Web Development and Database

Administration
Level-IV
Based on November 2023, Curriculum Version II

Module Title: Determining Suitability of Database

Functionality and Suitability
Module code: EIS WDDBA4 M02 1123
Nominal duration: 60 Hours
Prepared by: Ministry of Labor and Skill
November, 2023
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Table of Contents

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Contents
Acknowledgment ....................................................................................................................... 3
Acronym 4
Unit One: Functions and features of database ............................................................................. 6
1.1 Introduction to DBMS ........................................................................................ 7
1.2 Functions of DBMS ........................................................................................... 7
1.3 Applications of DBMS .................................................................................... 20
Self-check: 1 ............................................................................................................................ 22
Unit Two: Gather data to determine database functionality ....................................................... 24
2.1 Understanding business requirement ................................................................ 25
2.2 Aligning database objectives with business requirements ................................. 31
2.3 Design database ............................................................................................... 33
2.4 Organization business model ........................................................................... 37
2.5 Document preparation ...................................................................................... 40
2.6 Getting client confirmation .............................................................................. 43
Self-Check: 2............................................................................................................................ 46
Operation sheet 2.1 ................................................................................................................... 48
Unit Three: Critical database requirements. .............................................................................. 52
3.1. Database Capacity. .......................................................................................... 55
3.2. Scalability parameters ...................................................................................... 57
3.3. Comparing database features. .......................................................................... 63
3.4. Database features gap documentation............................................................... 66
Self-Check: 3............................................................................................................................ 69
Unit Four: Report preparation ................................................................................................... 71
4.1. Database features documentation ..................................................................... 72
4.2. Report submission ........................................................................................... 75
Self-Check: 4............................................................................................................................ 78
Developer’s profile ................................................................................................................... 81

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 Acknowledgment

Ministry of Labor and Skills wish to extend thanks and appreciation to the many representatives of
TVET instructors and respective industry experts who donated their time and expertise to the
development of this Teaching, Training and Learning Materials (TTLM).

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Acronym

DBMS-----------------------------------------------Database management system

DDL--------------------------------------------------Data definition language
DML--------------------------------------------------Data manipulation language
DQL---------------------------------------------------Data query language
SQL----------------------------------------------------Structured query language
HIPAA--------------------------------------------Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
GDPR--------------------------------------------------General Data Protection Regulation
CSV----------------------------------------------------Comma separated values

XML----------------------------------------------------Extensible markup language

JSO------------------------------------------------------Java script object notation

API------------------------------------------------------Application programming interface

DPO-----------------------------------------------------Data Protection Officer

ETL------------------------------------------------------Extract, transform, and load

SWOT----------------------------------------------------Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, Threat

ER Model------------------------------------------------relationship model

UAT-------------------------------------------------------user acceptance testing

NoSQL-------------------------------------------------- Not only Structured Language

ACID-----------------------------------------------------Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability

URL------------------------------------------------------Uniform resource locator

CPU------------------------------------------------------Central processing unit

RAM-----------------------------------------------------Random access memory

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Introduction to the module
In today's rapidly evolving technological landscape, the choice of a suitable database is a critical
decision that directly impacts the success and efficiency of an organization. This guide is crafted
to provide a comprehensive overview of how to determine the suitability of database
functionality and Scalability based on the unique business requirements of your organization.
The selection of a database goes beyond a mere technical decision; it is a strategic choice that
affects various facets of an organization, including performance, security, and scalability.
Module covers the units:

 Functions and features of database management system

 Gather data to determine database functionality
 Critical database requirements
 Report preparation

Learning Objective of the Module

 Understand business requirement

 Describe database functionality
 Explain database scalability
 Identify database functionality and scalability requirements.
 Analyze the gab of the database features
 Generate report
Module Instruction

For effective use these modules trainees are expected to follow the following module instruction:
1. Read the information written in each unit
2. Accomplish the Self-checks at the end of each unit
3. Perform Operation Sheets which were provided at the end of units
4. Do the “LAP test” giver at the end of each unit and
5. Read the identified reference book for Examples and exercise

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Unit One: Functions and features of database

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
 Introduction to DBMS
 Functions of DBMS
 Applications of DBMS
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Grasp the significance of Database Management Systems in managing vast amounts of
data efficiently in today's data-driven world.
 Develop a clearer understanding of how databases organize and manage information.
 Understand the role of a data dictionary in maintaining metadata about database objects,
tables, columns, and relationships.
 Understand the functions of archiving and purging data to manage storage efficiently and
maintain data relevance.
 Understand strategies employed by DBMS to optimize data storage, access, retrieval, and
processing for improved performance.
 Recognition of real-world applications of DBMS in sectors like transportation, social
media, and online shopping platforms.

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1.1 Introduction to DBMS
Database Management Systems (DBMS) are indispensable in today’s data-driven world. They
serve as the backbone of information management by enabling efficient storage, retrieval,
manipulation, and organization of vast amounts of data. Beyond data storage, DBMS performs
crucial functions such as data definition, manipulation, administration, and security.
Consider a library where books are to be organized to make them more accessible to the
members. You’d see a few things— books, shelves, catalogs, indexes, an authorization card, and,
lastly, a librarian. Now take the librarian to be a DBMS, overseeing all operations on the
components mentioned above. Books represent data; shelves could hence be data tables, catalogs
would be the information document, and so on. Have you got the point? Let’s now see how this
system works in more detail.

This unit dives into these functions, shedding light on their significance and real-world
applications. We’ll also discuss the evolving landscape of DBMS. Understanding the functions
of DBMS empowers individuals and organizations to make informed decisions and leverage the
full potential of their data resources. Let’s embark on this enlightening journey of DBMS
functions in the digital era.

1.1. Functions of DBMS

Primarily, a DBMS manages data. But the
functionality continues. There are a few more
purposes for utilizing database management
systems.
Fig 1.1: DBMS Functions

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  Security Management
Keeping massive volumes of data without a security framework makes it very prone to get
compromised. Especially if you lack the technical know-how of securing or retrieving it in case
of a mishap, this is where a DBMS can help you. By default, numerous security features are
vested in these systems, making it easier for organizations to manage multi-user databases.
 Data Transformation and Presentation
One of the operations you can do with a DBMS is data transformation. By this, we mean that
despite how the system stores your data in separate tables, you’ll get the result in a raw format
without specifying. For instance, a DMBS might store DOBs in separate tables for dates, months,
and years. But when you retrieve an entry, you will get a date of 7 September 2023.

There are many more functions you can do in a DBMS, like data definition, data manipulation,
retrieval and reporting, concurrency, multi-user access control, data integrity management,
communication and application programming interfaces, and a lot more. Let’s delve deeper into
some of the most widely used functions of DBMS.

 Data Definition Function

Fig 1.2: Data definition function

As the name suggests, this DBMS function defines and manages the database structure. It
involves creating, modifying, and removing objects like tables, indexes, etc.

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  Creating and Modifying Database Schema
Creating and modifying the database schema is essential to the data definition function. Simply
put, a schema defines how a database organizes data using logical constraints, tables, etc.
Defining Data Types, Constraints, and Relationships: Further, creating a schema also includes
specifying the overall structure, including the relationships between data points, their columns
(or rows), and data types. This is where you tell the system how you want it to store the data. For
instance, when storing student data, you can specify the columns as “Roll Numbers,”
“Attendance,” “Name,” and anything else that you wish to record.
Modifying Schema: Over time, the requirements of the database may change, necessitating
modifications to the existing schema. This can be done using the data definition function of a
DBMS, where you can alter the number of rows/columns, add more data types or constraints,
and do a lot more.
Continuing the above example, the modification could involve adding more rows for newer
admissions or deleting the column having names to keep the records anonymous.

 Data Manipulation Function

These functions of DBMS enable you to manipulate data as per your requirements: Inserting,
Updating, and Deleting Data these data manipulation functions make the experience much
more interactive for the users.

Insertion involves adding new data records or rows into the database tables. For example, you
can add a column “Total leaves taken” in the student record database described above. While
updating, this function allows you to modify or update existing records. For instance, in the
above example, you could update the “Attendance” column daily. Deletion, as the name says,
allows you to delete specific records or even entire datasets. In the example above, deletion
could imply removing a student’s entry once they drop out of the class/school.

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  Querying and Retrieving Data

Etymologically, querying means posing questions. DBMS terminology translates to sending

requests to the database to get specific information. Users can formulate queries using Structured
Query Language (SQL) or other query languages supported by the DBMS. For instance,
following the student database example, you could pass a query to get all students with 100%
attendance.

On the other hand, retrieving data involves picking a particular record or certain values based on
the query you executed. Simply put, after executing the query, the data manipulation function
allows you to retrieve data and make it available in an understandable format. In the example
above, you could retrieve the records of the last student administered in the database.

 Data Retrieval and Reporting Function

Such functions of DBMS allow you to extract data and then use it to generate reports for analysis
and, ultimately, decision-making.
Database systems enable you to generate reports using predefined templates or even custom
layouts to better visualize the data. You can define report templates with specific sections,
headers, footers, and formatting options here. The DBMS can fill in the templates with the
retrieved data, arrange it, and even perform aggregations.

