors to devotees but
also marginal, potentially dangerous,
118
 Brahma

and requiring continual infusions of life- objective was to expel the British from
sustaining blood to maintain their pow- India by armed force. Starting in
ers. See also witchcraft. Singapore the INA marched 5,000 miles
through Southeast Asia, but they were
ultimately defeated by the British army
Boar Avatar at the city of Kohima in eastern India.
The third avatar, or “incarnation,” of the Although there is eyewitness testimony
god Vishnu. Vishnu takes this form at that Bose died from burns stemming
the beginning of one of the cosmic ages, from a plane crash in the final days of
when the process of creation has been the Pacific war, even today many
interrupted by the disappearance of the Bengalis believe that he is still alive and
Earth. The source of this problem is the living incognito.
demon-king Hiranyaksha, who has
kidnapped the Earth and hidden her in
the depths of the cosmic ocean. Taking Brahma
the form of a giant boar, Vishnu dives to Brahma is the first member of the
the bottom of the ocean, where he slays Trimurti, the “three forms” of divinity
Hiranyaksha, places the Earth on the tip made up of the dominant male deities
of his tusk, and lifts her from the waters. in the Hindu pantheon: Brahma as the
With the reappearance of the Earth, the creator of the universe, Vishnu as the
process of creation resumes. preserver or sustainer, and Shiva as the
It is generally accepted that the destroyer. Brahma is usually portrayed
avatar doctrine provided a way to assim- with four heads (the fifth having been
ilate smaller regional deities into the cut off by Bhairava, a wrathful form of
larger pantheon by designating them as Shiva), and his animal vehicle is the
forms of Vishnu. This inference is hamsa, or Indian goose.
supported by the Boar avatar, which According to one widely held myth,
seems to have absorbed an ancient cult during the time of cosmic dissolution
in central India by making the boar an between world cycles, Vishnu floats in
incarnation of Vishnu. In modern times the middle of the cosmic ocean, lying
the Boar avatar is worshiped little, on the giant serpent Shesha. When the
although it had a significant following time for creation comes, a lotus
in the past, particularly in central sprouts from Vishnu’s navel and opens
India. This is partly supported by the to reveal Brahma inside. Brahma takes
sculptural record; the caves at Ellora up the work of creation, and at the end
and Udayagiri have particularly of the world cycle, Brahma returns to
fine sculptural renditions of this the lotus, which is reabsorbed into
avatar. For further information see Vishnu. Because of his spontaneous
Arthur Llewellyn Basham, The Wonder appearance at the beginning of every
That Was India, 1968. cosmic age, one of the names for
Brahma is Svayambhu (“self-born”).
Unlike the Judeo-Christian belief, the
Bose, Subhash Chandra world is not created from nothing.
(1896–1945) Bengali politician and free- Brahma merely arranges the existing
dom fighter. Before World War II, Bose elements of the universe into a coher-
had unsuccessfully contested with ent and ordered cosmos.
Mohandas K. Gandhi for the leadership Brahma is a major figure in the pan-
of the Congress Party. Bose was more theon and is prominent in many
impatient than Gandhi for the British to episodes in Hindu mythology. His myth-
leave, and he was more willing to expel ic presence often obscures the fact that
them by force. During World War II, Bose he is never worshiped as a primary
used Japanese patronage to form the deity. In fact, he has only one temple
Indian National Army (INA), whose devoted to him in all of India, in
119
 Brahmacharin

Pushkar. Some Hindus have attributed Brahmacharin can also be defined as a

this lack of worship to his status as the novice or junior monk, whose duty is to
creator. After all, since creation has been serve and learn from the senior monks,
completed, why should one bother with or as the name of two particular ascetic
Brahma, whose work is done? In the groups. One of these groups is the pres-
puranas, texts on Hindu mythology, this tigious Swaminarayan sect, whose
lack of worship is usually ascribed to a members are recruited solely from the
curse—sometimes by the god Shiva but caste of brahmins. The other is an orga-
in other stories by the sage Bhrgu. nization called the Brahmachari
Sanyasis, devotees (bhakta) of the god
Shiva who are distinct from the
Brahmacharin Dashanami Sanyasis. The Brahmachari
(“seeker of Brahman”) A term with sev- Sanyasis have an ashram on Mount
eral possible meanings depending on Girnar and in the bathing (snana)
the context. In the dharma literature, festival known as the Kumbha Mela,
which gives instruction on religious the Brahmachari Naga (fighting)
duties, a brahmacharin is a person in a Sanyasis have a recognized place
period of religious study. This period is among the other Naga groups. For
the first of the four ashramas (“stages of further information see G. S. Ghurye,
life”) of a twice-born man, that is, a man Indian Sadhus, 1964.
born into one of three groups in Indian
society: brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya.
Such men are eligible to receive the ado- Brahmacharya
lescent religious initiation known as the (“going after Brahman”) In its most tra-
“second birth.” According to the ideal, ditional sense, this word refers to the
after his initiation and adornment with lifestyle of a young man belonging to a
the sacred thread—the most visible sign particular class during his life as a stu-
of a twice-born man—the brah- dent (brahmacharin). This period is the
macharin shall live in his guru’s house- first of the four ashramas (“stages of
hold and study the Veda, the oldest life”) of a twice-born man, that is, a
Hindu religious text, in addition to per- man born into one of three groups in
forming other religious acts. Since brah- Indian society: brahmin, kshatriya, or
macharins are focused on gaining vaishya. Such men are eligible to
religious knowledge, this is supposed to receive the adolescent religious initia-
be a very austere time of life marked by tion known as the “second birth.” His
strict celibacy, hard work, service to the life as a student will then commence,
teacher, meticulous observance of all and he will move into his guru’s house-
religious rites, and avoidance of luxuries hold and study the sacred texts, the
such as beds, cosmetics, and bodily Vedas. This is conceived as a period of
ornaments. Once this period of study is intense study, religious practice, and an
over, the student will marry and enter austere lifestyle marked by the restraint
the second ashrama, that of the house- of desires, for which the hallmark is
holder. The system described in the celibacy. Although the model of the
dharma literature is an idealized model, four ashramas is largely archaic in mod-
and one cannot be sure that it was ever ern times, the word brahmacharya still
strictly followed. Although many con- connotes this sort of austere religious
temporary brahmin boys still undergo lifestyle, and it is often used as a syn-
the “second birth,” other elements— onym for celibacy.
such as the ascetic lifestyle and empha-
sis on the study of the Veda—are largely
ignored in contemporary times. Brahmahatya
Some of the term’s original mean- (“brahmin murder”) In the dharma lit-
ing remains in an ascetic context. erature, which gives instruction on reli-
gious duties, brahmahatya is one of the
120
 Brahma Marriage

four great crimes that makes one an since its beginning, the majority of its
outcast from society. This crime’s seri- adherents have been women.
ousness stems from notions of brahmin The movement began following a
sanctity and status; with the exception series of apocalyptic visions by Dada
of self-defense, the deliberate murder of Lekhraj. These visions not only con-
a brahmin holds serious repercussions. vinced him of the coming tribulation
Even the gods are subject to this act’s but also reinforced his conviction that a
negative karmic consequences. Hindu human being’s real identity lay not in
mythology records that the god the body but in the soul. This latter real-
Bhairava wanders the earth for years ization resulted in the organization’s
after cutting off one of the heads of the adoption of complete celibacy. When
god Brahma. The skull sticks to his this ideal was adopted by some of his
hand as a visible sign of his crime until it young women followers, it initially led to
finally falls off at Kapalamochana. In a tremendous uproar, because they
the more lenient prescriptions in the renounced their primary traditional
dharma literature, the punishment for a roles as wives and mothers. The move-
brahmin murderer is parallel to that of ment persisted despite these troubles,
Bhairava. The murderer has to carry the which bound the followers together
skull of the dead man for twelve years, even more tightly. By the time Dada
wearing only a rough garment to cover Lekhraj died in 1969, the movement had
his loins, and during that period he has developed a strong missionary bent. All
to live on alms, begging at no more of these factors make it unusual and, in
than seven houses per day. After twelve the eyes of many ordinary Hindus, mar-
years he is deemed pure, unless the ginal and suspicious. For further infor-
murder was intentional, in which case mation see Lawrence Babb, Redemptive
the term of punishment is doubled. Encounters, 1987.
According to several commentators,
however, when a brahmin is intention-
ally murdered by a kshatriya, vaishya, Brahma Marriage
or shudra, the only possible expiation One of the eight ways to perform a
(prayashchitta) is death. marriage according to the Dharma
Shastras, the treatises on religious
duty (dharma). In a Brahma marriage
Brahma Kumaris the bride’s father gives away his
Modern Hindu religious organization daughter, along with any ornaments
founded in the 1930s by a Sindhi jeweler he can afford, to a learned man of
named Dada Lekhraj. In 1947, after the good character. This man is respect-
partition of British India into India and fully invited to accept her with
Pakistan, the organization relocated its absolutely no conditions or fees. This
headquarters from Sindh (in modern form is considered the most suitable
Pakistan) to Mount Abu in the Indian for Brahmans because it is free from
state of Rajasthan. Although the sect lust or any sort of financial induce-
has only about 100,000 members— ments, hence the name Brahma mar-
minuscule by Hindu standards—it is riage. For these reasons it is also
noteworthy for several reasons. Unlike deemed the best of the four approved
most Hindus, the Brahma Kumaris (prashasta) forms of marriage.
aggressively seeks out and converts new The Brahma marriage is one of the
members, and thus it has a much higher two forms practiced in modern India. It
profile than other religious sects. The is by far the more socially respectable,
organization preaches a doctrine fore- since the asura marriage—in which the
telling the imminent end of the world, groom gives money to the bride and her
which must be prepared for by radical family—carries the connotation of sell-
asceticism. It is also noteworthy that ing the bride. Yet even with the Brahma
121
 Brahma Muhurta

