UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET OF THINGS

Evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT)

• The Internet of Things, or IoT, is like a giant invisible web that connects
everyday objects to the internet. Imagine starting your coffee maker from
bed using your smartphone—that's the magic of IoT.
The Magic Behind All Connected Devices
• For example, consider a smart thermostat in our home that is part of the
IoT system; it collects temperature and humidity readings, which are then
sent via Wi-Fi to other connected systems for automatic adjustment. This
device collects data about temperature and humidity levels throughout the
day.
• This information then gets sent via Wi-Fi to other linked systems—like
your AC unit—which automatically adjusts based on these readings. So,
even before you get home after a long hot day outside—the house is cool
and comfy.

IoT Devices Present A New Level Of Connectivity And Efficiency

• IoT lets us interact with objects around us in ways never possible before.
But beyond just making life easier—it also brings incredible efficiency
gains across industries.
• In agriculture, for example—IoT sensors can monitor soil moisture levels
and relay that info so farmers know precisely when their crops need
watering. This increases yields and conserves water—two birds with one
stone.
• So, IoT is not just a tech buzzword—it’s an exciting shift towards a more
connected and efficient world.

Understanding the Evolution of IoT: A Brief History

• The Internet of Things has developed quickly since its emergence, from
linking individual items to the web to comprehensive systems that are
changing whole sectors. It’s an exciting journey from simple, connected
devices to complex systems transforming entire industries.
Early Beginnings: Connecting Physical Objects to the Internet
• IoT was born when we connected everyday objects like fridges and
thermostats to the internet. This lets us control them remotely and monitor
their status – giving birth to smart homes. The first IoT device was a
toaster invented by John Romkey in 1990.
Moving Towards Industrial Applications
• IoT took a giant leap forward with industrial applications. Manufacturers
began using sensors and connectivity in machinery to predict
maintenance needs before they became critical issues. This led to
improved efficiency and saved costs on unplanned downtime.
Growth Driven by Advances in Technology And Wireless Networks
• Advancements in technologies such as 5G networks, edge computing,
and machine learning have fueled further growth of IoT. The advent of
these technologies allowed for real-time data analysis and decision-
making at the device level, improving reliability while reducing latency
significantly.

• Faster Connectivity: With the 5G rollout happening worldwide, faster

data transmission is now possible, enabling better responsiveness from
our IoT devices.
• Data Processing at Edge: By moving some processing tasks closer to
where data is generated (edge), we’ve reduced response times drastically
– making autonomous vehicles a reality.
• AI-Powered Decision Making: Machine Learning algorithms can now
analyze massive amounts of data produced by IoT devices, enabling
automatic adjustments based on learned behavior patterns.

Exploring the Benefits of IoT

• The Internet of Things (IoT) isn’t just a fancy tech term. It’s a
groundbreaking technology that is beginning to transform our reality. But
what are its benefits? IoT devices give businesses new ways to monitor
operations and improve efficiency. For instance, manufacturing
companies use IoT sensors for real-time equipment monitoring, which
helps predict maintenance needs before breakdowns occur.

Enhanced Customer Experiences

• According to Forbes, another significant benefit is improved customer
experience. With smart home devices like Alexa or Google Home, we
 can control almost everything at home by voice command – an
experience that was once science fiction.

Saving Resources with Smart Cities

• Cities around the globe are getting smarter thanks to IoT technologies,
too. From efficient waste management systems using connected bins to
smart street lights reducing energy consumption, these small steps make a
big difference in resource conservation.

Data-Driven Decision Making

• IoT’s data collection and analysis capabilities enable us to make decisions
based on real-world evidence, leading to success. These capabilities
enable businesses to make informed decisions based on real-world
insights, ultimately leading them toward success.
• Remember: while it’s exciting to see how much potential IoT
technologies have, always keep security front and center. More on that in
the next section.

IoT Architecture Explained

• The architecture of IoT is a layered structure designed to turn raw data
into valuable information. It’s like peeling an onion; each layer reveals
something more.

The Physical Layer

• This is the outermost layer of our ‘IoT onion.’ Here, physical devices and
sensors gather raw data from their environment. These can be anything
from temperature sensors, surveillance cameras, and security cameras in a
smart home system to heart rate monitors in wearable tech.

These are the IoT system’s sensory organs.

Edge Computing Layer

• Moving deeper into our ‘onion,’ we find the edge computing layer. This
isn’t just any ordinary middle layer, though – it’s where some real magic
happens.
• This segment does the heavy lifting by processing data collected by those
hardworking devices at the physical level. But why do this here? Simple.
Processing closer to the source reduces latency and conserves IoT
network resources – crucial for timely insights.
Application Layer
• The application layer transforms processed data into actionable
intelligence, which businesses use for decision-making.
• Here, algorithms analyze patterns, capture data, predict future outcomes,
or detect anomalies.