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  Data Security and Integrity Function

Fig 1.3 Data security and integrity

One of the most respected functions of DBMS is data security and integrity. While data security
ensures that your data is kept away from unauthorized users, data integrity warrants that the data
is complete and consistent. Let’s learn more in detail.
 Implementing Access Control Mechanisms
Tools, safeguards, and measures are put in place in a DBMS to ensure that data remains
confidential and accessible only to authorized parties. This includes protecting the data,
associated applications, the server, underlying hardware, and the network infrastructure.
Access control as a part of the functions of DBMS is done via two primary mechanisms:
authentication and authorization. The former confirms a user’s identity, and the latter oversees
the level of access when the authenticated user accesses the database.
While it is vital to your data for obvious reasons, it is also an unavoidable compliance factor for
DBMS service providers, as they can face heavy fines and penalties for non-compliance.
Regulatory authorities like HIPAA and Europe’s GDPR are some governing bodies that keep
data service providers in line.
 Enforcing Data Integrity Constraints
A DBMS constraints/restricts the values that users can insert or remove from the data. For
example, in the student record database, if you’ve administered that only students with a roll

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number can be recorded in the database, then any other authenticated user cannot insert a
student’s records whose roll number is missing. This ensures that data is consistent within the
database.
 Data Backup and Recovery Function
In a situation where you might lose your data, certain functions of DBMS, like this one, ensure
that you can get it back. Database management systems are designed for damage control—they
can recover your data even if the system fails for some reason.

Fig 1.4 Backup and recovery

All computerized systems can fail unexpectedly for many reasons, like user error or some
hardware failure. What people worry about the most in such situations is data loss. But with a
robust DBMS, you can be free of the agony.
 Creating Backup Copies of the Database
You can back up your data in the database in three main ways. These are Full Backup,
Transaction Log, and Differential Backup.
A. Full Back up: It creates a complete database copy, making it the most time-consuming
method.
B. Transaction Log: Here, only transaction logs are copied and stored as backup. However,
the previous logs get deleted once a new backup is generated to ensure minimal memory
usage.

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 C. Differential Backup: Similar to a full backup, the differential backup saves only the data
that has been altered since the previous full backup.
D. Restoring the Database in the Case of Failures Prominent functions of database
management systems offer two primary techniques to restore data in case of database
failure.
E. Rollback or Undo Recovery: The technique follows from backing out or reversing the
effects of an unsuccessful transaction due to system failure. Here, the DBMS reverses the
changes using log records. The process goes on till data is restored.
F. Commit or Redo Recovery: This technique reapplies the alterations in a successful
transaction in the database. The reapplication is done using the log records to replicate
later the changes done at the time of system failure.
 Data Concurrency Control Function
Concurrency control functions are implemented to ensure that two simultaneously running
processes are executed without any hassle/conflict.
 Managing Concurrent Access to the Database
To prevent concurrency issues, you can manage access to the database. This can be done via
Lock Concurrency Control: You can use the metadata to determine which data points will be
locked. This helps with concurrency control as the mechanisms often lock segments of data to
avoid conflicts.
A. Granularity Locking: Different lock granularities, such as row-level, page-level, or
table-level locks, can be used based on access patterns and concurrency requirements.
B. Handling Simultaneous Transactions To prevent any concurrency issues while storing
data, use transactions. Transactions are units of one or more SQL commands the server
executes. The ones that follow the ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and
Durability) theory ensure no concurrency conflicts while you store information.

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  Data Dictionary Function

Fig: 1.5 Data dictionary function

A data dictionary, also known as a metadata repository or data catalog, is a component that stores
and manages metadata about the database objects and structures.
A. Maintaining Metadata about the Database
The data dictionary in functions of DBMS allows you to include infrastructure information like
table names, column names, data types, lengths, indexes, and several other attributes. You can
take it as a reference document that defines the database schema.
B. Storing Information about Tables, Columns, and Relationships
Using this function, you can store all necessary information about the tables, columns, and
relationships in a central repository—the data dictionary. It stores table names, length, statistics,
column names, constraints, foreign key relationships, and more.

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  Data Transformation and Integration Function

Fig 1.6 Data transformation and integration

Data transformation becomes way more important when you have massive volumes of raw data.
Moreover, integrating it once you have a consistent format is another important function. Both of
these DBMS functions enable data to be transformed, consolidated, and integrated into a format
suitable for analysis, reporting, or other business purposes.
A. Converting and Integrating Data from Different Sources
There are several techniques that you can use to convert and integrate data from multiple
sources. This may include the following:
 Data Extraction: It involves connecting to databases, accessing APIs, and reading files
in different formats (e.g., CSV, XML, JSON).
 Data Mapping: It involves identifying the corresponding attributes, fields, or columns in
the source and target systems.
 Data Transformation: It involves converting the extracted data to match the desired
format, structure, or schema of the target database.
 Data Integration and Consolidation: It involves performing data joins, merging
datasets based on common keys or attributes, and resolving any conflicts or
inconsistencies between the integrated data sources.
B. Ensuring Data Consistency and Coherence
It is primitive to ensure the data you integrate from multiple sources is consistent and coherent.
By consistency, we imply that data should belong to the same type. On the other hand, coherency

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would mean logical uniformity across data from different sources, i.e., all data points make
sense. DBMS does this by data validation, transaction management, concurrency control, data
normalization, and using referential integrity.
 Data Privacy and Compliance Function
Data privacy and compliance operations are essential to ensure that organizations handle and
secure sensitive data in accordance with applicable laws, regulations, and industry standards.
 Implementing Measures to Protect Sensitive Data
There are several measures that database management systems undertake to protect sensitive
data. This includes data classification and protection, Consent management, Data break
management, Employee training and awareness.

 Complying with Data Privacy Regulations

DBMS technologies are always updated on applicable privacy laws and regulations and ensure
organizational compliance. This includes conducting privacy impact assessments, maintaining
records of data processing activities, fulfilling individuals’ rights (e.g., access, rectification,
erasure), and appointing a Data Protection Officer (DPO) if required by law.
 Data Performance Optimization Function

Fig 1.7 Data performance optimization function

As database systems manage multiple databases for hundreds of users simultaneously,
performance optimization is the most significant factor. These DBMS functions involve
implementing strategies to manage data storage, access, retrieval, and processing.

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  Indexing and Optimizing Query Execution
Indexing is essential for improving the effectiveness of the data retrieval process. Database
systems can quickly discover and obtain the required data by generating appropriate indexes on
frequently requested columns, eliminating the need for total table searches.
Whereas query optimization includes techniques such as rewriting queries, restructuring table
schemas, using appropriate join algorithms, and leveraging query hints.
 Improving Database Performance and Efficiency
One way that DBMS technologies improve efficiency is by caching. Caching significantly
reduces the response time of read-intensive operations, especially for data that is relatively static
or expensive to fetch from disk. Moreover, data partitioning can improve performance by
enabling parallel processing, reducing I/O operations, and enhancing data availability.
 Data Migration and Conversion Function

Fig 1.8 Data migration and conversion function

Seamless data migration is one of the most valid reasons for opting for a database management
system as it entirely deprecates the necessity of you having the technical know-how of migration.
 Moving Data from One Database to Another
 When it comes to moving data from one database to another in a database management
system (DBMS), there are several approaches you can take depending on the
requirements. Some of the standard methods are:
 Built-in export/import utilities for various supported formats, like CSV, XML, etc.

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  ETL (extract, transform, and load),
 Linked servers or database links,
 Custom programming.
 Converting Data Formats During Migration
In case your data is not in a format that can be migrated, DBMS functionality allows you to
convert it using functions like CAST or CONVERT. These can convert data types in SQL
queries.
Moreover, If the source and target databases use different character encodings (e.g., UTF-8,
ASCII, ISO-8859-1), DBMS helps with character encoding and transliteration to convert special
characters.
 Data Archiving and Purging Function

Fig 1.9 Data archiving and purging function

Database management systems also facilitate archiving (storing) and purging (freeing up
space/deleting) data.

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  Archiving Old or Infrequently Accessed Data
To save up memory, it is suggested to archive the data that is not in frequent usage and make that
space available for newer data. In a DBMS, this can be done by
 Determining the criteria for selecting data that can be archived, such as data age, last
access date, etc.
 Designating a separate storage location.
 Moving the selected data by using export/import utilities or mechanisms like INSERT
INTO.
 Running SQL queries.
Purging Obsolete or Redundant Data
Often, there will be no more relevant data, and it holds no value to be stored. In such a scenario,
database management systems also allow you to purge it, i.e., free up the space it takes. DBMS
allows you to use statements like DELETE and TRUNCATE or provides built-in program
pipelines that purge data after a predetermined period.

 Data Replication and Synchronization Function

Fig 1.10: Database replication

Functions of DBMS also include data replication and synchronization. They are used to maintain
consistent and up-to-date copies of data across multiple databases or database instances.

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 Replicating data across multiple Databases or Servers.
DBMS offers several replication options, like
 Master-slave replication: a single database acts as the master and propagates changes
(inserts, updates, deletes) to one or more slave databases.
 Multi-master replication: multiple databases act as masters, and changes made on any
master database are propagated to other master databases.
 Peer-to-peer replication: all databases are peers and can act as both master and slave.
 Statement-Based Replication: Here, replication is performed by replicating the SQL
statements.
 Ensuring Data Consistency across replicas
The functions of DBMS do not end at data replication. It also ensures the replicated data is
consistent across replicas. This can be done via :
A. Synchronous Replication: In synchronous replication, alterations made on the master
database are applied synchronously to all replica databases before confirming the
transaction’s completion.
B. Asynchronous Replication: Asynchronous replication allows for some replication delay
by having changes made to the master database propagate to the replica databases
simultaneously.