After death, a liberated person’s soul is believed to escape through an opening in the skull
called the brahmarandhra. This is thought to correspond to the fontanel,
an opening in an infant’s skull (right) that closes in adulthood (left).
marriage, there has been significant known as the Vedas, the term Brahman
divergence from the classically mandat- both denotes the power inherent in, and
ed form. In many modern Indian gives potency to, the sacred word. In the
weddings, it has become common for Brahmana literature, one of the later
the bride’s family to give the groom’s strands in the Vedas, brahman was the
family a dowry as a condition for name for one of the four types of priests
the marriage, which can easily be who officiated at a sacrifice (the others
interpreted as selling the groom. See being hotr, udgatr, and adhvaryum). In
also marriage, eight classical forms, the Upanishads and afterward,
and prashasta marriages. Brahman is the generally accepted term
for the highest reality in the universe,
which is both the material cause and the
Brahma Muhurta final cause of all that exists. In the world-
(“time of Brahma”) The forty-eight- view of the Upanishads, the speculative
minute period (muhurta) immediately and most recent texts in the Vedas,
before sunrise, which is thought to be Brahman is the single binding unity
the most auspicious time of the day. behind the world’s apparent diversity.
This auspiciousness makes it the These texts also affirm Brahman’s iden-
best time for worship, meditation, or tity with atman, the individual soul, and
any type of religious practice; serious thus the identity of the essence of
spiritual aspirants rise before it begins macrocosm and microcosm. As
so that they may take full advantage described in many of the Upanishads
of the time. and later systematized by the philoso-
pher Shankaracharya (9th c.), the ulti-
Brahman mate form of Brahman is without
In its first appearances in the Rg Veda, qualities (nirguna), formless, nameless,
the earliest text in the sacred literature indefinable, and grammatically a neuter

122
 Brahma Sampraday

noun. In contrast, particular deities are religious genres are juxtaposed—as in

seen as lower, provisional, qualified the Shatapatha Brahmana, in which the
(saguna) forms of Brahman. This under- Isha Upanishad is embedded. Such jux-
standing was modified by the influence tapositions indicate that although the
of later devotional trends, in which ideas stress varied in differing types of texts,
of the highest Brahman became identi- there was some overlap during the time
fied with a particular deity, who was they were composed.
seen as the ultimate source of all things.

Brahmanda
Brahmana See cosmic egg.
General name for the second literary
stratum in the Vedas, the earliest and
most authoritative Hindu religious Brahmarandhra
texts. Although the composition of (“aperture of Brahman”) In traditional
these differing parts of the Veda is not mystical physiology, an opening in the
completely linear, the Brahmanas gen- crown of the head—perhaps corre-
erally come after the hymns of praise to sponding to the fontanel in young chil-
the gods known as samhitas and pre- dren. Although this hole usually closes
cede the speculative texts known as the up, it is widely believed that if at the time
Aranyakas and the Upanishads. In the- of death the departing soul can be chan-
ory, each Veda has a Brahmana as an neled through this aperture, it will bring
appendix, which is intended to give fur- final liberation of the soul (moksha).
ther explanation of the Vedic rituals. The earliest mention of this idea can be
Although the Yajur Veda is the only one found in Katha Upanishad 6.16, and
for which this is actually true, this exercises to facilitate this practice are
understanding gives the Brahmanas stressed in certain varieties of yoga. The
the authority of revealed scripture desire to open this aperture is the reason
(shruti) and thus makes them unques- behind one of the actions sometimes
tionable. There are several different performed during cremation. In many
Brahmanas, of which the most impor- cases the pyre’s heat will itself split the
tant are the Aiteraya Brahmana and skull, but when it does not, a long pole is
the Shatapatha Brahmana; the latter’s used to break it open in an effort to
tone and contents (including the Isha release the soul.
Upanishad) clearly mark it as the most
recent of the Brahmanas. Brahma Sampraday
The Brahmanas are primarily ritual One of the four branches of the Bairagi
manuals, and they give exacting, Naga class of ascetics. The Bairagi Nagas
painstaking instructions for performing are devotees (bhakta) of the god
these Vedic rituals. These texts indicate a Vishnu, organized in military fashion
fundamental shift in religious practice, into different anis, or “armies.” Until the
from the earlier emphasis on sacrifice beginning of the nineteenth century,
as a means of invoking and pleasing the their primary occupation was as merce-
Vedic gods to an importance on the nary soldiers, although they also had
power of ritual itself. This new emphasis substantial trading interests; both of
makes the sacrificial priests the most these occupations have largely disap-
powerful people of all, since even the peared in contemporary times. The
gods themselves are subject to the ritu- Brahma Sampraday traces its immedi-
als. The power of correctly performed ate spiritual lineage through the
ritual paves the way for the Aranyakas Gaudiya Vaishnava sect, founded by the
and the Upanishads, which asks more Bengali devotee Chaitanya, but claims
speculative questions about the rituals ultimate descent from the southern
themselves. At times these differing Indian philosopher Madhva. This latter
123
 Brahmasutra Bhashya

claim seems highly suspect, in part understanding, all bonds are broken,
because the guardian deities of the two and the person attains final liberation.
sects are different; Chaitanya and his
followers worship the gods Krishna and
Radha, whereas Madhva and his follow- Brahma Sutras
ers worship Lakshmi-Narayan. There Variant name for Badarayana’s Vedanta
are also differences in their observances. Sutras, which date from the third to the
Although the Madhva ascetics have a fifth century B.C.E. This collection of 555
long history in southern India, they have brief aphorisms (sutras) is the basis for
virtually no presence in the north, where the philosophical school known as
the Chaitanyite ascetics are well repre- Vedanta, so named because it claims to
sented. Ghurye speculates that this reveal the ultimate meaning of the reli-
claim is based on the desire of the gious scriptures known as the Vedas.
Gaudiya Vaishnavas to establish ties to They are given the name Brahma Sutras
an ancient lineage; this would give them because they attempt to summarize and
an unassailable identity and thus a place systematize the philosophic and reli-
in the bathing (snana) procession at gious ideas in the speculative texts
religious festival Kumbha Mela. See known as the Upanishads, particularly
G. S. Ghurye, Indian Sadhus, 1964. the ideas about the Ultimate Reality
known as Brahman. The sutras are so
brief that they presuppose commentary,
Brahmasutra Bhashya of which the most famous is the
A commentary (bhashya) written by the Brahmasutra Bhashya, written by the
philosopher Shankaracharya on philosopher Shankaracharya.
Badarayana’s Brahma Sutras, a collec-
tion of 555 brief aphorisms (sutras) that
form the basis for the philosophical Brahmayajna
school known as Vedanta. This com- (“sacrifice to Brahman”) One of the five
mentary is the defining text for the great sacrifices (panchamahayajna)
Advaita Vedanta school of Indian phi- prescribed in the texts on religious duty
losophy. Shankaracharya begins his (Dharma Shastras). These five great
investigation by establishing the Self as sacrifices are prescribed daily religious
the basis of all knowledge, since the one observances for a “twice-born” house-
thing that can never be doubted is the holder, that is, a householder who has
reality of the one who knows. He identi- been born into one of three groups in
fies this knowing consciousness as the Indian society—brahmin, kshatriya, or
eternal Self, or atman, which never vaishya. Such men are eligible for the
changes over time despite the vicissi- adolescent religious initiation known as
tudes of the physical bodies it inhabits. the “second birth.” Each of the five sacri-
According to Shankaracharya, the per- fices (yajna) is directed toward a differ-
ceivable world is clearly subject to ent class of beings, from the Ultimate
change and thus is not the Absolute Reality down to animals, and is satisfied
Reality, which the philosopher identi- by different actions. The brahmayajna is
fies as the unqualified, unchanging directed toward the Ultimate Reality
Brahman. Following the Upanishads, (Brahman) and is satisfied by teaching
Shankaracharya identifies atman as and studying the Vedas, the oldest
identical to Brahman. He states that for Hindu religious texts. In the time since
human beings the reason for both the Dharma Shastras were composed,
unhappiness and the bondage of the Hindu life has undergone significant
soul is the ignorance of this relationship, change, but many brahmins still study
which causes one to mistake this per- the Veda—if not daily, at some point in
ceivable reality for the Ultimate Reality. their youth.
With the destruction of this mistaken
124
 Brahmo Samaj

Brahmi times, although there are also many

The most commonly used script in the brahmins who have other occupa-
inscriptions of the emperor Ashoka (r. tions, such as trade, business, and
269–232 B.C.E.), the greatest figure in the government service.
Maurya dynasty. Ashoka’s empire Aside from their traditional associa-
encompassed all of the subcontinent tion with sacred learning, their other
except the deepest parts of southern source of social status is their ritual
India and went west into modern purity, which is believed to be greater
Afghanistan. Brahmi script was used in than that of all other human beings. This
all regions of the Mauryan empire ritual purity is inherent, conferred by
except in the northwest, where the birth. According to tradition, even an
Kharoshthi script was used. Ashoka’s uneducated brahmin should be consid-
rock edicts and pillar edicts are the ear- ered a “god on earth,” whereas a learned
liest significant Indian written docu- brahmin is more sacred still. This ritual
ments and give invaluable information purity makes brahmins preferable for
about contemporary social, political, service to many of the gods of the Hindu
and religious life. Brahmi is the ancestor pantheon, since they are considered
of the modern Indian scripts, including the best intermediaries to “insulate”
Devanagari. It is also the ultimate the deities from ordinary people.
source for all indigenous southeast Although brahmins as a whole have the
Asian alphabets, which developed from highest status, within the brahmin com-
trade with southern India in the early munity there are highly defined sub-
medieval period. Over the course groups (jatis), which are often defined
of time, Brahmi was replaced by by region of origin.
later scripts, was forgotten, and
became unreadable. Although Ashoka’s
inscriptions ensured that Europeans
Brahmo Samaj
The earliest of the Hindu reform groups,
were aware of Brahmi, their content was
founded in Calcutta in the early nine-
a mystery until 1837, when James
teenth century by Ram Mohan Roy
Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi
(1774–1833). His purpose was to purge
alphabet by working backward from
contemporary Hinduism of its “corrupt”
later, known scripts.
practices, such as sati (widow burning),
the ban on widow remarriage, image
Brahmin worship, and caste. In his effort to find a
In the traditional Hindu theory of the traditional authority for such reforms,
four major social groups (varnas), the he chose the Upanishads as his key reli-
brahmins are the group with the high- gious texts. After his death the move-
est status, based on the belief that they ment was eventually headed by
are purer than all others. This belief is Debendranath Tagore (father of the
based on the creation story known as Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore)
the Purusha Sukta, in which the brah- and later by Keshub Chander Sen; dis-
mins are created from the Primeval agreements over ritual matters split the
Man’s mouth. The mouth is part of the movement under both leaders. By the
head and thus the highest part of the late 1800s the Samaj’s influence had
body, and it is also associated with largely passed, although in an interest-
speech, one of the definitively human ing twist, it became the vehicle through
faculties. From the earliest Hindu which the mystic Ramakrishna met
recorded history, brahmins have been many of his disciples.
associated with speech and the sacred The Brahmo Samaj’s social program
word; they were the scholars, priests, rit- reflected and responded to contempo-
ual technicians, and protectors of sacred rary European critiques of popular
learning. This is still true in modern Hinduism, some levied by Christian
125
 Braj