➢ Predictive Maintenance: If vibration levels in machinery go beyond

normal limits, maintenance can be scheduled before costly breakdowns
occur.
➢ Anomaly Detection: Unusual energy consumption might indicate faults
or inefficiencies.
➢ Trend Analysis: Analyzing usage trends over time helps identify peak
demand periods.

• Now, let’s talk more about the growth of connecting physical objects and
the IoT ecosystem. We’ll analyze IoT technologies and discuss edge
devices, medical devices, IoT data, and artificial intelligence, so get
ready.

Technologies Supporting The Growth Of IoT

• Developing the Internet of Things (IoT) is an incredible adventure. But
what powers this transformation? Let’s explore.

Data Analytics: Unleashing Insights From Data

• Data analytics plays an integral role in IoT’s expansion. It helps transform
raw data into actionable insights, driving better decision-making and
efficiency.

Cloud Computing: Storing And Processing Information Efficiently

• Cloud computing, another crucial tech for IoT, allows easy storage and
processing of vast amounts of data generated by devices. This makes it
possible to use that information anytime, anywhere.

Sensors And Actuators: Connecting Physical World To Digital Realm

• No talk about technologies behind IoT would be complete without
mentioning sensors and actuators. They act as the eyes and hands of our
devices – capturing real-world events like temperature changes or door
openings, then translating them into digital signals for action.
Fog Computing
• This technology comes in handy when there’s a need for quick response
times between interconnected devices within a network – more than what
traditional cloud models can offer. Fog computing brings computation
closer to edge nodes, reducing latency issues.

Analyzing the Impact of IoT on Businesses

• This massive surge in connected devices offers businesses new

opportunities for growth and efficiency. For instance, smart sensors can
help monitor equipment performance or inventory levels automatically.
Real-time info affords firms a competitive advantage, allowing them to
adapt to any changes quickly.
• I’ve seen firsthand how implementing IoT can lead to dramatic increases
in efficiency across various sectors like manufacturing or logistics, where
timing is everything. It reduces manual monitoring needs and enables
quick decision-making based on accurate data analysis.
• Moreover, this increase isn’t just theoretical; according to an analysis by
McKinsey & Company, businesses that use these emerging technologies
could see productivity gains between 15% and 25%.
• But here’s something even more exciting: Imagine if you could cut costs
while improving service quality. That’s precisely what many firms are
doing, thanks to predictive maintenance facilitated by IoT systems.
• Predictive maintenance allows potential issues with machinery or
infrastructure components to be identified before they become critical
problems. This can significantly reduce downtime and the associated
costs. A study by IBM found that predictive maintenance could result in
15% to 20% lower maintenance costs.

Examining the Security Challenges of IoT

• The rise of Internet of Things (IoT) technology has revolutionized our
daily lives. Still, each breakthrough brings difficulties, and the issue is
security with IoT.
• One major concern is unauthorized access to other systems. With
countless devices connected to networks worldwide, hackers have more
potential entry points than ever. They could get their hands on sensitive
data generated from their records or even gain control over vital systems.
Data Privacy Concerns
• Connected devices often collect large amounts of personal information,
which can be compromised if not adequately protected. Data privacy
regulations such as GDPR require businesses to safeguard user data
carefully, but doing so within an extensive network or connected IoT
device can be challenging.

Inadequate Updates And Patching

• IoT devices are notorious for lacking regular software updates and
patches, making them prime targets for cybercriminals exploiting known
vulnerabilities. A recent study showed that 83% of medical imaging
devices run outdated operating systems vulnerable to attacks.

Lack Of Standardization In IoT Security

• A significant hurdle facing effective IoT security is the lack of industry-
wide standards regarding device manufacturing and implementation.
Without standardized practices in place, achieving consistent levels of
protection across different platforms becomes increasingly tricky.
• We at TechAhead understand these risks firsthand because we’ve
worked extensively with businesses deploying complex interconnected
solutions using IoT. We help our clients not only realize the potential of
IoT but also navigate its security challenges effectively.
• Let’s ensure we use IoT responsibly and securely, as safety device
security should not be sacrificed for innovation. After all, innovation
shouldn’t come at the cost of safety.

What Does The Future Of IoT Hold?

• The potential of the Internet of Things is boundless, limited only by our
imaginations. We’re shifting from basic connectivity to more complex
systems for intelligent decision-making.
• This transformation isn’t just about machines communicating with each
other but how they associate and collaborate with us and our
environment. It’s akin to upgrading from simple walkie-talkies to an
entire telecommunications network.
• Predictive analytics and machine learning will take center stage in this
next phase. They’ll help devices learn patterns, predict needs, and act
before we need them. Imagine your fridge reminding you that you’re out
of milk because it’s noticed a pattern in your consumption, or perhaps
traffic lights adjusting their timings based on real-time traffic data.
 • We also have some significant challenges ahead. Data security tops the
list – making sure these smart devices don’t become Trojan horses for
cybercriminals looking to get at sensitive information. Cybersecurity
experts are working hard, developing new ways to protect these
increasingly connected networks.