1.2. Applications of DBMS

Database management systems are used for several real-world applications. Some of them are:
 The railway and airline systems heavily rely on DBMS technologies to store travel data. This is
done for several purposes—ticketing, passenger information management, flight/rail scheduling
and planning, inventory management, and a lot more.
 Social media websites like Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat also utilize database management
systems. This is done for user profile management, content storage, news feed and timeline
management, social graphing, advertising, targeting, and real-time data processing.

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 Online shopping platforms like Amazon, Flipkart, and eBay also use databases to store customer
data. DBMS technologies help them with product catalog management, customer management,
order processing, customer reviews, and ratings, security, and fraud prevention.

Fig 1.11: DBMS applications

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Self-check: 1

Part I: Write true if the statement is correct or false if it is wrong.

1. The selection of a database is merely a technical decision without any strategic impact on
an organization's performance, security, and scalability.
2. The Data Manipulation Function of a DBMS involves operations such as inserting,
updating, and deleting data to make the user experience more interactive.
3. The Data Security and Integrity Function of a DBMS includes mechanisms such as
authentication and authorization to control access to confidential data.
4. Data Performance Optimization Function in a DBMS involves strategies such as indexing
and query optimization to manage data storage, access, retrieval, and processing
effectively.
5. Data Replication and Synchronization Function in a DBMS can be achieved through
Peer-to-peer replication, where all databases act as peers and can function as both master
and slave.
Part II: Choose the correct answer and encircle it.
1. Which function of DBMS involves creating, modifying, and removing objects like tables
and indexes?
A. Data Security and Integrity C. Data Definition
B. Data Manipulation D. Data Concurrency Control
2. What is the purpose of the Data Retrieval and Reporting Function in a DBMS?
A. Manipulating data as per requirements
B. Extracting data for analysis and decision-making
C. Ensuring data consistency and coherence
D. Ensuring data privacy and compliance

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 3. How do the Data Backup and Recovery Function in a DBMS help in case of failures?
A. Creating backup copies of the database C. Managing concurrent access to the database
B. Modifying the database schema D. Replicating data across multiple databases
4. What is the purpose of Data Migration and Conversion Function in a DBMS?
A. Ensuring data consistency and coherence
C. Moving data from one database to another
B. Improving database performance and efficiency
D. Archiving old or infrequently accessed data

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Unit Two: Gather data to determine database functionality
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
 Understanding business requirement
 Aligning database objectives with business requirements.
 Design database
 Organization business model
 Document preparation
 Getting client confirmation.
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:

 Identify key components for aligning business goals with the organization's mission and
vision.
 Demonstrate the ability to engage with key stakeholders to gather insights into the
primary objectives of the organization.
 Identify the importance of recognizing performance and scalability demands in database
design.
 Anticipate future growth and assess how the database will scale to meet increased
demands.
 Demonstrate the ability to align database objectives with business requirements.

 Validate data requirements, ensuring the database accommodates identified data needs.

 Model entities by identifying core entities, defining entity attributes, normalizing data,
and establishing relationships
 Create a conceptual data model using Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERD) and review
and validate the model.

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 2.1 Understanding business requirement
Understanding business requirements involves a holistic approach that integrates technological
solutions with the overarching goals and needs of the organization. This process ensures that the
chosen database solution not only meets current demands but also positions the organization for
future success and growth. By engaging stakeholders, analyzing data needs, recognizing
performance demands, ensuring security and compliance, and adapting to changing dynamics,
businesses can make informed decisions that align technology with strategic objectives.

2.1.1 Defining business goals

Understanding business requirements starts with a clear comprehension of organizational goals.

These goals can vary widely, from revenue growth and market expansion to operational
efficiency and customer satisfaction. Business goals are specific, measurable, and time-bound
objectives that an organization aims to achieve to fulfill its mission and vision. These goals
provide a clear direction for the company, guiding decision-making, resource allocation, and
overall strategic planning. Business goals are often aligned with the organization's long-term
strategy and are essential for driving growth, profitability, and sustainability.

Aligning the database strategy with business goals ensures that technology investments directly
contribute to the success of the organization. For example, a focus on customer satisfaction
might lead to a database solution that enables personalized services and quick response times.
Engage with key stakeholders to gather insights into the primary objectives of the organization
and assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats facing the business to inform
database requirements.

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 A. Key components
 Alignment with Mission and Vision

Business goals should align with the organization's mission and vision, representing the
overarching purpose and desired future state. Review the mission and vision statements to ensure
coherence. Evaluate how each goal contributes to the organization's broader purpose.

B. Types of business goals:

 Financial goals
 Achieve a certain level of revenue growth
 Increase profitability by a specified percentage
 Reduce operational costs within a defined timeframe
 Operational goals
 Improve efficiency in a specific business process.
 Enhance product/Service delivery speed
 Implement new technologies for process optimization
 Customer centric goals
 Increase customer satisfaction scores.
 Expand the customer base in a target market.
 Launch a customer loyalty program
 Employee development and engagement goals
 Enhance employee satisfaction and engagement
 Implement training programs to develop specific skills
 Reduce employee turnover by a certain percentage
 Innovation and growth goals
 Launch a specified number of new products or services
 Enter new markets or expand market share.
 Foster a culture of innovation within the organization

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  Social responsibility and sustainability goals
 Implement environmentally sustainable practices
 Contribute to community development initiatives
 Attain specific sustainability certifications
Understanding business goals involves careful consideration of the organization's mission and
vision, as well as the specific, measurable, and time-bound objectives that will drive success. By
ensuring clarity, alignment with stakeholders, integration with strategic plans, and adaptability to
changing conditions, business goals become powerful tools for guiding and measuring the
progress of an organization. Regular review and adjustment of goals are essential to staying
responsive to the evolving business landscape.
2.1.2 Understanding key data needs

Identifying the types of data critical to the organization is a foundational step. This includes
understanding data sources, formats, and the frequency of data access. Efficient handling of
relevant data directly impacts decision-making processes and operational workflows. For
instance, an e-commerce platform may prioritize transactional data and user behavior analytics.
Conduct a thorough audit of existing data to identify its nature and usage. Collect feedback from
end-users to understand their data requirements.

Key data needs refer to the specific requirements an organization has for collecting, storing,
processing, and utilizing data to achieve its business objectives. Identifying these needs is crucial
for designing a robust data infrastructure that supports decision-making, operational efficiency,
and strategic goals.

A. Components of key data needs

 Data types and formats
Different types of data serve various purposes, and understanding their formats is essential for
effective utilization. Identify the types of data (e.g., structured, unstructured, semi-structured).
Determine the formats in which data is collected and stored (e.g., text, numbers, images).

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  Data sources
Knowing where data originates helps in establishing data pipelines and ensuring data quality.
Identify internal and external sources of data. Determine the reliability and frequency of data
updates from each source.
 Data volume and velocity
Understanding the volume and velocity of data helps in designing scalable and responsive data
systems. Quantify the amount of data generated, processed, and stored. Assess the speed at
which data is created and needs to be processed.
 Data quality requirements
Poor data quality can lead to inaccurate analyses and decisions, making data quality requirements
crucial. Define criteria for data accuracy, completeness, consistency, and timeliness. Establish
data cleansing and validation processes.
Data security and privacy protecting sensitive information is paramount, and understanding
security and privacy needs is critical. Identify types of sensitive data (e.g., personal information,
financial data). Define access controls, encryption standards, and privacy policies.
 Data integration requirements
Integrating data from various sources enables a comprehensive view, but it requires careful
planning. Identify systems and applications that need to share data. Determine integration
methods and protocols.
 Data retention and archiving
Establishing data retention policies ensures compliance and efficient use of storage resources.
Define the duration for which data needs to be retained. Implement archiving mechanisms for
historical data.
 Data governance and compliance
Ensuring data governance and compliance with regulations is essential for legal and ethical
reasons. Establish data governance policies and procedures. Ensure compliance with industry-
specific regulations (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA).

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  Ensuring data security and compliance
Security and compliance requirements vary across industries. Understanding these specifics is
essential to safeguard sensitive information. Failure to meet security and compliance standards
can lead to legal consequences and damage the organization's reputation. For instance, healthcare
databases must comply with HIPAA regulations. Identify and understand relevant industry
regulations. Categorize data based on sensitivity to implement appropriate security measures.
Protecting sensitive information is paramount, and understanding security and privacy needs is
critical. Identify types of sensitive data (e.g., personal information, financial data). Define access
controls, encryption standards, and privacy policies.
 Data accessibility and usability
Making data accessible to authorized users in a usable format promotes informed decision-
making. Define user roles and access levels. Ensure data is presented in a format that is
understandable and actionable.
 Scalability and performance
Scalable data systems can handle growing volumes of data without sacrificing performance.
Assess the scalability requirements based on expected data growth. Implement performance
optimization strategies (e.g., indexing, caching). Business environments are dynamic, and
requirements may evolve over time. The database must be adaptable to changes in technology,
market conditions, and organizational structures. An adaptable database ensures that the
organization remains agile and responsive to market trends and emerging technologies. Stay
informed about emerging technologies relevant to the industry. Design the database architecture
with scalability in mind to accommodate future growth.
 Data analytics and reporting needs
Identifying analytical and reporting requirements ensures that data supports business intelligence
efforts. Determine the types of analyses needed (e.g., descriptive, predictive, prescriptive).
Define reporting formats and frequency.