missionaries and others based on diverse peoples—for religious devotees

the rationalist emphasis of the (bhakta) in a much larger area of northern
Enlightenment. The Brahmo Samaj’s India, although it varied at the borders.
openness put it at the forefront of legal
reform—in particular, influencing the
1829 law banning sati. But at the same Brhadaranyaka (“Great Forest
time, its members were mostly Book”) Upanishad
Westernized urban intellectuals, far By general consensus, the oldest of the
removed from the life and religious Upanishads, the speculative religious
concerns of Hindus. For further texts that form the most recent stratum
information see Spencer Lavan, “The of the Vedas. The Brhadaranyaka
Brahmo Samaj: India’s First Movement Upanishad’s chronological priority is
for Religious Reform,” in Robert D. Baird supported by at least four pieces of evi-
(ed.), Religion in Modern India, 1998. dence: its length, its lack of organiza-
tion, its archaic language, and its
relationship to earlier Vedic texts. The
Braj opening passage gives an extended
Northern Indian region on the Yamuna comparison between the world and the
River, south of the modern city of Delhi. sacrificial horse, showing clear parallels
According to Hindu tradition, Braj is the with the earlier Brahmana literature.
land where the god Krishna lived during Moreover, by its very name (“great forest
his time on earth. The Braj region does book”), the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad
not have clearly defined boundaries, clearly points to a transition from the
and the name has never referred to an Aranyaka (“forest books”) literature,
official administrative area. Instead it which followed Brahmana literature.
has been defined by popular piety. This upanishad first addresses many of
Krishna’s devotees (bhakta) place great the questions raised in later texts and is
emphasis on visualizing his exploits as a therefore an important source for the
way to attain communion with him, and development of the tradition. Unlike
thus places throughout the Braj region most of the later Upanishads, it is writ-
are associated with very specific inci- ten in prose rather than poetry, with the
dents in Krishna’s life. As it now stands, instruction often in the form of dialogue
the southern and eastern borders of the between various speakers.
region are just over five miles southeast
of the city of Mathura, and its northern
and western boundaries are nearly five Brhadeshvar
times that distance. For extensive infor- Temple built in the southern Indian city
mation on Braj and its culture, see A. W. of Tanjore around the year 1000 B.C.E. by
Entwistle, Braj, 1987. the Chola king Raja Raja (r. 985–1014).
The temple is dedicated to the god Shiva
in his form as Brhadeshvar (the “great
Braj Bhasha lord”). It was built in the Dravida style
The “language of Braj”; a dialect of characteristic of southern Indian tem-
medieval Hindi primarily spoken in the ples, in which the buildings are of mod-
Braj region, south of the modern city of est height but cover an immense area
Delhi. Braj is the land associated with and are surrounded by a boundary wall
the god Krishna, and the devotion that with massive towers (gopurams) over
flourished there between the fifteenth each wall’s central gateway. The
and eighteenth centuries made Braj Brhadeshvar temple is famous as a cen-
Bhasha a major literary language. Aside ter for traditional arts and culture, par-
from being the language of Krishna wor- ticularly as a home for the dance style
shipers, it also functioned as a lingua known as Bharatanatyam. It also con-
franca—a common language used by tains some exceptional murals, an
126
 Bronzes

extremely unusual feature in Indian This form of marriage is considered

temples. See also Chola dynasty. aprashasta (“reprehensible”) because of
the implication of selling one’s children.
Even though it does take place in mod-
Brhannala ern India, communities practicing this
This was the identity assumed by form have very low social status. In
Arjuna, one of the five Pandava princes, modern times, giving brideprice is an
during the year they lived incognito admission that the bride’s family
after twelve years of forest exile. The deserves compensation for the loss of a
Pandavas are the heroes of the wage earner, implying that her labor is
Mahabharata, the later of the two great necessary for the family. In contrast, the
Hindu epics, which details the struggle higher-status type of marriage, the
for power between the Pandavas and Brahma marriage, transfers both the
their cousins the Kauravas. At one point bride and wealth (in the form of a
in their struggle, Arjuna’s older brother, dowry) to the groom’s family with the
Yudhishthira, has lost all the brothers’ understanding that both families have
freedom and possessions to the Kauravas enough money that her paid labor
in a game of dice. As a penalty for this is unnecessary.
loss, the Pandavas have to go into exile
for twelve years and spend the thirteenth
year back in society, unrecognized. It is Brindavan
understood that if the brothers are dis- (“tulsi forest”) Small town in the
covered during that year, they will be Mathura district of the state of Uttar
banished again. Arjuna, the epic’s most Pradesh, which is the town in which the
heroic warrior, disguises himself as a god Krishna is supposed to have lived
eunuch named Brhannala, knowing that during his childhood. Although every
no one will suspect him in such guise. He place in Brindavan is associated with the
spends the year living in the women’s life of Krishna and is full of temples ded-
quarters of the palace, singing and danc- icated to him, one particularly important
ing as a eunuch. At the end of the year, place is the Chir Ghat, at which Krishna
still in his eunuch’s garb, Arjuna takes stole the gopis’ clothes as they were
part in a great battle in which he defeats bathing (snana) in the Yamuna River.
the troops of the Kauravas. (The gopis were female cowherds who
were companions to Krishna during his
youth.) An interesting architectural site
Brhaspati is the Gobind Deo Mandir, built in 1590,
In Hindu mythology, Brhaspati is a sage which has a vaulted ceiling. This latter
chosen by the deities (devas) as their temple is also notable for its lack of exte-
guru, or spiritual teacher. Brhaspati is rior ornamentation, perhaps to avoid
also one of the names used to designate antagonizing the nearby Moghuls. For a
the planet Jupiter, since in Hindu astrol- description of the sacred life in
ogy this planet is the most significant, Brindavan, see John Stratton Hawley, At
and thus the symbolic “guru” among Play with Krishna, 1981. See also
the planets. Moghul dynasty.

Brideprice Bronzes
The money the groom’s family gives to For most of Indian history, stone has
the bride’s family as a condition for mar- been the preferred medium for creating
riage. This exchange of money for the images of the Hindu deities for worship.
bride is the defining feature of the asura One of the significant exceptions to this
marriage, one of eight recognized forms trend can be found in southern India,
of marriage in the Dharma Shastras, the primarily under the Chola dynasty
treatises on religious duty (dharma).
127
 Buddha Avatar

transparency can be seen in the differ-

ing opinions over this avatar. In the
opening chapter of his Gitagovinda, the
poet Jayadeva claims that Vishnu incar-
nated as the Buddha to condemn the
animal sacrifices prevalent in Vedic
times. Other accounts portray him as
misleading the wicked by instructing
them to deny the authority of the Vedas
(which the historical Buddha explicitly
denied) and drive themselves into
hell. Despite being named as one of
the avatars, the Buddha was never
worshiped by Vaishnavas, and
Buddhists themselves have certainly
Depiction of the god Vishnu’s Buddha avatar.
Some Hindus claim that the Buddha was
never accepted this assertion.
actually an incarnation of Vishnu.
(9th–14th c.), in which another impor- Buddha Purnima
tant medium was bronze. The images The full moon in the lunar month of
were made using lost wax casting, Baisakh (April–May). Buddhists
which allows for great detail. They were throughout the world celebrate this full
cast in bronze with a high copper con- moon as the anniversary of the Buddha’s
tent, which tended to give them a green- birth, enlightenment, and death.
ish tinge as the metal oxidized. Some of Although many Hindus respect the
the images are only a few inches high, Buddha as a sage and religious teacher,
albeit with exquisite detail, whereas the he is not central to Hindu religion.
largest are over four feet tall and even Therefore, this is not a major festival,
today are the primary images worshiped although this particular full moon is still
in temples. These images were subject named for him. More recently, the day of
to the same established rules of con- this full moon has been described as the
struction (shilpa shastra) as stone best day of the year for bathing (snana)
sculptures. Despite this strict form, in sacred rivers, a practice that the
many of the bronzes are masterful works Buddha would certainly have
of art with a presence rarely found in the denounced. Given the auspiciousness
stone sculptures. Although images were connected with every full moon, this
made of all of the deities in the pan- may be an effort to “take back” the day
theon, among the best known bronzes as a Hindu holiday by emphasizing a
are figures of the god Shiva as Nataraja, distinctively Hindu practice.
“the Lord of the Dance.”

Buddhi
Buddha Avatar This word refers to the mental faculty
The ninth avatar, or “incarnation,” of often translated as “intellect,” but it car-
the god Vishnu. As the only attested his- ries connotations beyond mere knowl-
torical figure (and one who clearly dif- edge. The buddhi is the intellectual
fered with the Hindu orthodoxy of his capability for awareness, mental per-
time), the Buddha avatar shows how the ception, and decision-making, and as
avatar doctrine was used to envelop and such it is the basis for all cognitive
assimilate existing religious figures. thought. In the account of evolution
Although this designation as an avatar found in the Samkhya philosophical
was an attempt to appropriate a signifi- school, buddhi is one stage in the evolu-
cant religious figure by projecting him as tion of the human personality and the
an incarnation of Vishnu, this attempt’s external world. In the Samkhya account,
128
 Busti

buddhi is the first faculty to emerge W. G. Archer, Indian Painting, 1957; or his
from prakrti, or “primal matter,” and is Indian Painting in Bundi and Kotah,
also known by the name mahat (the 1959. See also Moghul dynasty.
“great one”). The mental processes facil-
itated by buddhi spur the development
of the next stage of evolution, ahamkar, Burial
or “subjective consciousness.” In more Although cremation is the most com-
colloquial language, buddhi describes mon means by which Hindus dispose of
the overall quality of a person’s mind, corpses, occasionally bodies are buried.
whether it is wholesome or unwhole- One such case is with the bodies of very
some, sound or unsound. young children, as if it is recognized that
they never developed into real individu-
als. The only other people usually buried
Bull are ascetics, for which there are varying
Although the cow is the Hindu symbol interpretations. One idea is that they are
for motherhood, with all of the not actually dead but in a state of deep
emotional baggage that accompanies it, meditation (samadhi). In such cases the
the associations connected with bulls are ascetic is often buried in a sitting posture
not nearly so important. In a religious because he is considered still present.
context, the bull is associated with the Another reason for burying ascetics may
god Shiva because his animal vehicle is reflect the general assumption that
the bull Nandi, who can invariably be renouncing the world had made them
found guarding the door at Shiva’s “dead” to it, making further ceremonies
temples. In pre-modern times, of course, unnecessary. Indeed, one part of some
adult bulls were a relatively small ascetic initiations is to perform one’s
percentage of the total cattle population, own funeral rites. Burial is often reserved
since most young bulls were routinely for ascetics with disciples who will keep
castrated to become the oxen that were their graves as shrines. Those who are not
essential agricultural work animals. buried are usually weighted down with
rocks and thrown into bodies of water.