Fostering A More Connected World

• The potential benefits outweigh any possible pitfalls, though. We’re
headed towards a more connected world where IoT technology works
seamlessly with us rather than being something separate.
FAQs
How has IoT evolved from the Internet?
The birth of the Internet laid a solid foundation, but IoT truly sprouted when
connectivity and sensors became cheap. It’s about extending internet
connection to everyday objects.
What are the five main stages of IoT?
The five phases include identification, sensing, communication, processing, and
services. They work in harmony for the seamless functioning of multiple
devices in an IoT system.
What are the evolving technologies of IoT?
AI, machine learning, edge computing, and blockchain fuel IoT. These
innovations keep pushing its boundaries further.
How do you see the IoT ecosystem evolving in the next five years?
We predict smarter cities powered by autonomous vehicles and intelligent
homes. Fusing artificial intelligence (AI) with IoT will also unlock new
horizons for efficiency.

Conclusion
The Evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT) is no mere trend. It’s a
groundbreaking transformation, altering how we operate and exist.

We’ve journeyed through its evolution – from concept to reality, and seen how
it’s making businesses more innovative and lives more manageable. While IoT
brings efficiency, it also ushers in new security challenges. And yet, we know
companies are eager to harness its power because the benefits outweigh the
risks.
Ultimately, we’re excited about what lies ahead for IoT—the future promises
even more connectedness – further intertwining technology with our everyday
existence.

Enabling Technologies
IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are
1. Wireless Sensor Network
2. Cloud Computing
3. Big Data Analytics
4. Communications Protocols
5. Embedded System

1. Wireless Sensor Network(WSN) :

A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to
monitor the environmental and physical conditions. A wireless sensor
network consists of end nodes, routers and coordinators. End nodes have
several sensors attached to them where the data is passed to a coordinator
with the help of routers. The coordinator also acts as the gateway that
connects WSN to the internet.
Example –
• Weather monitoring system
• Indoor air quality monitoring system
• Soil moisture monitoring system
• Surveillance system
• Health monitoring system
2. Cloud Computing :
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities
over the internet. Cloud means something which is present in remote
locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere
like databases, webservers, storage, any device, and any software over
the internet.
Characteristics –
1. Broad network access
2. On demand self-services
3. Rapid scalability
4. Measured service
5. Pay-per-use
Provides different services, such as –
• IaaS (Infrastructure as a service)
Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical
machines, virtual machines, servers, networking, storage and data
center space on a pay per use basis. Major IaaS providers are Google
Compute Engine, Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure etc.
Ex : Web Hosting, Virtual Machine etc.
• PaaS (Platform as a service)
Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to
support the complete life cycle of building and delivering West web
based (cloud) applications – without the cost and complexity of
buying and managing underlying hardware, software provisioning
and hosting. Computing platforms such as hardware, operating
systems and libraries etc. Basically, it provides a platform to develop
applications.
Ex : App Cloud, Google app engine
• SaaS (Software as a service)
It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service.
Instead of installing and maintaining software, you simply access it
via the internet, freeing yourself from complex software and
hardware management.
SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on
demand software or hosted software.
SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s service and they manage
security availability and performance.
Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.
3. Big Data Analytics :
It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data.
Collection of data whose volume, velocity or variety is simply too
massive and tough to store, control, process and examine the data using
traditional databases.
Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network
videos, digital images, sensors and sales transaction records.
Several steps involved in analyzing big data –
1. Data cleaning
2. Munging
3. Processing
4. Visualization
Examples –
• Bank transactions
• Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
• E-commerce and in Big-Basket
• Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness
bands
4. Communications Protocols :
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity
and linking to applications. Communication protocols allow devices to
exchange data over the network. Multiple protocols often describe
different aspects of a single communication. A group of protocols
designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when
implemented in software they are a protocol stack.
They are used in
1. Data encoding
2. Addressing schemes
5. Embedded Systems :
It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special
tasks.
It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking
units (Ethernet Wi-Fi adapters), input output units (display keyword etc.
) and storage devices (flash memory).
It collects the data and sends it to the internet.
Embedded systems used in
Examples –
1. Digital camera
2. DVD player, music player
3. Industrial robots
4. Wireless Routers etc.

IoT Architectures: oneM2M

• The architecture standardized by oneM2M defines an IoT Service Layer,
i.e. a vendor independent software Middleware sitting between
processing / communication hardware and IoT applications providing a
set of functions commonly needed by IoT applications.

The oneM2M Service Layer provides use case independent functions.