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  Data lifecycle management

Understanding the lifecycle of data helps in managing resources efficiently and complying with

retention policies. Define stages of the data lifecycle (e.g., creation, usage, archival, deletion).

Implement policies for data movement between stages.

B. Implementing key data needs analysis:

 Stakeholder collaboration: Engage with various stakeholders to gather insights into their
data needs. Conduct interviews with business users, analysts, and IT professionals. Hold
workshops to facilitate discussions on data requirements.
 Documenting requirements: Clearly document identified data needs to ensure a shared
understanding across the organization. Create comprehensive data requirement documents.
Use visual aids like data flow diagrams and entity-relationship diagrams.
 Prioritization: Prioritize data needs based on their impact on business objectives and
feasibility of implementation. Work with stakeholders to assign priority levels to each data
requirement. Consider dependencies and interrelationships between different requirements.

 Technology assessment: Assess the organization's current data infrastructure and

technology capabilities. Evaluate existing databases, data warehouses, and analytics
tools. Identify any technology gaps that need to be addressed.
 Continuous monitoring and adjustment: Regularly review and adjust data needs in
response to changes in the business environment. Establish a continuous feedback.

2.1.3. Recognizing performance and scalability demands

Different business operations have varying demands on database performance and scalability.
Recognizing these demands is crucial to prevent bottlenecks. Failure to meet performance
expectations can lead to operational inefficiencies and dissatisfied customers. Scalability is vital
for accommodating growth without compromising performance. Analyze typical workloads to

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understand peak usage times and transaction volumes. Anticipate future growth and assess how
the database will scale to meet increased demands.

2.2. Aligning database objectives with business requirements

Confirming that database objectives align with defined organizational business requirements is a
crucial step in ensuring that your technology strategy supports and enhances overall business
goals. It is an ongoing process that involves regular assessments, adjustments, and collaboration
between IT and business stakeholders. By ensuring continuous alignment, organizations can
maintain an adaptable and efficient database infrastructure that serves the evolving needs of the
business. Regular reviews, feedback loops, and proactive adjustments are key elements in
achieving this alignment. Here's a detailed guide on how to achieve this alignment.

1. Review business goals and objectives:

A. Understand organizational goals: Conduct a thorough review of the organization's

strategic plans, mission statements, and business objectives. Analyze official
documents outlining organizational goals. Schedule meetings with key stakeholders
to clarify objectives.

B. Translate into Database objectives: Translate overarching business goals into

specific objectives that the database must support. Identify key performance
indicators (KPIs) linked to business goals. Define corresponding database objectives,
such as improving query response times or ensuring high availability.
2. Validate data requirements:

A. Identify key data needs: Ensure that the database is aligned with the types of data
critical to the organization. Revisit data audits and user surveys conducted during the

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 understanding phase. Verify that the database design accommodates the identified
data needs.
B. Data quality and accessibility: Confirm that the database supports data quality
standards and accessibility requirements. Implement data validation checks within the
database. Verify that authorized users can access necessary data.
3. Assess performance and scalability:

A. Review workload analysis: Validate that database performance and scalability align
with workload analysis. Compare actual database performance against the predicted
workload. Confirm that scalability mechanisms (horizontal/vertical scaling, sharding)
are in place and functional.
B. Future proofing: Ensure that the database design considers future growth and
technological advancements. Review scalability plans to confirm they align with
projected organizational growth. Assess the database's adaptability to emerging
technologies.
4. Validate security and compliance:

A. Regulatory compliance audit: Verify that the database meets all regulatory and
compliance requirements. Conduct regular audits to ensure compliance with
industry-specific regulations. Implement and test security measures such as
encryption and access controls.
B. Data classification: Confirm that data is classified appropriately based on sensitivity.
Review data classification policies and update them if necessary. Ensure that security
measures are proportionate to the sensitivity of the data.

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 5. Continuous alignment with changing dynamics:

A. Technology trends analysis: Ensure that the database strategy remains aligned with
technological advancements. Regularly review technology trends and assess their
relevance to the organization. Adjust the database strategy to incorporate new
technologies that enhance business operations.
B. Agility and adaptability: Confirm that the database infrastructure is designed for
agility and adaptability. Evaluate the ease with which the database can be modified or
expanded. Implement agile development and deployment practices.
6. Regular monitoring and evaluation:
A. Key performance indicators (KPIs): Continuously monitor KPIs to ensure that the
database is contributing to organizational success. Establish a system for regular
performance reviews. Adjust database objectives based on changing business
requirements.
B. User feedback: Gather feedback from end-users to validate that the database meets
their needs. Conduct user satisfaction surveys. Use feedback to inform adjustments to
database functionality.

2.3. Design database

Analyzing a database to identify business rules, entities, and relationships is a critical step in
database design. This process involves understanding the business context, defining the rules that
govern the data, and modeling the entities and relationships based on these rules. Here's a
detailed guide on how to perform this analysis:

1. Understand business processes:

A. Conduct stakeholder interviews: Gather insights from key stakeholders to
understand business processes, objectives, and challenges. Identify and interview
stakeholders from Identify and interview stakeholders from various departments.
Discuss workflows, data requirements, and pain points.

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 B. Review existing documentation: Examine any existing documentation, manuals, or
reports that describe business processes and data requirements. Collect and review
any documents related to business rules or data specifications. Identify areas where
the documentation might be incomplete or outdated.
2. Identify business rules:
A. Document data requirements: Define the specific data elements required by the
business processes. Create a list of data elements needed for each business process.
Specify data types, formats, and any validation rules
B. Define data integrity rules: Identify rules that ensure data accuracy, consistency,
and reliability. Document constraints and dependencies between data elements.
Specify rules for maintaining data integrity, such as uniqueness constraints and
referential integrity.
C. Capture workflow rules: Understand rules related to the flow of data within
business processes. Map the flow of data from one entity to another during various
stages of a process. Identify conditions or triggers that initiate data movement.
3. Model entities:
A. Identify core entities: Determine the main objects or concepts within the business
domain. Identify nouns from business requirements that represent entities. For
example, in a retail system, entities could include Customer, Product, and Order.
B. Define Entity attributes: Specify the characteristics or properties of each entity.
List attributes associated with each entity. Include both descriptive attributes and key
identifiers.
C. Normalize data: Organize data to eliminate redundancy and dependency issues.
Apply normalization techniques to reduce data duplication. Break down entities into
smaller, related tables to achieve a normalized database schema.

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 4. Establish relationships:
A. Identify relationships between entities: Determine how entities are related to each
other. Analyze the business rules to identify connections between entities. Represent
relationships using verbs such as "is associated with" or "has”.

B. Specify relationship cardinality: Define the number of instances of one entity that
can be associated with another. Determine if the relationship is one-to-one, one-to-
many, or many-to-many. Use crows-feet notation or other symbols to represent
cardinality.
C. Capture business logic in relationships: Document any specific business rules
related to the relationships. Identify any constraints or conditions governing the
relationships. For example, specify rules like "each order must be associated with at
least one customer”.
5. Create a conceptual data model:
A. Visual representation: Create a high-level visual representation of the database
structure. Use a tool like Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERD) to illustrate entities,
attributes, and relationships. Clearly label and document each component.
B. Review and validate: Ensure that the conceptual model accurately reflects business
requirements. Conduct a review with stakeholders to validate the model. Make
revisions based on feedback and further insights.
Analyzing a database to identify business rules, entities, and relationships is an iterative process
that requires collaboration between business and IT stakeholders. By thoroughly understanding
business processes, documenting rules, modeling entities and relationships, and creating a
conceptual data model, you can build a solid foundation for the design and development of a
database system that aligns with the needs of the organization. Regular reviews and refinements
based on feedback are key to ensuring the accuracy and effectiveness of the database design.

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  The ER model describes data as entities, relationships, and attributes.

A. Entities and Their Attributes.

The basic concept that the ER model represents is an entity, which is a thing or object in the real
world with an independent existence. An entity may be an object with a physical existence (for
example, a particular person, car, house, or employee) or it may be an object with a conceptual
existence (for instance, a company, a job, or a university course). Each entity has attributes—the
particular properties that describe it. For example, an EMPLOYEE entity may be described by
the employee’s name, age, address, salary, and job. A particular entity will have a value for each
of its attributes. The attribute values that describe each entity become a major part of the data
stored in the database.
B. Entity Types and Entity Sets.
A database usually contains groups of entities that are similar. For example, a company
employing hundreds of employees may want to store similar information concerning each of the
employees. These employee entities share the same attributes, but each entity has its own
value(s) for each attribute. An entity type defines a collection (or set) of entities that have the
same attributes. Each entity type in the database is described by its name and attributes. The
collection of all entities of a particular entity type in the database at any point in time is called an
entity set. An entity type is represented in ER diagrams as a rectangular box enclosing the entity
type name. Attribute names are enclosed in ovals and are attached to their entity type by straight
lines. Composite attributes are attached to their component attributes by straight lines.
Multivalued attributes are displayed in double ovals. Relationships are displayed in diamond.
An entity type describes the schema or intension for a set of entities that share the same structure.
The collection of entities of a particular entity type is grouped into an entity set, which is also
called the extension of the entity type. In ER diagrammatic notation, each key attribute has its
name underlined inside the oval. Entity types that do not have key attributes of their own are
called weak entity types. In ER diagrams, both a weak entity type and its identifying relationship

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 are distinguished by surrounding their boxes and diamonds with double lines. We can now
define the entity types for the COMPANY database, based on the requirements described above.
After defining several entity types and their attributes here, we refine our design.