Bundi
City and district in the southeastern part Busti
of the state Rajasthan, about 100 miles (“settlement”) In its literal meaning, any-
south of the state capital, Jaipur. Before where people live—a settlement, village,
1947, when India gained independence, or community. In modern usage it has
Bundi was a small kingdom. In the late come to denote an illegal settlement,
seventeenth century, Bundi became a such as one built by squatters who have
center for the Rajasthani style of minia- put up dwellings on vacant land using
ture painting, perhaps by attracting whatever materials are available, from
artists from the Moghul court who were brick to cardboard to plastic. At first, such
seeking outside patronage. Aside from settlements have no civic amenities such
the portraits and court groups character- as water, power, roads, or sewers, and in
izing this genre under the Moghuls, most cases the living conditions are
Rajasthani miniature painters portrayed abysmal. In many cases such “slums”
Hindu religious themes, particularly inci- become people’s hereditary homes, par-
dents in the life of the god Krishna. ticularly in Bombay, where real estate is
Whereas some styles have flat, mono- exorbitantly expensive. These residents
chromatic backgrounds, the Bundi style have usually gained access to electricity
shows an intense focus on nature, such and water, typically via illegal hookups.
as detailed depiction of the trees (usually In rarer cases squatters have gained title
banana trees) surrounding the subjects, to the land through exerting political
in addition to flowers, birds, and lotus- pressure, after which conditions have
filled ponds. For further information see generally improved.
129
 Calendar

C
southward. There are also two separate
versions of the solar year, each of which
has twelve solar months. In northern
India these months correspond to the
twelve signs of the zodiac and mark the
sun’s passage through them. In southern
India one finds an identical calendar,
the Tamil solar year, in which the names
of the months are drawn from the
names of certain nakshatras, or signs of
Calendar the lunar zodiac.
One of the most fundamental Hindu Whereas the solar calendar is usually
religious beliefs is that different times used for astrological purposes, the lunar
carry different qualities. Whereas some calendar is important for religious life.
times are considered more auspicious The lunar calendar is used to measure
and propitious, others are more inauspi- the two eras still used for dating history:
cious and dangerous. These judgments the Vikram era (fifty-six or fifty-seven
may either describe the general qualities years later than the common era) and
of specific times or determine the prop- the Shaka era (seventy-eight years earlier
er time for carrying out particular activ- than the common era). The lunar year is
ities. Thus Hindus have given made up of twelve lunar months, each
considerable attention to organizing of which has thirty lunar days. Since the
time and predicting auspicious cycle of the moon is only about twenty-
moments. Many modern Hindus simul- eight solar days, a lunar day is slightly
taneously use several different calen- shorter than a solar day. The lunar
dars, although they may use them for month is divided into two halves of fif-
different purposes. To begin with, every- teen days each: the “dark” (krishna pak-
day timekeeping is done with the sha) half, when the moon is waning and
Gregorian calendar of the common era, that ends with the new moon; and the
which may reflect the influence of the “light” (shukla paksha) half when the
British empire or, more simply, the influ- moon is waxing and that culminates in
ence of modern commerce and commu- the full moon. In northern India the
nications. It is notable that the only lunar month begins with the moon’s
holidays celebrated according to this dark half, and ends on the full moon,
calendar are national holidays such as whereas in the south the reverse is often
Independence Day, Gandhi Jayanti, true. Since the solar year has about 365
and Republic Day—all of which are days and the lunar year about 354, if left
fixed on particular days. Beyond this uncorrected each lunar year would
there are many other methods of mea- begin eleven solar days earlier than the
suring time, some of which overlap with previous one. To correct this discrepancy,
each other and some of which are found an intercalary month is added about
only in certain regions of the country. every two and a half years. This helps to
Several of these systems are based on keep the lunar months falling at around
the movement of the sun. The most the same time every year, although the
basic unit, of course, is the solar day, celebration of a particular festival can
which traditionally begins and ends not vary by several weeks from one year to
by the clock but by the rising of the sun. the next.
The week contains seven solar days. The Almost all Hindu festivals are
movement of the sun divides the year celebrated according to the lunar
into halves, with the uttarayana period calendar. Some festivals’ celebrations
occurring when the sun is moving are associated with certain lunar days
northward and the dakshinayana period and thus occur twenty-four times in a
taking place when the sun is moving twelve-month lunar year: The eleventh
130
 Caste

day (ekadashi) of each half of the lunar They used the term “caste” to describe
month is sacred to the god Vishnu; the this social phenomenon.
eighth day (ashtami) is devoted to the Among Hindus themselves the most
Goddess, particularly in her form as important concept for social ordering is
Durga; the evening of the thirteenth day known as the jati (“birth”). One
(trayodashi) and the fourteenth day becomes a member of a jati by being
(chaturdashi) are sacred to the god born into it. The jatis were usually divided
Shiva; and the fourth day (chaturthi) is according to traditional occupation,
dedicated to the god Ganesh. The time which (in theory) would be performed
for celebrating annual religious festivals by that jati alone. A jati’s social status
is set according to the lunar month, the generally stemmed from the status of its
half of the moon, and the particular occupation, and jatis such as latrine
lunar day. For example, the god cleaners and tanners were thought to be
Krishna’s birthday is celebrated on defiled by their trade. Society as a whole
Bhadrapada Krishna eight, the eighth was conceived on the model of the body,
day of the dark (waning) half of the lunar with the different jatis comparable to
month of Bhadrapada. The birthdays of different body parts. While each part
many important historical religious fig- had a differing status and role, every one
ures such as Guru Nanak, the founder of was necessary for the whole to function
the Sikh community; the Buddha, and smoothly. These differences in status
the devotional poet-saints are also cele- were marked and reinforced by strict
brated according to the lunar calendar. rules to keep each group distinct from
These overlapping calendars mean the others. The strictest regulations were
that any particular day can be designat- in regard to marriage, and in earlier
ed by several different markers: the day times members of a jati would marry
of the week and the day in the common only within that group. It was almost as
era (as in many societies), the day if the jatis were seen as separate
according to the traditional solar calen- “species” of human beings that had to
dar, and the day according to the lunar be kept apart. Marrying within one’s jati
calendar. Depending on the context— is still the ideal, although there is now
business, astrological, or festival—any considerably more intermarriage than
one of these may be given preference. in the past.
See also auspiciousness, inauspicious- The best-known model for ordering
ness, and Tamil months. Indian society is that of the four major
social groups (varna) described in the
dharma literature: brahmin (priest),
Campantar kshatriya (warrior-king), vaishya (mer-
Tamil form of the name for the poet- chant), and shudra (servant). However,
saint Sambandar. See Sambandar. the number of different jati groups
makes the social hierarchy far more
Caste complex. A small village might have
The best-known term to denote the tra- dozens of jatis, all performing certain
ditional Hindu social structure in which tasks, whereas a city might have hun-
groups are arranged in a hierarchy of dreds of jatis, some highly specialized.
status, usually based on the perceived Even within the brahmin varna, there
purity of each group’s traditional occu- are different brahmin jatis (for example,
pation. The word “caste” is actually Saraswat, Chitpavan, Kanyakubja, and
derived from the Portuguese word for Kanaujia). For other varnas the picture
“chaste.” The Portuguese observed that is even more complex. For instance,
different groups in Indian society kept some jati groups fall between the
themselves separate from each other, par- vaishya and shudra varnas, and jati
ticularly when eating and in marriage. groups of humble status who have
achieved political success may claim
131
 Castration

kshatriya lineage. The same jati’s social understanding this process, they hope
position can vary from region to region, to be able to manipulate it, ultimately
depending on if they comprise a major- leading to the final liberation of the soul
ity or a minority of the population or (moksha). The oldest causal chains were
have status as a land-holding community. formulated by the Buddha and the Jains.
As in most of Hindu life, a group’s status In each of these theories, avidya, or lack
is usually influenced by local factors; in of genuine understanding, starts the
the past fifty years, such status determi- causal chain. In the Buddhist and Jain
nations have also been affected by traditions, these causal chains can be
changes in Indian society, which have broken by a religious discipline that
tended to relax social distinctions. For begins with moral action and at more
further information see McKim Marriot, advanced levels involves meditation
“Hindu Transactions: Diversity Without and wisdom.
Dualism,” in Bruce Kapferer (ed.), Causal chains in Hindu philosophy
Transaction and Meaning, 1976. have much in common with these
beliefs, particularly the notion that
avidya is the basic problem. In the
Castration Nyaya Sutras, the Nyaya philosopher
Castration of human beings has been Gautama propounded a five-fold causal
almost completely absent in Indian his- chain: pain, birth, activity, defect, and
tory, with the notable exception of the wrong notion. Each of these elements
hijras. Hijras are male cross-dressers is caused by the one succeeding it
who dress and behave as women and and is eliminated with the destruction
have usually undergone self-castration of its cause. The Vaisheshika school,
as a ritual renunciation of their sexuality. which was traditionally paired with
Hijras are often homosexual prostitutes, the Nyayas, also used this model. The
and they are an established part of the causal chain in the Samkhya philosoph-
decadent underside of most Indian ical school, as described by its founder,
cities. Their most important ritual func- Ishvarakrishna, ascribes bondage to
tion is to sing and dance at the houses in the process of evolution, stemming
which a male child has been born, but from the confusion between purusha
they may also be called to perform on (conscious spirit) and prakrti (primal
other auspicious occasions. Despite the matter). According to Samkhya,
hijras’ associations with certain auspi- these two first principles are always
cious occasions, they are marginal to separate from one another, but humans
society and have very low social status. can confuse them. The Yoga school,
For a reliable study of the hijras, see traditionally paired with the Samkhya,
Serena Nanda, Neither Man Nor Woman, used this model as well. The philosopher
1999. See also auspiciousness. Ramanuja, founder of the Vishishthadvaita
Vedanta school, proposes an evolution-
Causal Chains ary scheme similar to the Samkhya
The underlying ultimate concern in all model, although instead of Samkhya’s
Indian philosophical schools is to dualism, all things evolve from a single
uncover and understand the causal source, Brahman.
forces that keep human beings The only major Hindu philosophical
enmeshed in samsara, the continual school without a causal chain is Advaita
cycle of reincarnation. One of the ways Vedanta. All of the other schools explain
that Indian philosophers attempted to the relationship between the Ultimate
do this was to formulate various chains Reality (in most cases, Brahman) and
of cause and effect detailing the process the perceivable world with the doctrine
through which human beings become of parinamavada. This philosophical
subject to the bondage of karma. By perspective accepts the reality of the
world as it is perceived and also assumes
132
 Cauvery