• oneM2M Common Service layer Functions (CSF’s) provide proper:

o Identification of users and applications
o authentication & authorization of users and applications
o end-to-end data encryption
o remote provisioning & service activation
o device management,
o connectivity setup & data transmission scheduling,
o data aggregation, buffering in case of missing connectivity and
synchronization upon connectivity re-establishment
o group management and application and data discovery functions
o etc ...
• The functions listed above provided by the oneM2M common service
layer, are exposed and controlled via globally standardized vendor
independent and uniform APIs, towards the IoT applications.
• IoT applications or more generically “Application Entities” AE’s are
generic terms for applications executed in so called Application
Dedicated Nodes ADNs or Middle Nodes MNs and at the Infrastructure
Node IN.
• Applications (AEs) at the device (ADN, MN) and the Infrastructure
Platform (IN) are separated by the oneM2M APIs from the actual
oneM2M Common Service functions (CSFs) like the ones listed above.
• Details and specifics of the underlying- connectivity technologies,
transport protocols and data serialization formats are not exposed to the
application developer. This avoids the necessity of detailed expertise in
used connectivity technologies, and hence allows the application
developer to focus on the customer actual IoT application.
• Interactions between oneM2M Common Service functions (CSFs) and
the application are solely based on the oneM2M globally standardized,
vendor independent, uniform APIs towards the applications.
• For an application developer, oneM2M based technology appears like an
operating system, which takes over common basic functions in context of
connectivity and hardware as listed above. Hence the IoT Service Layer
specified by oneM2M can be seen in a similar way as a mobile operating
systems within the smart phone eco system.
Due to this separation, application developers can focus on the developing the
actual IoT application for the Device e.g focusing on:

• Measuring physical parameters, preprocessing of data, controlling attached

hardware or Interworking with other technologies (Modbus, CAN-Bus,
OPC-UA gateways etc.)

On the infrastructure (Platform) the separation by APIs between oneM2M

Common Service functions (CSFs) and application, enables a separation
between “low level” tasks in context of connectivity over wide area networks
(Device Management, scheduling of data transmission, enrolment of security
functions and credentials, revocation of faulty device applications), and actual
cloud and IoT application Platform like:

• Data analytics, Rule engines, presentation of data, User interfaces etc.

Compared to IoT devices being connected to IoT Platforms without oneM2M,

the separation between Applications and oneM2M Common Service functions
(CSFs), enables the possibility to become independent form the actual cloud
respectively IoT Application Platform provider, since from the viewpoint of the
oneM2M Common Service functions (CSFs) the actual cloud respectively IoT
application Platform is regarded as an Application (AE) => Bring your own
Cloud (BYOC).

Beneficially the oneM2M Common Service functions (CSFs) will become part
of the communication chipset, to achieve a coverage in a wide range of devices.

Service Layer for cross vertical interoperability

The cross vertical interoperability challenge:

1. Before an application executed in car (Automotive) or on a smartphone

app is able to open a (Home Domain) garage door (e.g. once a car owner
appears at home), both applications need to be properly authenticated and
 authorized. Moreover both application need to have a common
understanding about their specific data models.
2. Furthermore if data generated by IoT devices are distributed and
uploaded to various different IoT platforms, data are locked in or just
accessible within their proprietary IoT platforms. Hence cross vertical
use cases are hampered.

In to overcome these aspects oneM2M provides data models based on the so

called Smart Device Template which is continuously extended with new
functionalities and elements. Basic elements can be modular composed to cover
a wide range of devices with various capabilities.

Due to a common understanding of the data being transferred, stored and

exposed by the oneM2M Common Service layer via globally standardized,
vendor independent, uniform APIs, applications are able to interwork across
any vertical.

In order to control access to data generated by IoT devices, oneM2M provides

Access Control Policies ACPs, controlling which applications AEs are allowed
to access which parts of the data in the oneM2M Common Service layer.
Benefits of using oneM2M