2.4. Organization business model

Identifying existing and proposed business models involves a thorough examination of how an
organization creates, delivers, and captures value. Below is a detailed guide on how to identify
and analyze both the existing and proposed business models:

A. Identifying the existing business model:

1. Gather information: Collect data and information about the current business operations.
Review financial reports, business plans, and company documentation. Interview key
stakeholders, including executives, managers, and employees.
2. Define value proposition: Understand the value the business provides to its customers.
Identify the products or services offered and their unique selling points. Assess how the
value proposition meets customer needs.
3. Map revenue streams: Analyze the sources of revenue and how the business generates
income. Identify the different revenue streams, such as product sales, subscriptions, or
licensing fees. Understand the pricing strategy and how customers pay for products or
services.
4. Evaluate cost structure: Examine the costs associated with running the current business.
Break down fixed and variable costs. Analyze operating expenses, including production,
marketing, and distribution costs.
5. Identify customer segments: Determine the target customers and market segments.
Define the demographics, behaviors, and needs of the existing customer base. Assess
how the business tailors its offerings to different customer segments.

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6. Analyze channels and distribution: Examine how products or services reach customers.
Identify distribution channels, including direct sales, partnerships, or e-commerce. Assess
the efficiency and effectiveness of the current distribution methods.
7. Examine key partnerships: Understand the relationships with key partners and
collaborators. Identify strategic partnerships, suppliers, or alliances. Assess the efficiency
and effectiveness of these processes.
8. Review key activities and processes: Evaluate the core activities and processes that
drive the business. Identify the key operational activities required to deliver value. Assess
the efficiency and effectiveness of these processes.
9. Assess key resources: Examine the critical resources required to operate the business.
Identify physical, intellectual, and human resources. Assess how well the business
leverages these resources.
10. Understand regulatory and legal environments: Assess the legal and regulatory
constraints impacting the business. Identify industry regulations, compliance
requirements, and legal considerations. Assess how well the business complies with these
regulations
11. SWOT analysis: Conduct a SWOT analysis to identify strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats. Analyze internal strengths and weaknesses. Evaluate external
opportunities and threats in the market.
B. Identifying the proposed business model
1. Set business goals: Clearly define the objectives and goals for the proposed business
model. Align goals with the organization's mission and vision. Ensure that goals are
specific, measurable, and achievable.
2. Define value proposition for the future: Clearly articulate how the proposed business
model will deliver value. Identify innovations or improvements in products or services.
Ensure that the value proposition addresses emerging customer needs

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3. Explore new revenue streams: Identify potential new sources of revenue. Consider
diversifying revenue streams through new products or services. Explore innovative
pricing models or monetization strategies.
4. Optimize cost structure: Analyze how costs can be optimized in the proposed business
model. Identify areas for cost reduction or efficiency improvements. Identify areas for
cost reduction or efficiency improvements. Explore technologies or processes that can
streamline operations
5. Reevaluate customer segments: Determine if the target customer segments need to be
refined. Explore new demographics or markets for potential expansion. Understand
evolving customer preferences and behaviors.
6. Innovate channels distribution: Identify new and more efficient distribution channels.
Leverage digital platforms or e-commerce for expanded reach. Consider partnerships or
collaborations that enhance distribution capabilities.
7. Explore new partnerships: Identify potential new strategic partnerships. Evaluate
partnerships that enhance product development or distribution. Consider alliances that
provide access to complementary resources.
8. Redefine key activities and processes: Innovate and optimize core activities for
improved efficiency. Identify new processes that enhance product/service delivery.
Explore automation or technology solutions to streamline operations.
9. Leverage key resources: Optimize the utilization of existing and new resources. Identify
additional resources required for the proposed model. Evaluate how existing resources
can be repurposed or enhanced.
10. Navigate regulatory and legal considerations: Ensure compliance with existing and
anticipated regulations. Stay informed about changing legal and regulatory environments.
Incorporate compliance measures into the proposed model.
11. Risk assessment: Conduct a risk assessment for the proposed business model. Identify
potential risks and uncertainties associated with the new model. Develop mitigation
strategies to address identified risks.

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 12. Feasibility analysis: Assess the overall feasibility of the proposed business model.
Evaluate the financial viability and return on investment. Consider market conditions and
competitive landscape.
C. Continuous monitoring and adaptation:
1. Conduct quarterly or annual reviews to assess performance. Incorporate feedback
from stakeholders and adjust the model as needed
2. Agile implementation: Embrace an agile approach to business model innovation.
Implement iterative changes based on real-time feedback. Continuously test and adapt
components of the business model.

2.5. Document preparation

Documenting an existing database and its environment is a crucial step in understanding the
system's structure, components, and configurations. This documentation provides valuable
insights for system maintenance, troubleshooting, and future development. Below is a
comprehensive guide on how to document an existing database and its environment according to
workplace procedures:

1. Gather documentation requirements:

A. Identify stakeholders: Identify key stakeholders, including database administrators,
developers, and system users.
B. Determine documentation scope: Define the scope of the documentation, including
databases, servers, applications, and interfaces
C. Review workplace procedures: Familiarize yourself with workplace procedures
related to documentation standards and formats
2. Collect information about the database:
A. Database overview: Document the database's name, purpose, and a brief description
of its functions.

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 B. System Architecture: Outline the overall system architecture, including servers,
networking, and storage components.
C. Database version and technology: Document the database management system
(DBMS) version and any related technologies used.
D. Schema and data model: Provide an overview of the database schema and data
model. Include entity-relationship diagrams if available.
E. Security measures: Document security features such as access controls, roles, and
authentication mechanisms. Specify any encryption protocols in use.
F. Indexes and performance tuning: List existing indexes and their purposes.
Document any performance tuning measures implemented.
3. Document configuration details:
A. Server configuration: Document server specifications, including CPU, RAM, and
storage capacity. Include information about the operating system and its
configuration.
B. Network configuration: Provide details about the network architecture, IP addresses,
and subnets. Include firewall rules and network protocols.
C. Storage configuration: Document storage configurations, including disk types,
RAID levels, and available space. Specify backup and recovery procedures.
D. Software dependencies: List software dependencies, including runtime libraries,
middleware, and third-party tools.
E. Integration points: Identify external systems and applications that interact with the
database. Document data exchange mechanisms and protocols.
4. Capture operational information:
A. System Monitoring: Document tools and procedures for monitoring system health
and performance. Specify key performance indicators (KPIs) monitored.
B. Logging and auditing: Document logging mechanisms and configurations. Specify
auditing features and what events are logged.

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 C. Scheduled jobs and tasks: List scheduled jobs, tasks, and maintenance routines.
Include details on frequency, execution times, and purposes.
D. Incident and change management: Document procedures for incident reporting and
resolution. Capture change management processes, including version control.
5. Document data handling and policies:
A. Backup and recovery: Outline the backup strategy, frequency, and retention policies.
Document recovery procedures in case of data loss.
B. Data retention and archiving: Specify data retention policies, especially for historical
or regulatory data. Document archiving procedures and storage locations.
C. Data privacy and compliance: Document data privacy policies and compliance
measures. Specify any regulations or standards adhered to (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA).
D. Data quality measures: Describe measures taken to ensure data quality. Include data
validation rules and error-handling procedures.
6. Create documentation artifacts:
A. Documentation format: Follow workplace procedures for documentation format. Use
tools like wikis, document management systems, or version control systems.
B. Version control: Implement version control for documentation artifacts. Clearly label
and document changes made over time.
C. User manuals and guides: Create user manuals or guides for database users. Include
troubleshooting tips and frequently asked questions (FAQs).
D. Training materials: Develop training materials for administrators and users. Conduct
training sessions based on documented materials.
7. Review and validation:
A. Peer review: Conduct peer reviews of the documentation. Gather feedback from team
members and stakeholders.
B. Validation testing: Validate documentation accuracy through testing. Use scenarios to
ensure that documented procedures match actual processes.

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 8. Regular updates:
A. Change management: Establish a change management process for updating
documentation. Document changes promptly and communicate updates.
B. Continuous improvement: Encourage a culture of continuous improvement for
documentation. Gather feedback from users and stakeholders for ongoing
enhancements.
By following these steps and adhering to workplace procedures, you can create comprehensive
and accurate documentation for an existing database and its environment. Regular updates and
validation ensure that the documentation remains relevant and useful over time

2.6. Getting client confirmation

Confirming database functionality with customers is a crucial step in the development and
deployment process, ensuring that the database system meets the end-users' requirements and
expectations. This process involves collaboration between the development team and the
customers to validate that the database functions as intended and aligns with the business needs.
Here's a detailed explanation of how to confirm database functionality with customers:
1. Establish clear requirements:
Initial requirements gathering: Before confirming functionality, ensure that the initial database
requirements are clearly defined through interactions with stakeholders and customers.
2. Create test cases and scenarios:
A. Develop test cases: Create comprehensive test cases that cover various aspects of
database functionality, including data input, retrieval, updates, and security.
B. Define test scenarios: Design test scenarios that mimic real-world situations,
considering different use cases and potential user interactions with the database
3. Coordinate user acceptance testing(UAT):
A. Involve customer in UAT: Include customers in the User Acceptance Testing process,
allowing them to interact with the database system directly.