that the changes in the material world distinct. In the classic examples for this
involve the genuine transformation model, one creates a clay pot by putting
(parinama) of one thing into another, together the two halves of the pot, or
which can be explained by cause and one weaves a cloth from strands of
effect. The Advaita school upholds a thread. According to asatkaryavada’s
philosophical position known as proponents, with each of these acts, cer-
monism, which is the belief that a single tain material and instrumental causes
Ultimate Reality lies behind all things, create an entirely new object.
which are merely differing forms of that The third model, anekantavada (“the
reality. For the Advaitins, this single real- view that things are not single”), seeks to
ity is the formless, unqualified occupy the middle ground between the
Brahman. Advaitins explain the appear- other two models. Anekantavada stresses
ance of difference and diversity in the the importance of one’s perspective and
everyday world as an illusory rather the way it can color a judgment. In view-
than a genuine transformation of ing the transformation of milk to curds,
Brahman, a philosophical outlook butter, and clarified butter, an anekan-
known as vivartavada. This illusory tavada proponent would claim that
transformation is caused by a quality of these substances were contained in the
the human mind, which leads to the causes (supporting the satkaryavada
mental superimposition (adhyasa) of a notion) but that the qualities of these
mistaken understanding in place of the substances were newly created each
real one. For the Advaitins, as for all of time (supporting the asatkaryavada
the other schools, the ultimate problem notion). Thus causes and effects are
is still avidya, or mistaken understand- simultaneously both the same and dif-
ing, which must be replaced by correct ferent, depending on the way one looks
understanding. Whereas all of the other at them.
schools give some importance to All of these philosophical schools
actions, the Advaitins believe that avidya believe that if one understands the
is the sole cause and its removal the sole causal process correctly and can manip-
solution. For further information see ulate it through one’s conscious actions,
Karl H. Potter (ed.), Presuppositions of it is possible to gain final liberation of
India’s Philosophies, 1972. the soul (moksha). Each of these causal
models thus has profound implications
on religious life. Satkaryavada believes
Causal Models that causal relations are strong, but they
In Indian philosophy, there are three may be so strong that humans cannot
different models describing the relation- affect the causal chain; the asatkaryavada
ships between cause and effect: believes that causal relations are weak,
satkaryavada, asatkaryavada, and with the danger that human action is
anekantavada. The first model, too unreliable to bring about a desired
satkaryavada, assumes that effects pre- effect; anekantavada purports to find a
exist in their causes. Effects are thus middle ground but can be construed as
transformations (real or apparent) of inconsistent or self-contradictory. For
these causes. The classic example is the further information see Karl H. Potter
transformation of milk to curds, butter, (ed.), Presuppositions of India’s
and clarified butter. According to Philosophies, 1972.
satkaryavada’s proponents, each of
these effects was already present in the
cause and emerges from it through a Cauvery
natural transformation of that cause. Southern Indian river rising at the base
The second model, asatkaryavada, of the western ghats in the state of
assumes that effects do not preexist Karnataka, then flowing east through
in their causes—they are completely the state of Tamil Nadu before entering
133
 Caves, Artificial

The Kailasanatha Temple in the state of Maharashtra is surrounded by artificial caves sculpted into solid rock.

the Bay of Bengal. It is traditionally with a Buddha image at the far end and
considered one of India’s seven sacred a window above the entrance to admit
rivers along with the Ganges, Godavari, more light. These caves were excavated
Indus, Narmada, Saraswati, and Yamuna. and sculpted from the top down so that
Important sacred sites (tirthas) on the no scaffolding was necessary. The sides
Cauvery include Shrirangapatnam and central pillars were carved to mimic
and Tiruchirappalli as well as the wooden construction. Early Hindu
Cauvery Delta in Tamil Nadu’s Tanjore architecture adapted the chaitya form
district, which is filled with temple but eventually moved beyond it to con-
towns. Since 1947, when India gained struct free-standing temples. The most
independence, the rights to the impressive Hindu rock-cut temples are
Cauvery’s water have become a major the caves at Ellora, particularly the
dispute between Tamil Nadu and Kailasanatha temple (late 8th c.), dedi-
Karnataka. Farmers in Tamil Nadu have cated to the god Shiva in his form as the
been demanding a more significant Lord of Mount Kailas. The Kailasanatha
share of the waters impounded in reser- temple was sculpted out of solid rock
voirs in Karnataka. but carved to look as if it were built of
masonry. This temple marked the
height of the artificial cave as an archi-
Caves, Artificial tectural type, although the temples at
This was a common architectural form Elephanta were done later. After this
in the western part of the state of period, the emphasis tended to be on
Maharashtra, particularly in the early free-standing temples.
centuries of the common era. The earli-
est form was the chaitya or rock-cut
cave temple, which is specifically associ- Cekkilar
ated with Buddhist architectural sites. A (12th c. C.E.) Author of the Periya
chaitya typically had a large chamber Puranam, a hagiographical account of
sculpted into the side of a hill, usually the sixty-three Nayanars. The Nayanars
134
 Chaitanya

were a group of sixty-three Shaiva poet- image with clear phallic associations.
saints who lived in southern India Shiva is the model husband and the
between the seventh and ninth cen- consummate ascetic. The linga repre-
turies. Along with their Vaishnava coun- sents his stored celibate energy, as the
terparts, the Alvars, the Nayanars product of his tapas (ascetic practices).
spearheaded the revitalization of Hindu In the same way, celibacy is a way for
religion in opposition to the Buddhists human men to conserve their vital ener-
and the Jains. Both the Nayanars and the gies, whether one is a lifetime celibate
Alvars stressed passionate devotion (naisthika), a student (brahmacharin),
(bhakti) to a personal god—Shiva for or—as in many cases—a married man
the Nayanars, Vishnu for the Alvars— who has already had children.
and conveyed this devotion through
hymns sung in the Tamil language.
According to tradition, Cekkilar was a Chaitanya
minister at the court of the Chola (1486–1533 C.E.) Bengali saint, devotee
dynasty’s king Kullottunga II (bhakta) of the god Krishna, and the
(r. 1130–1150 C.E.). Cekkilar was dis- founder of the Gaudiya Vaishnava reli-
tressed by the king’s admiration for a gious community. Chaitanya was such a
Jain epic poem and composed his own pivotal figure that there are many tradi-
text to distract the king. His text portrays tional sources for his life, although their
the Nayanars as models of devotion to hagiographic character makes them his-
Shiva, although they are sometimes torically unreliable. According to one of
extreme in their actions. Yet in every these traditions, Chaitanya embodied
case, the love between devotee (bhakta) Krishna himself. Krishna became
and deity manifests itself in the circum- Chaitanya to experience the longing of
stances of everyday life, leading the Radha, his beloved consort whom
saints to final liberation. Chaitanya imagined himself to be. Thus,
for his followers Chaitanya was con-
ceived as Krishna and Radha in the
Celibacy same body.
In traditional Indian culture, celibacy Chaitanya was born in the town of
was widely seen not only as a sign of Navadvip in the state of West Bengal
sanctity but also as a source of power. and given the name Vishvambar.
On one hand, since sexual desire is often Traditional sources portray the young
the symbol for all types of desire, renun- man as a gifted teacher but with no
ciation of sexual activity is thus a sign for inclination toward Krishna. In 1508 he
the renunciation of the world in general. went to Gaya, a sacred site (tirtha) asso-
On a more literal level, retention of ciated with rites for the dead, to perform
semen through celibacy is believed to rites for his dead father. In Gaya,
prevent the loss of a man’s vital energy. Vishvambar met his teacher, Ishvara
In traditional Indian physiology, semen Puri, and something profound hap-
is believed to be distilled from blood pened there, for he returned to
and is therefore the concentrated Navadvip a passionate devotee of
essence of a man’s vitality. Although Krishna. On his return, Vishvambar
semen can and must be expended for began to hold the public kirtan (devo-
procreation, all other losses should be tional chanting) that has become the
carefully weighed. Thus there are strong hallmark of the Gaudiya Vaishnava
taboos on masturbation. This vital energy, school. Devotees sang and danced in the
stored and conserved through celibacy, streets and wept uncontrollably.
can then be used for spiritual advance- Through this ecstatic emotional wor-
ment. The paradigm for the celibate ship, they sought to regain the devotional
ascetic is the god Shiva, one of whose atmosphere associated with the gopis,
symbols is the linga, a pillar-shaped Krishna’s cowherd women, and thus
135
 Chaitanya-Charitramrta