• Easy interworking/integration with existing & evolving deployments

paves the way to long term evolution and sustainable economy.
o Does not disrupt existing “vertical deployment”, but evolves it. Supports
interworking with legacy technology.
o Interworking with a rich set of proximal IoT technologies, embracing
different ecosystems.
o Takes advantage of the operators’ network capabilities and existing
management technologies.
• Service Layer on top of transport network supporting a choice of
transport protocols and serializations of data/message
o Flexibility: it can be deployed on all domains, not tied to a particular
protocol technology.
o IP based: relies on known existing APIs to handle IP communications.
o Aware of optimizations if underlying network is 3GPP-based: can make
use of policy-based scheduling, power saving mode, triggering /wakeup
of devices, non-IP data transport, etc without the need for the developer
to be aware of these terms
o Enhances data sharing efficiency: communications over an underlying
network are policed by provisioned policies that govern the use of
network resources based on configurable categories of events/messages.
Avoids storm of low-value messages in netoworks with costly resources.
Lowers Opex.
o For example, in use cases with a need for fast & compact message
exchanges one may want to rely on TCP sockets (opened via web
sockets) and use binary serialization (e.g. CBOR) whereas in other cases
a combination of HTTPS/JSON may be preferable for simpler
debugging.
o Evolution: supported transport protocols and/or message serialization can
evolve while the oneM2M code will not change. This allows for easy
adaptation to future transport technologies.
• Horizontal platform provides common service functions that enable
multiple IoT domains
o One investment/deployment serves multiple domains, does not re-invent
the wheel. Lowers Capex
o No need to maintain domain-specific platforms, reduction in Capex
o Cross-domain service/application innovation with a common framework
and uniform APIs, allows for sharing of information and processes across
domains that were isolated thus far (e.g. home security system versus
heating system), Supports new business opportunities.
o Re-use of the code whatever the domain was. Increases reusability /
lowers Capex
• Data sharing and semantic interoperability brings the real value.
o Data oriented RESTful API design.
o Semantic data annotation, discover and reasoning facilitates intelligent
analytics and service mashups.
o Security protection at both channel and object level, with static and
dynamic access control.
• Open standards to avoid lock-in to a platform or a cloud provider.
o No single party or company controls the technology / features.
• Several open source implementations available (CSE or AE).
• oneM2M is an international standard
o Developed using standardization methodology that has insured successful
interoperability in many technical domains, using the same process as in
3GPP.
o Developed by many companies based on consensus: it does not depend
on a single or a small number of companies; not using a closed
proprietary technology.
o It is an open standard: transparent development process & open access to
all deliverables; all the specifications, even the drafts are available at
http://www.onem2m.org/technical/latest-drafts

In summary

The oneM2M initiative can remove fragmentation of the IoT world.

Because it is independent of the access or protocol technology that is used
for transport, it is designed to be a long term solution for IoT deployment.

IoT World Forum (IoTWF) and Alternative IoT Models

• The IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardised Architecture is a set of

rules that enable those who deal with the Internet of Things (IoT) to
accomplish their jobs better.
• These recommendations were developed in 2014 by a consortium of
large corporations, including Cisco and IBM. These guidelines are
super important in the IoT world because they provide a way for
people to create and connect IoT systems.
• It's like having a map to build and grow IoT projects, making them
work well together and making it easier for everyone to use.
• IoTWF architecture consists of seven layers, each layer specifying a
different purpose.

The seven layers of the IoTWF Standardized Architecture include -

 Fig: IoTWF Architecture

1. Physical Devices and Controllers (Things)

These are the actual "things" of the Internet of Things. These might be
physical assets such as machines or equipment. These "things" in the tech
sector might also be sensors and devices linked to these assets. Although
they may not yet have sensors, we are heading towards increasingly
interconnected systems.

2. Connectivity
This layer bridges the gap between the Edge Node device and the cloud,
ensuring that the data can run smoothly. It is an important aspect since it
ensures that data from the field may reach its destination in the cloud or
on-premise. This layer functions as a transportation system for your IoT
data, and it may take various routes, such as highways or backroads, to
deliver your data where it needs to go.
3. Edge Computing
This layer, also known as "Cloud Edge" or "Cloud Gateway" computing,
is crucial in any IoT system. Edge computing is a type of computing
that occurs at or near the network's edge/at the device layer. Several
important tasks take place in this layer –

• Protocol conversion - Protocol conversion is similar to having a

translator ensure that data speaks the correct language while flowing
between different portions of the IoT system.
• Routing - Consider routing to be traffic control. It routes data to the
appropriate locations for processing and analysis.
• Fast Decision-Making - This layer is likewise in charge of making
rapid decisions to keep things operating smoothly and with low
delays.

4. Data Accumulation
IoT systems create large amounts of data, and this layer acts as a data
storage warehouse. It is necessary since this layer stores incoming data and
prepares data for future processing. Once the data is ready, it is sent to the
next levels for analysis and decision-making.

5. Data Abstraction
We're finally making sense of the data. We collect similar data from a
variety of sources, prioritise critical information, and prepare data for a
variety of applications.

6. Application Layer
The Application Layer is where the real action happens. It's fairly simple,
and here's what it does:

• Control and Data Logic - Consider this layer to be the control

centre for your IoT system. It's where all the smart decisions are
made.
• Wide Range of Functions - This layer performs a wide range of
functions, including monitoring how everything works, optimising
processes to improve them, managing alarms when something goes
wrong, analysing data to find important patterns, setting up control
 rules, and even handling logistics and understanding consumer
behaviour.

7. Collaboration and Processes

Finally, this layer integrates everything. It is the point at which individuals
engage with the IoT system. Data and apps are used to make choices,
optimise operations, and generate value. This layer connects technology to
real-world advantages such as enhancing businesses or improving our
lives.