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 B. Provide test environment: Set up a controlled test environment where customers can
validate the database functionality without affecting the production environment.
C. User training: Provide any necessary training to customers on how to perform UAT,
explaining the purpose of each test case and scenario.
4. Execute testing sessions:
A. Guided testing sessions: Conduct guided testing sessions where customers follow the
defined test cases to interact with the database and perform specific actions.
B. Encourage exploration: Encourage customers to explore the system beyond
predefined test cases, simulating real-world usage scenarios to uncover any
unexpected issues.
5. Collect feedback:
A. Feedback forms or surveys: Provide feedback forms or surveys for customers to
document their experiences, noting any issues, concerns, or suggestions for
improvement.
B. Open communication channels: Establish open communication channels, such as
dedicated feedback forums or direct contact with the development team, to facilitate
real-time feedback.
6. Address issues and bugs:
A. Bug tracking: Use a bug tracking system to log and prioritize issues identified during
user testing.
B. Rapid issue resolution: Prioritize and resolve identified issues promptly, providing
regular updates to customers on the status of bug fixes.
7. Reiterate testing:
A. Iterative testing cycles: Conduct iterative testing cycles based on customer feedback
and bug fixes, ensuring that each cycle addresses and validates specific
functionalities.
B. Progressive refinement: Progressively refine the database system based on
continuous testing and feedback until it aligns with customer expectations.

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 8. Document results:
A. Test reports: Generate test reports summarizing the results of the user acceptance
testing, including identified issues, resolutions, and any adjustments made to the
database.
B. Lessons learned: Document lessons learned from the testing process to inform future
database development and testing efforts.
9. Final confirmation:
A. Customer sign-off: Seek formal sign-off from customers, indicating their satisfaction
with the database functionality and their approval for production deployment.
B. Address remaining concerns: Address any remaining concerns or outstanding issues
before finalizing the confirmation process.
10. Production deployment:
A. Transition to production: Once functionality is confirmed, transition the database
system to the production environment, ensuring a seamless handover.
B. Monitoring and support: Implement monitoring mechanisms in the production
environment and provide ongoing support to address any unforeseen issues that may
arise.
By following these steps, you establish a collaborative and iterative process with customers to
confirm database functionality. This approach not only validates the technical aspects of the
database but also ensures that it aligns with the business needs and user expectations. Continuous
communication and flexibility are key to addressing evolving requirements and delivering a
database system that adds value to the organization.

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 Self-Check: 2
Part I: Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is wrong.
1. Business goals are often aligned with the organization's long-term strategy and are essential for
driving growth, profitability, and sustainability.
2. Key data needs involve understanding data types, formats, sources, volume, velocity, quality
requirements, security, and compliance.
3. Scalable data systems can handle growing volumes of data without sacrificing performance, and
assessing scalability requirements is essential for designing responsive data systems.
4. Identifying analytical and reporting requirements ensures that data supports business
intelligence efforts, and data analytics needs should be considered during the key data needs
analysis.
5. Regular monitoring of key performance indicators (KPIs), gathering user feedback, and
adjusting database objectives based on changing business requirements are essential
components of continuous alignment with changing dynamics.
Part II: Choose the correct answer and encircle it.
1. Which of the following is a key component of identifying the existing business model?
a. Conducting a SWOT analysis
b. Defining value proposition for the future
c. Analyzing key data needs
d. Assessing scalability demands
2. What is a critical step in documenting an existing database's environment?
a. Defining value proposition
b. Gathering feedback from end-users
c. Conducting quarterly reviews
d. Identifying stakeholders and determining documentation scope

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3. What is a crucial consideration during the process of confirming database functionality with
customers?
a. Developing test cases for future functionality
b. Ignoring feedback to maintain project timelines
c. Addressing issues and bugs iteratively
d. Skipping the user acceptance testing (UAT) phase
4. Which data model organizes data into tables with predefined relationships?
a. Document-oriented data model
b. Key-value data model
c. Relational data model
d. Graph data model
5. Which property ensures the reliability of transactions within a database, making sure that
either all operations succeed or none do?
a. Consistency
b. Availability
c. Durability
d. Atomicity

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Operation sheet 2.1
Operation Title: Model data for sample database application

Purpose: To enable trainees to acquire the skill to model data requirement

Equipment and tools: Computer and MS Visio

Procedures: using the following steps perform the given activity.

Step 1: Gather data to identify business requirement

In this section we describe a sample database application, called COMPANY, which serves to
illustrate the basic ER model concepts and their use in schema design. We list the data
requirements for the database and then create its conceptual schema using the modeling concepts
of the ER model. The COMPANY database keeps track of a company’s employees, departments,
and projects. Suppose that after the requirements collection and analysis phase, the database
designers provide the following description of the mini world—the part of the company that will
be represented in the database.
The company is organized into departments. Each department has a unique name, a unique
number, and a particular employee who manages the department. We keep track of the start date
when that employee began managing the department. A department may have several locations.
A department controls a number of projects, each of which has a unique name, a unique number,
and a single location.
The database will store each employee’s name, Social Security number, address, salary, sex
(gender), and birth date. An employee is assigned to one department, but may work on several
projects, which are not necessarily controlled by the same department. It is required to keep track
of the current number of hours per week that an employee works on each project, as well as the
direct supervisor of each employee (who is another employee).
The database will keep track of the dependents of each employee for insurance purposes,
including each dependent’s first name, sex, birth date, and relationship to the employee.
Step 2: Analysis of the data

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According to the requirements listed above we can identify four entity types—one corresponding
to each of the four items in the specification
1.An entity type DEPARTMENT with attributes Name, Number, Locations, Manager, and
Manager_start_date. Locations is the only multivalued attribute.
We can specify that both Name and Number are (separate) key attributes because each was
specified to be unique.
2.An entity type PROJECT with attributes Name, Number, Location, and
Controlling_department. Both Nameand Number are (separate) key attributes.
3.An entity type EMPLOYEE with attributes Name, Ssn, Sex, Address, Salary, Birth_date,
Department, and Supervisor. Both Name and Address may be composite attributes; however, this
was not specified in the requirements. We must go back to the users to see if any of them will
refer to the individual
components of Name—First_name, Middle_initial, Last_name—or of Address. In our example,
Name is modeled as a composite attribute, whereas Address is not, presumably after consultation
with the users.
4.An entity type DEPENDENTwith attributes Employee, Dependent_name, Sex, Birth_date, and
Relationship(to the employee). Another requirement is that an employee can work on several
projects, and the database has to store the number of hours per week an employee works on each
project.
Step 3: Draw ER diagram using MS Visio

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Step 4: Mapping of ER Model to Relational model

Data Modeling Using the Entity–Relationship (ER) Model(An ER schema diagram for the
COMPANY database).

Relational Database Design Using ER-to-Relational Mapping

ER MODEL RELATIONAL MODEL
Entity type Entityrelation
1:1 or 1:N relationship type Foreign key (or relationshiprelation)
M:N relationship type Relationship relation and two foreign keys
n-ary relationship type Relationship relation and n foreign keys
Simple attribute Attribute
Composite attribute Set of simple component attributes
Multivalued attribute Relation and foreign key
Value set Domain

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Key attribute Primary (or secondary) key

We used the COMPANY database example to illustrate the mapping procedure.

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Unit Three: Critical database requirements.

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:

 Database capacity
 Scalability parameters
 Comparing database features
 Database features gap documentation.

This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:

 Determine current and anticipate future data storage needs.

 Define and ensure flexibility for adapting the data model to changing business processes.
 Identify and allocate additional resources for handling peak loads.
 Work with stakeholders to understand future growth projections.
 Understand the impact of system architecture on scalability, considering throughput and
response time
 Document gaps between functionality and scalability for ongoing improvements and
decision-making.

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3.1. Scalability requirements

Scalability and functionality are critical considerations when designing and managing a database,
especially when aligning it with current and future business requirements. By addressing these
scalability and functionality requirements, a database can be designed and maintained to
effectively support the current and future needs of the business. Regularly reassessing these
requirements is essential to ensure ongoing alignment with business goals and technological
advancements. Here are some key aspects to consider:

1. Scalability requirements
 Data volume:
A. Current Requirement: Determine the amount of data that needs to be stored and
processed presently.
B. Future Requirement: Anticipate data growth over time and plan for scalability to
handle increased volume
 Transaction rate:
A. Current Requirement: Understand the current rate of transactions (reads and
writes) that the database must support.
B. Future Requirement: Plan for an increased transaction rate as the business grows
or undergoes changes.
 Concurrent users:
A. Current Requirement: Identify the number of simultaneous users accessing the
database.
B. Future Requirement: Plan for scalability to support a larger user base, both in
terms of concurrent users and total users.
 Performance expectations:
A. Current Requirement: Define the acceptable response time for database queries
and transactions.