share in the gopis’ intimate relationship Chaitanya’s death by Kavikarnapura,

with Krishna. who freely acknowledged his debt to
In 1510 Vishvambar formally became Murari Gupta. The final account was
an ascetic, taking the name Krishna written by Krishnadas Kaviraj about
Chaitanya, and for the rest of his life ninety years after Chaitanya’s death.
propagated the worship of Krishna. For Kaviraj’s account focuses mainly on
much of that time, he resided in the Chaitanya’s later life, particularly his
sacred city of Puri. This was reportedly time in Brindavan. This last version is
in deference to his mother, since she felt marked by the philosophical influ-
that Krishna’s childhood home, ence of Chaitanya’s most important
Brindavan, was too far away. Despite his disciples, the Goswamis (Rupa Goswami,
mother’s wishes, Chaitanya did take sev- Sanatana Goswami, and Jiva Goswami),
eral lengthy trips: a two-year tour of the whose ideas were a major influence
holy places in southern India between in shaping the Gaudiya Vaishnava
1510 and 1512, and in 1514, a trip to religious community. None of these
Brindavan, in which Chaitanya had fre- texts gives an “objective” biography;
quent mystical experiences. After his the works are hagiographies written
return to Puri, he met the brothers Rupa by passionate devotees (bhakta). See
and Sanatana Goswami. Chaitanya also philosophy.
directed them to settle in Brindavan and
re-establish the holy sites associated
with Krishna’s life. Driven by Chaitanya’s Chaitra
charisma and ecstatic devotion, Rupa, According to the lunar calendar, by
Sanatana, and their nephew Jiva which most Hindu religious festivals are
Goswami became pivotal figures in the determined, Chaitra is the month in
development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava which the lunar year both begins (dur-
school. While Chaitanya was absorbed ing the two weeks of the bright or wax-
in his devotion to Krishna until his ing, half of the moon) and ends (during
death, Rupa, Santana, and Jiva Goswami the two weeks of the dark, or waning,
gave this devotion a systematic organi- half of the moon, which precedes the
zation. For further information see bright half). Thus, the waning half of
Sushil Kumar De, Early History of the Chaitra ends one lunar year, while the
Vaishnava Faith and Movement in waxing half that follows it begins the
Bengal, 1961; and Janardana next lunar year. This month usually falls
Chakravarti, Bengal Vaishnavism and Sri within March and April. This is one of
Chaitanya, 1975. the months of spring, and in northern
India the weather is warm and pleasant
at this time. The major festivals in
Chaitanya-Charitramrta Chaitra are Papamochani Ekadashi, the
(“nectar of Chaitanya’s deeds”) A name spring Navaratri, Ram Navami,
shared by at least three separate texts, all Kamada Ekadashi, Hanuman Jayanti,
devoted to recounting the life of the and in Tamil Nadu, the Chittirai festival.
Bengali saint Chaitanya (1486–1533).
The earliest was written by Murari
Gupta, an associate of Chaitanya. Most Chaitya
of this text focuses on Chaitanya’s early (“place of worship”) A rock-cut cave
life up to his southern Indian pilgrimage temple. This architectural form is closely
ending in 1513, but it also briefly men- associated with Indian Buddhism but
tions his pilgrimage to the town of was also used in early Hindu temple
Brindavan in 1514 and his final return architecture. The earliest chaityas were
to the sacred city of Puri, in which he simple caves, but these grew more elab-
lived until his death. The second orate as the form developed. In its later
account was written nine years after stages, the builders would not only cut

136
 Chakra

out the side of the hill to make a cave; Chakra

they would also sculpt pillars and (“wheel”) In Hindu iconography the
other architectural details that chakra is the discus-weapon carried by
mimicked free-standing construction. several of the Hindu deities. It is often
Another characteristic architectural associated with the god Vishnu and is
feature was a ceiling carved into the one of the four objects he invariably
shape of an arch. The true arch, built carries, along with the club (gada), lotus
from the bottom up and used in (padma), and conch shell (shankha).
Roman architecture, was not used in The discus was an actual weapon in the
ancient India. A third common feature Indian military arsenal, and its sharp
was a large window opening over the edges made it fearsome in close com-
doorway to let in additional light. bat. Vishnu’s discus (named Sudarshana)
During the construction, the builders is even more fearsome in its power.
began removing stone at the top of the According to tradition it was fashioned
structure and worked their way down; by the divine craftsman, Vishvakarma,
this eliminated the need for any scaf- from pieces trimmed off of the sun;
folding during the building process, thus it carries the power of the sun’s
but it also meant that the builders had blazing energy. The discus is also carried
to work carefully to avoid mistakes. by certain powerful forms of the
This construction method creates Goddess. In her charter myth, she was
structures considered gigantic sculp- formed from the collected radiance of
tures rather than buildings. The earliest all the gods and received duplicates of
examples are Buddhist caves carved all their weapons.
into the side of the western ghats in In the esoteric ritual tradition
Maharashtra. The form was later used known as tantra, a chakra is a psychic
to create Hindu temples, specifically center in the subtle body. The subtle
at Ellora (in which the oldest caves body is an alternate physiological sys-
are Buddhist) and on the island tem that corresponds to the material
of Elephanta. body but is believed to reside on a dif-
ferent plane of existence. The subtle
body is visualized as a set of chakras,
Chakora or psychic centers, that are arranged
The red partridge (Perdrix rufa).
in a column from the base of the spine
According to popular belief, the chakora
to the top of the head and connected
bird eats nothing but moonbeams. It is
by three vertical channels. Each
thus happy and content during the
chakra is pictured as a multipetaled
night but tormented by hunger during
lotus flower. All tantric traditions
the day. In court poetry the chakora bird
speak of six chakras: muladhara, svad-
often symbolized a cultured and dis-
hishthana, manipura, anahata, vishud-
criminating person who appreciates the
dha, and ajna; some traditions name
finer things in life. In bhakti (devotion-
additional ones. Each of these chakras
al) poetry the chakora is often a symbol
has important symbolic associations—
for a devotee (bhakta), since the chakora
with a different human physiological
bird is said to be in love with the moon.
capacity, subtle element (tanmatra),
Thus it is joyful when the moon is out
and with differing seed syllables (bijak-
but pines for it during the day, just as a
shara) formed from the letters of the
devotee is blissful in the deity’s pres-
Sanskrit alphabet, together encompass-
ence and in its absence is consumed
ing all sacred sounds. For further infor-
with longing.
mation see Philip S. Rawson, The Art of
Tantra, 1973.

137
 Chakravyuha

A shoemaker in Agra. Shoemaking and leather tanning are traditional occupations of the Chamar social group.

Chakravyuha Chalukya dynasty based at Badami,

(“circular phalanx”) A circular military there were two other smaller dynasties
formation described in the Mahabharata, by the same name, both of which flour-
one of the two great Hindu epics (along ished between the tenth and thirteenth
with the Ramayana). The Chakravyuha centuries. One of these later dynasties
was widely believed to be unconquer- was in the Gujarat region, and the other
able because each person in the forma- was in the Karnataka region.
tion was protected by those behind
him. During a battle in the Mahabharata
war, Abhimanyu becomes trapped in
Chamar
In traditional northern Indian society,
the chakravyuha by his enemy. Because
the chamars were a jati (“birth”) whose
his father, Arjuna, is the only person
hereditary occupation was tanning
who knows how to get out, Abhimanyu
leather and making shoes. The jatis
is killed.
were subgroups of traditional Indian
society whose social status was deter-
Chalukya Dynasty mined by their hereditary occupation.
(7th–8th c. C.E.) Central Indian dynasty The chamars were traditionally consid-
whose capital was at Badami, in ered among the lowest of the untouch-
the Deccan plateau in modern ables since their work brought them in
Karnataka. The greatest Chalukya ruler continual contact with dead animals
was Pulakeshin II, who defeated the and their skins, which are considered
northern Indian emperor Harsha, stop- extremely impure. The most famous
ping his southern advance. He also chamar is the poet-saint Ravidas, whose
killed the Pallava dynasty ruler poetry focuses on the difference
Mahendravarman, setting off a series of between worldly status and devotion.
wars between the Chalukyas and the
Pallavas in which each dynasty was able
to defeat the other in battle, but neither
Champaran
Region in the northern part of the state
was strong enough to retain control of
of Bihar, between the Gandaki River
the other’s empire. Aside from the
138
 Chanda

and the border of Nepal. Now it is com- advances into battle against the demon
posed of two provinces, eastern generals Chanda and Munda, whom
Champaran and western Champaran. she eventually beheads. Since the shrine
The Champaran region is famous as the on the Bana Ganga marks the place
place where Mohandas K. Gandhi engi- where both Chanda and Munda were
neered the first successful satyagraha destroyed, the goddess is worshiped
(nonviolent resistance campaign) here as Chamunda.
against British rule. At the time, the The name Chamunda designates a
province was largely agricultural, as it fierce and dangerous goddess who has
remains today, and most of the inhabi- often been identified with the goddess
tants were very poor. The farmers had Kali. In the poet Bhavabhuti’s eighth-
traditionally designated a portion of century drama Malatimadhava , the
their land for growing indigo to give to heroine, Malati, is kidnapped by devo-
the landlords as rent. This arrangement tees (bhakta) of the goddess Chamunda
was disrupted by the invention of a to be offered as a human sacrifice to
much cheaper synthetic indigo. The her. The events in the drama reflect the
landlords responded by ordering the ambivalence with which such powerful
tenants to stop growing indigo but pro- goddesses—and their devotees—have
ceeded to raise the rent on their land, been seen. For further information see
based on the traditional agreement that David R. Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses, 1986;
allowed them to do so if a tenant grew and Kathleen Erndl, Victory to the
no indigo. The trouble began in 1912, Mother, 1993.
but Gandhi did not arrive until 1917.
After a campaign lasting nearly a year,
the tenants won concessions from the Chanakya
landlords guaranteeing no further rent According to tradition, the chief minis-
increases and a 25 percent rebate on the ter of the founder of the Maurya
previous increases. For further informa- dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya
tion see Mohandas K. Gandhi, An (r. 321–297 B.C.E.). As the king’s counsel,
Autobiography, 1993; a more readable, Chanakya became famous for his skill
though highly partial, account can be in statecraft, and is believed to have
found in Louis Fischer, Gandhi, 1954. been instrumental in establishing the
dynasty. Under the name Kautilya,
Chanakya is also celebrated as
Chamunda the author of the Arthashastra , the
Presiding deity of the Chamunda Devi classic Indian treatise on the strategies
shrine on the banks of the Bana Ganga and mechanics of ruthlessly efficient
in the state of Himachal Pradesh, and central government.
one of the nine goddesses whose shrines
are scattered through the Shiwalik Hills.
Although each of these goddesses has a Chanda
separate identity, they are all ultimately A demon general killed by the Goddess
seen as differing manifestations of a sin- in the Devimahatmya, the Sanskrit text
gle Goddess. Chamunda’s charter myth that is the earliest and most important
is drawn from events in the mythic source for the cult of the
Devimahatmya, a Sanskrit text that Goddess. This text describes the
describes the Goddess’s several different Goddess in several different manifesta-
forms and is the earliest and most tions. The seventh book tells how the
important mythic source for the cult of goddess Ambika’s anger takes form as
the Goddess. The Devimahatmya’s sev- the terrifying goddess Kali. Kali attacks
enth book tells how the goddess the demon armies commanded by
Ambika’s anger takes material form as Chanda and his companion Munda,
the terrifying goddess Kali, who and after destroying the armies she