Conclusion
We can accomplish some significant things with this model:

• We can divide the complex IoT challenge into smaller, more

manageable components. It's similar to slicing a large pizza into
slices to make it easier to consume.
• We can examine the many technologies employed at each phase and
their interaction. It's just like knowing the ingredients needed for
each part of a recipe.
• We may create our IoT system using components from several
vendors. It's like designing a car with one company's engine and
another's tires.
• We can devise a security strategy to ensure the safety of our IoT
system. It's similar to having closed doors at different areas of a
building's entrances to keep unwanted people out.

Simplified IoT Architecture and Core IoT Functional Stack

• Core IoT functional stack includes hardware layer and application
layer. Data management and compute stack includes virtual layer
elements. These building blocks include the main components of all
models and are developed adaptively for different cases and
applications and arranged in proper order.
Architecture of Internet of Things (IoT)
• Internet of Things (IoT) technology has a wide variety of

applications and use of Internet of Things is growing so

faster. Depending upon different application areas of Internet
of Things, it works accordingly as per it has been
designed/developed.
• But it has not a standard defined architecture of working

which is strictly followed universally. The architecture of IoT

depends upon its functionality and implementation in different
sectors. Still, there is a basic process flow based on which
IoT is built.

So, from the above image it is clear that there is 4 layers are
present that can be divided as follows: Sensing Layer, Network
Layer, Data processing Layer, and Application Layer.
1. Sensing Layer–
The sensing layer is the first layer of the IoT architecture and is
responsible for collecting data from different sources. This layer
includes sensors and actuators that are placed in the
environment to gather information about temperature, humidity,
light, sound, and other physical parameters. These devices are
connected to the network layer through wired or wireless
communication protocols.
2. Network Layer –
The network layer of an IoT architecture is responsible for
providing communication and connectivity between devices in
the IoT system. It includes protocols and technologies that
enable devices to connect and communicate with each other
and with the wider internet. Examples of network technologies
that are commonly used in IoT include WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee,
and cellular networks such as 4G and 5G. Additionally, the
network layer may include gateways and routers that act as
intermediaries between devices and the wider internet, and
may also include security features such as encryption and
authentication to protect against unauthorized access.
3. Data processing Layer –
The data processing layer of IoT architecture refers to the
software and hardware components that are responsible for
collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data from IoT devices.
This layer is responsible for receiving raw data from the
devices, processing it, and making it available for further
analysis or action.The data processing layer includes a variety
of technologies and tools, such as data management systems,
analytics platforms, and machine learning algorithms. These
tools are used to extract meaningful insights from the data and
make decisions based on that data. Example of a technology
used in the data processing layer is a data lake, which is a
centralized repository for storing raw data from IoT devices.
4. Application Layer–
The application layer of IoT architecture is the topmost layer
that interacts directly with the end-user. It is responsible for
providing user-friendly interfaces and functionalities that enable
users to access and control IoT devices.This layer includes
various software and applications such as mobile apps, web
portals, and other user interfaces that are designed to interact
with the underlying IoT infrastructure. It also includes
middleware services that allow different IoT devices and
systems to communicate and share data seamlessly.The
application layer also includes analytics and processing
capabilities that allow data to be analyzed and transformed into
meaningful insights. This can include machine learning
algorithms, data visualization tools, and other advanced
analytics capabilities.
The IoT technology stack
The IoT technology stack is nothing else than a range of
technologies, standards and tools, which lead from the
simple connection of objects to the applications that use
these connected things, the data they gather and
communicate and the different steps needed to power them.

Sensors in one of many existing IoT technology stack views – source and courtesy

Without that IoT technology stack there would be no possibility to

do something with IoT devices and no reason to connect things to
the Internet. So, simply said the IoT technology stack
encompasses all the needed technologies to move from IoT device
and data to an actual purpose and goal or so-called IoT use case.

Yet, although it looks simple, the different layers consist of

several technologies and options for an IoT project.

Moreover, it is not just a matter of combining the right technologies

across the IoT technology stack but also about doing so in an
accurate, secure and cost-effective way.

And in practice there are still quite some challenges on the level of
interoperability and all these technology elements being able to talk
with each other as there are different standards. Moreover, when
we bring in existing connected devices as they’ve existed for ages
in areas such as building management or manufacturing
technologies, that latter challenge becomes even bigger.

Let’s look at the first layer of the IoT technology stack: IoT devices
or IoT endpoints. Do note that there have been various attempts to
depict and construct the IoT technology stack (and within each of
the layers various protocols, vendors/players and sub-layers).
When Cisco still talked about the Internet of Everything (IoE) it also
had an IoE technology stack which was more built from that IoE
vision.