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 B. Future Requirement: Ensure that the database can maintain acceptable
performance levels as the workload increases.
 Geographic distributions:
A. Current Requirement: Determine if the database needs to support distributed
operations across multiple locations.
B. Future Requirement: Plan for geographic expansion and ensure the database can
handle distributed data access efficiently.
2. Functional requirements:
 Data model:
 Current Requirement: Define the data model that meets current business needs.
 Future Requirement: Ensure flexibility to adapt the data model to accommodate
changes in business processes and data structures
 Data integrity:
 Current Requirement: Enforce data integrity constraints to maintain data
accuracy.
 Future Requirement: Plan for maintaining data integrity as the database scales and
evolves.
 Security and compliance:
 Current Requirement: Implement security measures to protect sensitive data and
ensure compliance with regulations
 Future Requirement: Stay abreast of evolving security threats and compliance
standards, adjusting security measures accordingly.
 Scalability features:
 Current Requirement: Evaluate scalability features such as sharding, partitioning,
and replication.
 Future Requirement: Plan for implementing or expanding these features to handle
increased load.

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  Backup and recovery:
 Current Requirement: Establish backup and recovery processes to safeguard
against data loss.
 Future Requirement: Ensure these processes scale with the growing volume of
data and changing business needs
 Integration:
 Current Requirement: Integrate the database with relevant applications and
systems.
 Future Requirement: Plan for continued integration with new technologies and
systems as the business evolves.
 Reporting and analytics:
 Current Requirement: Support current reporting and analytics needs.
 Future Requirement: Anticipate additional reporting requirements and ensure the
database can handle complex analytics.
 Flexibility for technology changes:
 Current Requirement: Choose technologies that meet current needs.
 Future Requirement: Plan for the potential adoption of new database technologies that
may better suit future requirements.

3.2. Database Capacity

Identifying reserve and long-term capacity for a database is crucial for ensuring scalability and
functionality meet the evolving needs of the business. Reserve capacity refers to the additional
resources (such as storage, processing power, and memory) that are set aside to handle
unexpected increases in workload or to accommodate future growth. Long-term capacity
planning involves anticipating the database requirements over an extended period and making
provisions to support those requirements. By considering both reserve and long-term capacity,
organizations can build a resilient and future-proof database infrastructure that can adapt to

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changing business requirements and technological landscapes. Regularly reassessing and
adjusting these plans ensure that the database remains agile and responsive to the dynamic needs
of the business. Here's a breakdown of each concept:

3.2.1. Reserve capacity

 Buffer for peak loads: Identify potential peak loads, such as during specific business
events or seasons. Allocate additional resources to handle these peaks without
compromising performance.
 Scalability buffer: Plan for scalability by keeping a buffer of resources that can be easily
scaled up to accommodate increased demand. This might involve having spare server
capacity or leveraging cloud services for on-demand scaling.
 Emergency failover: Implement mechanisms for emergency failover to backup systems
or servers in case the primary database faces unexpected issues. This ensures continuity
of operations during unforeseen events.
 Redundancy and high availability: Introduce redundancy in critical components to
enhance fault tolerance. This includes redundant servers, storage, and network
infrastructure. High availability configurations ensure that the system remains operational
even in the face of hardware failures.
 Dynamic resource allocation: Explore technologies that allow for dynamic resource
allocation based on real-time demand. This could involve auto-scaling features that
automatically adjust resources as needed.
3.2.2. Long term capacity
 Forecasting growth: Work closely with business stakeholders to understand future
growth projections. Analyze historical data trends to make informed predictions about the
database's capacity needs over the long term.
 Business expansion plans: Align long-term capacity planning with the business's
expansion plans. Consider new products, services, or geographic locations that may
impact database requirements.

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  Technology trends: Stay informed about technological advancements and industry
trends. Anticipate changes in database technologies and architectures that might impact
long-term capacity planning.
 Data retention policies: Define data retention policies to manage the growth of historical
data. Determine how long data needs to be retained in the database and plan for archival
or offloading to optimize storage.
 Performance monitoring and tuning: Implement ongoing performance monitoring and
tuning practices. Regularly assess the database's performance and adjust capacity
planning based on changing usage patterns.
 Infrastructure upgrades: Plan for infrastructure upgrades, including hardware and
software updates, to ensure the database remains compatible with the latest technologies
and can take advantage of performance improvements.
 Scale out strategies: Explore scale-out strategies, such as sharding or partitioning, to
distribute data and workload across multiple servers. This can facilitate horizontal
scalability and accommodate future growth.
 Budget and resource allocation: Allocate budget and resources for long-term capacity
planning. This includes investments in hardware, software licenses, and human resources
required for ongoing maintenance and upgrades.

3.3. Scalability parameters

Identifying implications for system architecture, data models, data structures, and hardware and
software requirements is crucial when planning for scalability. Scalability involves the ability of
a system to handle increased workload or growth effectively. By considering these implications,
organizations can design systems that are not only capable of handling current loads but are also
adaptable to future growth and changes in usage patterns. Scalability becomes a core attribute of
the system architecture, data models, and infrastructure, allowing for a more responsive and
resilient application. Regular monitoring and adjustments are essential to maintaining effective

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scalability as the system evolves Here's an explanation of how scalability considerations impact
various aspects of a system:

3.3.1. System architecture

There are two main measures of performance of a database system: (1)throughput, then number
of tasks that can be completed in a given time interval, and (2)response time, the amount of time
it takes to complete a single task from the time it is submitted. A system that processes a large
number of small transactions can improve throughput by processing many transactions in
parallel.
A system that processes large transactions can improve response time as well as throughput by
performing subtasks of each transaction in parallel. We will study Database-System
Architectures taking this into consideration.

The architecture of a database system is greatly influenced by the underlying computer system
on which it runs, in particular by such aspects as processor and memory architecture, and
networking, as well as by requirements of parallelism and distribution. The earliest databases
were built to run on a single physical machine supporting multitasking; such centralized database
systems are still widely used. Centralized database systems are those that run on a single
computer system. Such database systems span a range from single-user database systems running
on mobile devices or personal computers to high-performance database systems running on a
server with multiple CPU cores and disks and a large amount of main memory that can be
accessed by any of the CPU cores. An enterprise-scale application that runs on a centralized
database system today may have from tens to thousands of users and database sizes ranging from
megabytes to hundreds of gigabytes.

Database systems designed for single-user systems usually do not provide many of the facilities
that a multiuser database provides. In particular, they may support very simple concurrency
control schemes, since highly concurrent access to the database is very unlikely. Provisions for
crash recovery in such systems may also be either very basic (e.g., making a copy of data before

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updating it), or even absent in some cases. Such systems may not support SQL and may instead
provide an API for data access. Such database systems are referred to as embedded databases,
since they are usually designed to be linked to a single application program and are accessible
only from that application.

In contrast, multiuser database systems support the full transactional features that we have
studied earlier. Such databases are usually designed as servers, which service requests received
from application programs; the requests could be in the form of SQL queries, or they could be
requests for retrieving, storing, or updating data specified using an API.

Parallel database systems were developed, starting in the late 1980s to execute tasks in parallel
on a large number of machines. Two important issues in studying parallelism are speedup and
scale up. Running a given task in less time by increasing the degree of parallelism is called
speedup. Handling larger tasks by increasing the degree of parallelism is called scale up. These
were developed to handle high-end enterprise applications whose requirements in terms of
transaction processing performance, time to process decision support queries, and storage
capacity could not be met by centralized databases. These databases were designed to run in
parallel on hundreds of machines. Today, the growth of parallel databases is driven not just by
enterprise applications, but even more so by web-scale applications, which may have millions to
even hundreds of millions of users and may need to deal with many petabytes of data. Parallel
data storage systems are designed primarily to store and retrieve data based on keys. Unlike
parallel databases, data storage systems typically provide very limited support for transactions,
and they lack support for declarative querying. On the other hand, such systems can be run in
parallel on very large numbers of machines (thousands to tens of thousands), a scale that most
parallel databases cannot handle.

Further, data are often generated and stored on different database systems, and there is a need to
execute queries and update transactions across multiple databases. This need led to the
development of distributed database systems. Techniques developed for fault tolerance in the

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context of distributed databases today also play a key role in ensuring the extremely high
reliability and availability of massively parallel database and data storage systems. In a
distributed database system, the database is stored on nodes located at geographically separated
sites. The nodes in a distributed system communicate with one another through various
communication media, such as high-speed private networks or the internet. They do not share
main memory or disks.

Fig 3.1. The general structure of a distributed system

The main differences between shared-nothing parallel databases and distributed databases
include the following:

 Distributed databases have sites that are geographically separated. As a result, the
network connections have lower bandwidth, higher latency, and greater probability of
failures, as compared to networks within a single data center. Systems built on distributed
databases therefore need to be aware of network latency, and failures, as well as of
physical data location.
 Parallel database systems address the problem of node failure. However, some failures,
particularly those due to earthquakes, fires, or other natural disasters, may affect an entire
data center, causing failure of a large number of nodes.

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 Distributed database systems need to continue working even in the event of failure of an
entire data center, to ensure high availability. This requires replication of data across
geographically separated data centers, to ensure that a common natural disaster does not
affect all the data centers. Replication and other techniques to ensure high availability are
similar in both parallel and distributed databases, although implementation details may
differ.
 Distributed databases may be separately administered, with each site retaining some
degree of autonomy of operation. Such databases are often the result of the integration of
existing databases to allow queries and transactions to cross database boundaries.
However, distributed databases that are built for providing geographic distribution, versus
those built by integrating existing databases, may be centrally administered.
 Nodes in a distributed database tend to vary more in size and function, whereas parallel
databases tend to have nodes that are of similar capacity.
 Horizontal vs vertical scaling: Choose between horizontal (adding more machines) and
vertical (increasing resources on existing machines) scaling. For improved scalability,
systems often opt for horizontal scaling to distribute the load across multiple servers.
 Micro services Architecture: Consider adopting a micro services architecture, where the
application is divided into smaller, independent services. This allows for easier scaling of
individual components based on demand.
 Load balancing: Implement load balancing mechanisms to distribute incoming traffic
across multiple servers, preventing overload on any single server and ensuring optimal
resource utilization.
 Decoupling components: Design components to be loosely coupled to facilitate
independent scaling. Decoupling enables scaling specific parts of the system without
affecting others.