139
 Chandas

beheads the two generals. As a memorial worshiped on the festival’s ninth and
of this mythic deed, one of the names final night and is thus the most powerful
under which the Goddess is worshiped of these divine forms.
is Chamunda, as the slayer of Chanda
and Munda.
Chandidas
(15th c. C.E.) Bengali poet and devotee
Chandas (bhakta) of the god Krishna. In his
One of the six Vedangas. These were the poems Chandidas uses the conventions
auxiliary branches of knowledge intended of Sanskrit love poetry to express devo-
to facilitate the use of the Vedas, the tion to Krishna, most often through the
oldest Hindu religious texts. Chandas figure of Radha as Krishna’s favored
was concerned with the study of metri- devotee and lover. His poems are still
cal forms and verse, which were central recited in Bengal and according to tradi-
to the composition of the Vedas. One tion were admired by Chaitanya, the
indication of the importance of meter is Bengali devotee who was the founder of
that in many sources (such as in Panini’s the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious com-
grammar, the Ashtadhyayi) the word munity. Despite his poetry’s continuing
chandas is used to designate the Vedas acclaim, little is known about the life of
themselves. Aside from chandas, the Chandidas himself. This same name was
other Vedangas are shiksha (correct pro- used by a Bengali poet of the Sahajiya
nunciation), vyakarana (Sanskrit gram- sect, who wrote several centuries later
mar), kalpa (ritual instructions), than the original Chandidas and whose
nirukta (etymology), and jyotisha (aus- poetry is clearly distinguished by doctri-
picious times for sacrifices). nal differences. For selections from the
poetry of Chandidas, see Edward C.
Dimock Jr. and Denise Levertov (trans.),
Chandella Dynasty In Praise of Krishna, 1981.
(10th–14th c. C.E.) Northern Indian
dynasty that in its heyday controlled
much of the Ganges River valley and Chandika
northern Madhya Pradesh. The A variant of the name Chandi, which
Chandellas are famous for the magnifi- designates a powerful and terrifying
cent temples that they built in the village form of the Goddess. Chandika is one of
of Khajuraho, largely between the the Navadurgas, the “nine [forms of the
eleventh and twelfth centuries. These goddess] Durga” worshiped during the
temples have survived to the present, nine nights of the Navaratri festival.
perhaps due to their remote and inac- Chandika is the goddess worshiped
cessible location. They are excellent on the festival’s ninth and final night
examples of the developed form of the and is thus the most powerful of these
Nagara architectural style and are divine forms.
world-famous for their astounding dis-
play of erotic sculptures.
Chandiprakasha
(“effulgence of Chandi”) Name given to
Chandi the spear that is the symbolic weapon of
(“fierce”) Epithet used for the fierce and the Atala akhara, a particular group
powerful goddesses Durga and Kali. A within the Naga class of Dashanami
variant form of the name Chandi is Sanyasis. The Dashanami Nagas are
Chandika, and under this name Chandi devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva,
is identified as one of the Navadurgas, organized into different akharas, or reg-
the “nine [forms of the goddess] Durga” iments, on the model of an army. Until
worshiped during the nine nights of the the beginning of the nineteenth century,
Navaratri festival. Chandika is the goddess the Nagas’ primary occupation was as
140
 Chandragupta Maurya

mercenary soldiers, although they also

had substantial trading interests. These
functions have largely disappeared in
contemporary times. All of the akharas
have certain symbols that signify
their organizational identity, and the
Atala akhara is represented by this
particular spear.

Chandogya Upanishad
Along with the Brhadaranyaka
Upanishad, one of the two earliest
upanishads, the religious texts that form
the most recent stratum of the Vedas.
Internal textual factors indicate that Coins from the Gupta dynasty.
the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad is the
culture and ardent devotees (bhakta)
older of the two, and since large sections
of Shiva.
of both texts are the same, the
Chandogya Upanishad is thought to
be dependent on the Brhadaranyaka. Chandra Gupta II
Both texts are also much larger than the (r. 376–415 C.E.) Third in the line of great
other upanishads and much less monarchs in the Gupta dynasty, after
organized, rambling from topic to topic his father, Samudra Gupta, and his
without an apparent focus. Both grandfather, Chandra Gupta I. The
are written in prose rather than poetry, Gupta dynasty reached its territorial
with the text itself often presented as peak under Chandra Gupta II. During
a dialogue between various speakers. his reign the Shaka kingdom of the
Their profoundly speculative discus- Malwa region was finally conquered,
sions about the nature of the after which the Guptas controlled by
universe became important sources for conquest or tribute all of northern India
the later upanishads. and modern Pakistan, as well as the
Coromandel Coast all the way to mod-
ern Madras. The Gupta dynasty flour-
Chandra Gupta I ished between about 350 and 550 C.E.,
(r. 320–35 C.E.) Founder of the Gupta
and its reign is associated with the
dynasty, which like the Maurya dynasty
development of Indian culture and a
had its capital in Pataliputra, identified
revival of Hinduism in northern India.
with the modern city of Patna in the
Both were accomplished through the
state of Bihar. The Gupta capital was
patronage of the Gupta kings, who are
later moved to Allahabad. At the height
remembered both as patrons of high
of the dynasty, under Chandra Gupta II
culture and ardent devotees (bhakta) of
(r. 376–415), the Guptas controlled all of
Shiva. This is especially true of Chandra
northern India and modern Pakistan, as
Gupta II, since one of the major figures
well as the Coromandel Coast all the
associated with his court is Kalidasa,
way to modern Madras. The Gupta
considered the greatest of the Sanskrit
dynasty flourished between about 350
poets. See also Shaka era.
and 550 C.E., and its reign is associated
with the development of Indian culture
and a revival of Hinduism in northern Chandragupta Maurya
India. Both were accomplished through (r. 321–297 B.C.E.) The founder of the
the patronage of the Gupta kings, who Maurya dynasty. The young
are remembered both as patrons of high Chandragupta began his empire by

141
 Chandramati

overthrowing the last member of the Chandrayana

Nanda dynasty and occupying the capi- (“moon’s path”) Penitential rite
tal in Pataliputra, identified with the (prayashchitta) lasting for one lunar
modern city of Patna in the state of month in which the penitent’s food con-
Bihar. From there he took control of the sumption mirrors the monthly course of
Ganges River basin, moved south into the moon. A person observing this rite
the region of the Narmada River, and begins by eating fourteen mouthfuls of
then turned his attention to northwest- food on the first day of the waning
ern India, taking advantage of the power moon, then one less mouthful on each
vacuum left by the recent incursion of successive day until the new moon day,
Alexander the Great. In 303 B.C.E. he when a complete fast (upavasa) is
defeated Alexander’s general Seleucus observed. On each successive day dur-
Nicator in battle, then agreed to a treaty ing the waxing moon, the penitent eats
in which he received large parts of mod- one more mouthful, finishing at fifteen
ern Afghanistan. Despite the battle, rela- on the day of the full moon. This is a
tions seem to have been friendly fairly severe penance, given the scant
between the two, for Seleucus Nicator amount of food allowed in the middle of
sent an ambassador to Pataliputra, the month. In the dharma literature,
Megasthenes, who lived there for many this penance was prescribed as an
years. Chandragupta was reportedly atonement for certain sorts of sexual
advised by a brilliant brahmin minister, misconduct: sexual intercourse with a
variously called Kautilya or Chanakya, woman belonging to the same gotra
who is considered the author of the (mythic lineage), marrying a woman
Arthashastra . According to legend, belonging to one’s maternal grandfa-
Chandragupta renounced his throne to ther’s gotra, or marrying the daughter of
become a Jain monk and eventually died one’s maternal uncle or paternal aunt.
through ritual starvation.

Charaka
Chandramati (1st–2nd c. C.E.?) The attributed author
In Hindu mythology, the long-suffering of the Charaka Samhita, which along
wife of King Harishchandra. Harish- with the slightly later Sushruta
chandra is famous for his truthfulness Samhita, is one of the two major
and integrity; in modern Hindu culture sources for ayurveda, a traditional
he is also the paradigm for a person school of Indian medicine. According to
who patiently endures undeserved suf- tradition, Charaka was the physician at
fering. Harishchandra’s suffering grows the royal court in the city of Takshashila,
out of the competition between the in modern Pakistan.
sages Vasishtha and Vishvamitra. As his
family priest, Vasishtha praises Harish-
chandra’s virtue. Vishvamitra is deter- Charaka Samhita
mined to prove Vasishtha wrong and Along with the later Sushruta Samhita,
subjects Harishchandra to a series of one of the two major sources for the tra-
trials in which he loses his kingdom, his ditional Indian medical school known as
possessions, and has to sell himself and ayurveda. Although its authorship is
his family into slavery. Through all of attributed to Charaka, it is more likely a
the trials he and Chandramati have to compendium from earlier sources,
suffer, Harishchandra retains his integrity. given its reference to several different
After enduring many hardships, includ- medical systems and approaches. The
ing the death of their only son, they are underlying medical framework of
eventually restored to their original ayurveda is the theory of the three bodily
happy state, including the resuscitation humors—vata (wind), pitta (bile), and
of their son. kapha (phlegm). Although everyone has
142
 Charvaka