Fog, Edge and Cloud in IoT

There is a growing need for fast, reliable, and efficient computing

systems. With the rise of the Internet of Things (IoT) and the
proliferation of smart devices, traditional cloud computing solutions
are facing new challenges. Edge computing and fog computing
have emerged as potential solutions to these challenges, offering
new ways of processing and analyzing data in real time.
Edge computing and fog computing are two concepts that are often
used interchangeably, but they have important differences. Edge
computing is a decentralized computing model that brings data
processing closer to the devices and sensors that generate it. Fog
computing, on the other hand, is a distributed computing model that
extends the capabilities of edge computing to a larger network of
devices and sensors.
Edge Computing vs. Fog Computing
Edge computing is a computing architecture that aims to bring
computing closer to the source of data. It is based on the idea of
processing data at the edge of the network, as opposed to in the
cloud or in a centralized data center. The idea behind edge
computing is to reduce the amount of data that needs to be sent to
the cloud or a central server for processing, thereby reducing
network latency and improving overall system performance.
Fog computing is a distributed computing model that is designed to
complement edge computing. It extends the capabilities of edge
computing by providing a layer of computing infrastructure between
the edge devices and the cloud. This infrastructure is called the fog
layer, and it provides additional computing resources and services
to edge devices.
Fog Computing vs. Cloud Computing
What’s the difference between cloud and fog computing? Cloud
computing and fog computing are two different paradigms in the
world of computing, both of which offer different benefits and
drawbacks. Here are some of the main differences between cloud
computing and fog computing:
Location. The most significant difference between cloud computing
and fog computing is their location. Cloud computing is a
centralized model where data is stored, processed, and accessed
from a remote data center, while fog computing is a decentralized
model where data is processed closer to edge devices.
Latency. Cloud computing suffers from higher latency than fog
computing because data has to travel back and forth from the data
center, which can take a longer time. In contrast, fog computing can
process data in real time, making it ideal for latency-sensitive
applications.
Scalability. Cloud computing is a highly scalable model that can
handle a vast amount of data processing and storage requirements,
whereas fog computing is less scalable but can provide additional
computing resources and services to edge devices.
Security. Cloud computing has advanced security measures in
place to secure data in the cloud, while fog computing focuses on
providing security measures to edge devices.
Characteristics of Fog Computing
Fog computing has several unique characteristics that make it an
attractive option for organizations looking to process data in real
time.
Proximity. The primary characteristic of fog computing is its
proximity to edge devices. By processing data closer to the source,
fog computing can reduce latency and improve system
performance. This is particularly important for applications that
require real-time data processing, such as industrial IoT and
autonomous vehicles.
Distributed Architecture. Fog computing is a distributed
computing model, which means that it can scale to meet the needs
of large and complex systems. The fog layer provides additional
computing resources and services to edge devices, which allows
organizations to process more data in real time.
Heterogeneous Devices. Fog computing is designed to work with
a wide range of devices, including sensors, cameras, and other IoT
devices. This makes it an ideal solution for organizations with
diverse hardware requirements.
Security. Fog computing is designed with security in mind. The fog
layer provides additional security measures to edge devices, such
as encryption and authentication. This helps to protect sensitive
data from unauthorized access and cyberattacks.
Fog Computing Architecture
Fog computing architecture consists of three layers: the edge layer,
the fog layer, and the cloud layer. The edge layer is where the data
is generated and collected, while the fog layer is where the data is
processed and analyzed. The cloud layer provides additional
computing resources and storage capacity for the fog layer.
Types of Fog Computing
There are several types of fog computing, including client-based,
server-based, and hybrid fog computing.
Client-Based Fog. This type of fog computing relies on the
computing power of edge devices to process and analyze data.
Client-based fog computing is ideal for applications that require
real-time processing, such as autonomous vehicles and industrial
IoT.
Server-Based Fog. This type of fog computing relies on the
computing power of servers located in the fog layer to process and
analyze data. Server-based fog computing is ideal for applications
that require more computing power than edge devices can provide.
Hybrid Fog. This type of fog computing combines both client-based
and server-based fog computing. Hybrid fog computing is ideal for
applications that require a mix of real-time processing and high
computing power.
Edge and Fog Computing Examples
There are many examples of edge and fog computing in use today.
Some of the most common examples include:
Retail. Retail shops are a prime example of edge computing in
action. They rely on business applications such as point of sale,
inventory management, video security, and new IoT transformative
applications and need flexible, reliable, secure, scalable, and
resilient in-store infrastructure.
Manufacturing. From planning to product design to distribution, the
right IT platform optimizes processes and increases productivity in
manufacturing.
Autonomous Vehicles. Autonomous vehicles are an example of
fog computing in action. They rely on sensors and cameras located
throughout the vehicle to collect data and make decisions about
how to navigate and operate the vehicle.
Smart Cities. Smart cities are another example of fog computing in
action. They rely on a network of sensors and devices located
throughout a city to collect data and make decisions about how to
optimize city services and infrastructure.
Advantages of Fog Computing and Edge Computing
Fog computing and edge computing have several advantages over
traditional cloud computing, particularly when it comes
to processing data in real-time.
Reduced Latency. One of the main advantages is reduced latency
by processing data closer to the source. This is particularly
important for applications that require real-time data processing,
such as industrial IoT and autonomous vehicles.
Improved Security. Fog and edge computing can improve security
by providing additional security measures to edge devices, such as
encryption and authentication. This helps to protect sensitive data
from unauthorized access and cyberattacks.
Scalability. Both fog and edge computing scale to meet the needs
of large and complex systems. They provide additional compute
resources and services to edge devices, which allows organizations
to process more data in real-time.
Cost-Effective. Fog and edge computing can be more cost-
effective than traditional cloud computing because they reduce the
amount of data that needs to be transmitted to the cloud. This can
help organizations save on bandwidth and storage costs.
Redundancy. Both can provide redundancy by distributing
compute resources. This helps to ensure that data processing and
analysis can continue even if some devices or servers fail.
Edge computing and fog computing are two complementary
computing models that are designed to address the challenges of
processing and analyzing data in real time. Edge computing brings
computing closer to the source of data, while fog computing
extends the capabilities of edge computing by providing additional
computing resources and services to edge devices. Both models
have many practical applications in today's digital age and will play
an increasingly important role in the future of computing.

Difference Between Edge Computing and Fog Computing

• Cloud computing refers to the on-demand delivery of IT

services/resources over the internet. On-demand computing

service over the internet is nothing but cloud computing. By
using cloud computing users can access the services from
anywhere whenever they need.
• Nowadays, a massive amount of data is generated every
second around the globe. Businesses collect and process
that data from the people and get analytics to scale their
business. When lots of organizations access their data
simultaneously on the remote servers in data centers, data
traffic might occur.
• Data traffic can cause some delay in accessing the data,
lower bandwidth, etc. But cloud computing technology alone
is not effective enough to store and process massive
amounts of data and respond quickly.
• For example, in the Tesla self-driving car, the sensor
constantly monitors certain regions around the car. If it
detects an obstacle or pedestrian on its way, then the car
must be stopped or move around without hitting. When an
obstacle is on its way, the data sent through the sensor must
be processed quickly and help the car to detect before it hits.
A little delay in detection could be a major issue. To
overcome such challenges, edge computing and fog
computing are introduced.
 Edge and Fog Computing

Edge Computing
Computation takes place at the edge of a device’s network, which
is known as edge computing. That means a computer is
connected with the network of the device, which processes the
data and sends the data to the cloud in real-time. That computer is
known as “edge computer” or “edge node”.
With this technology, data is processed and transmitted to the
devices instantly. Yet, edge nodes transmit all the data captured
or generated by the device regardless of the importance of the
data.
Example of Edge computing:
• Autonomous vehicle edge computing devices collect data from
cameras and sensors on the vehicle, process it, and make
decisions in milliseconds, such as self-parking cars.
• In order to accurately assess a patient’s condition and foresee
treatments, data is processed from a variety of edge devices
connected to sensors and monitors.
Here Fog Computing was introduced and becomes an ideal
solution.
Fog Computing
Fog computing is an extension of cloud computing. It is a layer in
between the edge and the cloud. When edge computers send
huge amounts of data to the cloud, fog nodes receive the data and
analyze what’s important. Then the fog nodes transfer the
important data to the cloud to be stored and delete the
unimportant data or keep them with themselves for further
analysis. In this way, fog computing saves a lot of space in the
cloud and transfers important data quickly.

Difference Between Edge Computing and Fog

Computing

S.NO. EDGE COMPUTING FOG COMPUTING

Highly scalable when compared to edge

Less scalable than fog computing.
01. computing.

02. Billions of nodes are present. Millions of nodes are present.

Nodes in this computing are installed closer

Nodes are installed far away from
to the cloud(remote database where data
the cloud.
03. is stored).

Edge computing is a subdivision of Fog computing is a subdivision of cloud

04. fog computing. computing.

The bandwidth requirement is very The bandwidth requirement is high. Data

low. Because data comes from the originating from edge nodes is transferred
05. edge nodes themselves. to the cloud.
S.NO. EDGE COMPUTING FOG COMPUTING

06. Operational cost is higher. Operational cost is comparatively lower.

High privacy. Attacks on data are

The probability of data attacks is higher.
07. very low.

Edge devices are the inclusion of the

Fog is an extended layer of cloud.
08. IoT devices or client’s network.

The power consumption of nodes filter

The power consumption of nodes is important information from the massive
low. amount of data collected from the device
09. and saves it in the filter high.

Edge computing helps devices to get Fog computing helps in filtering important
faster results by processing the data information from the massive amount of
simultaneously received from the data collected from the device and saves it
10. devices. in the cloud by sending the filtered data.