all three humors, each of these is com- devotees (bhakta) of the god Krishna.
posed of different elements whose vary- Like the Pushti Marg, the Charanadasis
ing proportions are used to explain are Vaishnavas, but their patron deity is
individual body types, metabolic dispo- not Krishna alone, but also his consort,
sitions, and personalities. Diseases Radha. The Charanadasis have stressed
result from an imbalance of these both learning and an upright way of
humors—caused by one’s environment life. Their main center is in Delhi, as is
or personal habits—whereas equilibri- the samadhi shrine of Charanadas,
um is the state of health. The Charaka their founder.
Samhita has been edited and translated
into various languages and has served as
a source for secondary studies, such as Charanamrta
Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, Science (“foot nectar”) Literally, the water (or
and Society in Ancient India, 1977. other liquid) in which the feet of one’s
guru or images of a deity are bathed.
The disciple or devotee (bhakta) con-
Charanadas sumes it as a sign of subordinate status
(“slave of [God’s] feet”; 1733–1782 C.E.) and as a way to receive grace and bless-
Founder of the Charanadasis, an ascetic ings. By extension, the word can refer to
religious community. Charanadas was any liquid for devotees to consume as a
born in the town of Dehra in the prince- symbol of the deity’s grace, whether or
ly state of Alwar (in the modern state of not it has been used for bathing (snana).
Rajasthan). The Charanadasis are also
known as the Shuka Sampraday because,
according to tradition, Charanadas Charas
received initiation from the puranic Name for hashish. This is usually mixed
sage Shuka. Charanadas formed his with tobacco and smoked in a straight
community in protest against the cor- pipe called a chillum. Smoking hashish
ruption and worldliness of the Pushti is typical in certain segments of the
Marg, the religious community founded ascetic community. For many ascetics,
by Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 C.E.), smoking is a social activity and a rite of
whose members are devotees (bhakta) hospitality as well as a religious act that
of the god Krishna. Like the Pushti emulates the god Shiva, whose love for
Marg, the Charanadasis are Vaishnavas, the drug is well known. In their travels
but their patron deity is not Krishna many ascetics process the marijuana
alone but also his consort, Radha. that grows wild throughout the
Charanadas countered the Pushti Marg Himalayas into hashish to use and sell.
by stressing upright and appropriate Drug use is forbidden for most people,
behavior and an insistence on learning. but among ascetics—who are deliber-
His disciples translated and wrote com- ately marginal members of society—it is
mentaries on the Bhagavad Gita and the a fairly common and tolerated behavior.
Bhagavata Purana, both important
Vaishnava texts. Charity
See dana.
Charanadasi
Vaishnava ascetic sect founded by the Charvaka
reformer-saint Charanadas (1733–1782 One of the traditional names given to
C.E.). Charanadas formed his own com-
the materialist philosophical school.
munity as a protest against the corrup- Its primary assertion was that a person
tion of the Pushti Marg, the religious is identical to his or her physical body
community founded by Vallabhacharya and is destroyed with the body’s
(1479–1531 C.E.) whose members are demise. See materialist.
143
 Chataka

Vishnu sleeping on a serpent couch. According to Hindu tradition, during the four months that Vishnu
sleeps, the world is denied his protective powers and the Chaturmas Vrat is observed during this time.

Chataka in which bands of militant ascetics,

In Sanskrit poetry and literature, the both Hindu and Muslim, fought with
name for the cuckoo bird, usually the British East India Company for
invoked as a symbol of longing. control of Bengal. Although historical
inquiry attributes this conflict to social
and economic tensions in contempo-
Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra rary Bengal, Chatterjee portrays it alle-
(1838–1894) Bengali writer and Indian gorically as a struggle by Mother India’s
nationalist who was one of the major loyal children to expel the British
figures in the nineteenth-century invaders. Chatterjee also wrote the
revival of Bengali literature and in words to “Vande Mataram” (“Homage to
making the area a hotbed of opposition Mother [India]”), a patriotic song often
to British rule. As a young man, described as the unofficial Indian
Chatterjee perceived how the influence national anthem.
of English language and culture was
superseding that of Indian culture
among educated Indians. He sought to Chatti
reverse this through his writing and A pilgrim shelter, particularly in the
political activism by encouraging Himalayas. The word chatti is a variant
Indian intellectuals to rediscover their form of the word for “umbrella” and was
classical culture. He became a seminal used because these shelters were often
figure in both literature and politics, simply roofs supported by pillars, to
paving the way for the poet Rabin- keep the pilgrims dry in case of rain. Up
dranath Tagore and political activists until the middle of the twentieth
Aurobindo Ghose and Subhash Chandra century, many Himalayan pilgrims still
Bose. Chatterjee’s most famous novel, traveled on foot and used a network of
Anandamath , focused on the late chattis along the pilgrimage routes.
eighteenth-century Sanyasi Rebellion, These chattis were eight to twelve miles
144
 Chaturmas Vrat

apart, an easy day’s walk for younger pil- that the overwhelming majority of these
grims, yet manageable for the elderly. ascetics are Ramanandis, the others
Each chatti was maintained by a nearby seem important only for representing
family, which would sell the pilgrims the other great Vaishnava religious fig-
wood and food grains and provide them ures. The distinctions between groups
with cooking utensils. This arrangement are only significant during the bathing
brought income to mountain families (snana) festival known as the Kumbha
during the pilgrimage season and freed Mela, at which they determine the order
pilgrims to carry only their personal of certain groups in the bathing proces-
belongings. The advent of paved roads sions. For more information see Peter
and bus transportation has largely ren- van der Veer, Gods on Earth, 1988.
dered this network obsolete, although it
survives in certain place names, such as
Janaki Chatti and Hanuman Chatti. Chaturbhujdas
(late 16th c.) One of the ashtachap, a
group of eight northern Indian bhakti
Chatuh-Sampradayi Nagas (devotional) poets. The compositions of
Collective name for four groups (sam- these eight poets were used for liturgical
praday) of militant (Naga) ascetics who purposes by the Pushti Marg, a religious
are all devotees (bhakta) of the god community whose members are devo-
Vishnu. They all trace their spiritual lin- tees (bhakta) of Krishna. In the Pushti
eage to a different Vaishnava religious Marg’s sectarian literature, all eight are
community, each of which is connected named as members of the community
with a major Vaishnava figure. By far the and as associates of either its founder,
most populous and powerful of these Vallabhacharya, or his successor,
groups is the Shri sampraday of the Vitthalnath. Chaturbhujdas is claimed
Ramanandi ascetics, which traces its as an associate of Vitthalnath—an idea
descent through the poet-saint supported by references in his poetry—
Ramananda to the southern Indian and is also said to be the son of
philosopher Ramanuja, whom they Kumbhadas, one of the earlier ash-
claim as Ramananda’s guru. The Sanaka tachap poets. In his poetry Chatur-
sampraday of the Nimbarki ascetics bhujdas presents himself as a companion
traces its spiritual lineage to the philoso- to Krishna and his consort, Radha, giv-
pher Nimbarka. The Rudra sampraday ing latter-day devotees a picture of their
of the Vishnuswami ascetics traces its daily routine.
lineage through the philosopher
Vallabhacharya to an earlier figure,
Vishnuswami. Finally, the Brahma sam- Chaturmas Vrat
praday of the Gaudiya Vaishnava A period of time spanning four lunar
ascetics traces its spiritual line through months, beginning on the festival of
the Bengali saint Chaitanya to the Devshayani Ekadashi (June–July) and
southern Indian philosopher Madhva. ending on the festival of Devotthayan
Each of these sampradays is differentiated Ekadashi (October–November). The
not only by its founder but also by its four months in between these festivals
patron deity or deities. The Ramanandis are considered ritually inauspicious,
worship the god Rama, whereas the since during that time the god Vishnu is
others worship the god Krishna and, to considered to be sleeping, and the pro-
different extents, his consort, Radha. tective power in the universe is less
Scholars doubt that these groups attentive. Thus people generally do not
were ever actually connected to the peo- perform auspicious life cycle rites such
ple whom they claim as their founders. as weddings during this period. This
The distinctions among the sampradays time also coincides with the coming of
appear to be largely academic. Given the monsoon, which is essential for

145
 Chau

helping crops to grow but also brings particularly for longer narrative works,
danger from waterborne infections and and it is a significant meter in bhakti
venomous snakes. Chaturmas Vrat’s (devotional) poetry. Its most famous
inauspicious qualities and the difficulty use appears in the Ramcharitmanas,
of travel caused by the monsoon make the Ramayana retold by the poet-
this a time when wandering ascetics saint Tulsidas.
should stay in one place. Religious wor-
ship during this period tends to stress
rites of protection, to shield one from Chaurasi Vaishnavan Ki Varta
these ritual and physical dangers. See (“account of eighty-four Vaishnavas”)
also inauspiciousness. Sectarian hagiography supposedly com-
posed by Gokulnath, the third guru of
the Pushti Marg, a religious community
Chau of Krishna devotees (bhakta) founded
One of the classical dance forms of by the philosopher Vallabhacharya
India; some of the others are Bhara- (1479–1531). It is more likely that the
tanatyam, Kathak, Orissi, Kuchipudi, text was written by Gokulnath’s disciple
Kathakali, and Manipuri. Different Hariray, who also wrote a commentary
forms of Chau are found in the border on the work. The text describes the lives
areas shared by the states of Orissa, of eighty-four paradigmatic Vaishnavas,
Bihar, and West Bengal. In all three all of whom were allegedly associated
regions, the dancers wear masks (chau), with the sect’s first two gurus,
making this type different from other Vallabhacharya and Vitthalnath. The
classical dance forms. The expressions text’s primary purpose is to illustrate
on the masks set a mood and conceal the importance of the Pushti Marg,
the dancers’ faces. Consequently, Chau particularly the importance of the
performers use their bodies and ges- Pushti Marg’s leaders on these eighty-
tures to develop the moods established four religious figures. This makes it an
by their masks. The prevailing themes in interesting sectarian work, but it is not
Chau dance are drawn from the mythi- historically reliable.
cal adventures of gods and heroes, par-
ticularly the mythology of the god Shiva.
For further information see Mohan Chauri
Khokar, Traditions of Indian Classical A small whisk used to brush off flies and
Dance, 1984. insects. The name is derived from the
word for the long tail hairs of a yak
(chamara), from which it was originally
Chaupai made. In ancient India the chauri was
(“four-footed”) Poetic form in northern an emblem of royalty, and thus it is also
Indian poetry. As its name suggests, the often seen in statues of religious figures
chaupai is made up of four lines. The such as the Didarganj Yakshi.
rhyme scheme is aabb, which has led
some to consider it a compound of two
two-line segments. Based on the dis- Chayagrahi
tinction between “heavy” and “light” (“shadow grabber”) A demoness in the
syllables, each line contains sixteen Ramayana, the earlier of the two great
metric beats arranged in a pattern of Hindu epics. Chayagrahi lives in the
6 + 4 + 4 + 2. A heavy syllable contains a ocean and catches birds flying overhead
long vowel or a consonant cluster and is by grasping their shadows in the water
counted as two metric beats; all other and pulling the helpless creatures down
syllables are light and count as one beat. to her waiting jaws. This method brings
The chaupai is one of the most impor- her a steady food supply, but her big
tant meters in medieval Hindi literature, mistake is trying to capture the monkey-
god, Hanuman, in this way. Hanuman
146