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 3.3.2. Data models
 Normalization vs denormalization: Choose between normalized and denormalized data
models. Normalization reduces redundancy but can lead to more complex queries.
Denormalization simplifies queries but can result in data redundancy. The choice depends
on the read and write patterns of the application.
 Sharding or partitioning: Consider sharding or partitioning data across multiple databases
or servers. This approach helps distribute the database workload and allows for
independent scaling of different data partitions.
 Caching strategies: Implement caching mechanisms to reduce the load on the database.
Cache frequently accessed data to improve read performance, but carefully manage cache
invalidation to ensure data consistency.
3.3.3. Data structures:
 Indexes and query optimization: Create efficient indexes on frequently queried fields to
speed up read operations. Regularly optimize queries to ensure that the database can
handle increased query loads efficiently.
 Asynchronous processing: Introduce asynchronous processing for non-real-time tasks.
Offload resource-intensive tasks to background jobs or queues to prevent bottlenecks and
improve overall system responsiveness.
3.3.4. Hardware and software requirements:
 Cloud services: Consider leveraging cloud services for scalable infrastructure. Cloud
platforms offer the flexibility to scale resources up or down based on demand, avoiding
the need for substantial upfront investments.
 Containerization and Orchestration: Use containerization (e.g., Docker) and orchestration
tools (e.g., Kubernetes) to deploy and manage applications at scale.
Containers provide consistency across different environments, and orchestration
facilitates efficient resource utilization.

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  Scalable Database Systems: Choose databases that support horizontal scaling. NoSQL
databases like MongoDB or Cassandra are often chosen for their ability to scale
horizontally, while traditional relational databases might require careful sharding
strategies.
 Elastic Scaling: Implement elastic scaling, allowing the system to automatically adjust
resources based on demand. This can involve auto-scaling groups in cloud environments
or similar mechanisms.
 Monitoring and scaling policies: Set up monitoring tools to track system performance and
user activity. Define scaling policies that automatically adjust resources based on
predefined thresholds, ensuring proactive scaling in response to changing loads.

3.4. Comparing database features.

Comparing functionality and scalability features of a database involves evaluating both the
capabilities that address specific data management needs (functionality) and the ability of the
database to handle growing demands and increased workload (scalability). Functionality features
address the specific requirements of data management and processing, while scalability features
focus on the system's ability to handle increased demands and grow effectively. Both aspects are
crucial for selecting a database that meets the current and future needs of an application or
business. Here's a breakdown of these two aspects:

3.4.1. Functionality features:

 Data model support: Consider whether the database supports the required data model
(relational, document-oriented, graph, etc.) based on the nature of the data and the
application's requirements.
 Query language and complexity: Assess the query language provided by the database and
how well it supports complex queries, joins, and aggregations relevant to the application's
data retrieval needs.

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 ACID Compliance: Evaluate whether the database adheres to ACID (Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, Durability) properties, ensuring data integrity and reliability,
especially in transactional applications.
 Security and access control: Examine the security features, including authentication,
authorization, and encryption. Ensure the database provides robust access control
mechanisms to protect sensitive data.
 Security and access control: Examine the security features, including authentication,
authorization, and encryption. Ensure the database provides robust access control
mechanisms to protect sensitive data.
 Concurrency control: Check how well the database manages concurrent access to data to
avoid conflicts and maintain consistency. This is crucial for systems with multiple users
or transactions.
 Data integrity constraints: Assess the database's support for enforcing data integrity
constraints, such as unique keys, foreign keys, and check constraints, to maintain data
accuracy and consistency.
 Backup and recovery: Evaluate the database's backup and recovery capabilities. Ensure it
provides mechanisms for regular backups, point-in-time recovery, and disaster recovery
planning.
 Replication and high availability: Consider features like replication and high availability
to ensure data redundancy and continuous access to data, even in the event of hardware
failures or other disruptions.
 Scalability features: Some scalability features may also be considered functionality, such
as sharding, partitioning, and the ability to distribute data across multiple servers for
improved performance.

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 3.4.2. Scalability features:
 Horizontal scaling: Evaluate the ability of the database to scale horizontally by adding
more servers or nodes. This is crucial for accommodating increased data volume and
user load.
 Vertical scaling: Assess the database's support for vertical scaling, which involves
increasing the resources (CPU, RAM) on individual servers. This can be important
for handling increased computational demands.
 Auto-scaling: Consider whether the database supports auto-scaling, allowing it to
automatically adjust resources based on demand. This is especially useful in cloud
environments.
 Partitioning and sharding: Evaluate features like partitioning and sharding, which involve
dividing the data into manageable segments distributed across different servers. This aids
in distributing the load and improving performance.
 Load balancing: Check if the database supports load balancing mechanisms to evenly
distribute incoming requests across multiple servers, preventing bottlenecks and
optimizing resource utilization.
 Caching and in-memory processing: Assess whether the database offers caching
mechanisms and in-memory processing capabilities to enhance performance, especially
for read-heavy workloads.
 Asynchronous processing: Consider features for asynchronous processing, allowing
resource-intensive tasks to be offloaded to background processes, preventing
performance degradation for real-time operations.
 Global distribution: If the application requires global access, evaluate features for global
distribution of data, allowing users to access data from servers located in different
geographic regions.
 Resource monitoring and scaling policies: Check if the database provides robust
monitoring tools to track system performance. Define scaling policies that automatically

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 adjust resources based on predefined criteria, ensuring responsiveness to changing
workloads.

3.5. Database features gap documentation.

Documenting the gap between the scalability and functionality of database features is essential
for making informed decisions about the selection and optimization of a database system. By
systematically documenting the gap between functionality and scalability features, organizations
can make informed decisions about improving their database systems to better align with current
and future needs. Regularly reassessing and updating this documentation is crucial as the
business evolves and technology advances. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to document this
gap:

1. Define functional requirements: Start by clearly defining the functional requirements of

the application or system. This includes understanding the data model, query patterns,
transactional needs, and security requirements. Create a comprehensive list of
functionalities the database must support
2. Assess current database functionality: Evaluate the existing database against the defined
functional requirements. Document the features and capabilities the current database
provides to meet these requirements. This includes aspects such as data model support,
query language features, security measures, and data integrity constraints.
3. Identify missing functionality: Identify any gaps or missing functionalities in the current
database system. This involves documenting areas where the database falls short in
meeting the defined functional requirements. Be specific about each feature or capability
that is lacking.
4. Define scalability requirements: Clearly define the scalability requirements based on
anticipated growth and changes in workload. Consider factors such as data volume,
transaction rates, concurrent users, and geographic distribution. Specify the scalability
features required to support these needs.

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 5. Evaluate current database scalability: Assess the scalability features of the current
database. Document its ability to scale horizontally or vertically, support auto-scaling,
handle partitioning and sharding, and manage load balancing. Identify any limitations or
constraints related to scalability.
6. Identify scalability gaps: Document the gaps in scalability features that exist in the
current database. This involves identifying areas where the database lacks the ability to
scale effectively to meet anticipated growth or changes in workload.
Prioritize gaps: Prioritize the identified gaps based on their impact on the application or system.
Some gaps may be critical and could hinder the system's performance, while others may have a
lesser impact. This prioritization helps in focusing efforts on addressing the most crucial gaps
first.

Research alternative databases: Research alternative databases that may better align with the
identified functional and scalability requirements. Document the features and capabilities of
these alternative databases, specifically focusing on how they address the gaps identified in the
current system.

Document recommendations: Provide recommendations for addressing the identified gaps. This
may involve proposing changes to the existing database configuration, implementing
workarounds, or migrating to a different database solution that better meets the requirements.

Cost and resource analysis: Evaluate the costs and resource requirements associated with
implementing the recommended changes or migrating to a different database. Consider factors
such as licensing costs, hardware requirements, and potential impacts on existing applications
and workflows.

Create a roadmap: Develop a roadmap for addressing the documented gaps. Outline the steps and
timelines for implementing the recommended changes or transitioning to a new database

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solution. Include milestones and key performance indicators to measure the success of the
improvements.

Document lessons learned: After implementing changes or migrating to a new database,

document lessons learned from the process. Note any unexpected challenges, successes, and
areas for continuous improvement. This documentation will be valuable for future decision-
making processes.

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Self-Check: 3

Part I: Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is wrong.

1. Scalability involves the ability of a system to handle increased workload or growth effectively.
2. Long-term capacity planning for a database should consider factors such as business
expansion plans, technology trends, and data retention policies.
3. In a distributed database system, nodes are typically located at geographically separated sites
and communicate through shared main memory and disks.
4. Redundancy and high availability are aspects of reserve capacity planning for a database.
5. Micros ervices architecture allows for easier scaling of individual components based on
demand and facilitates independent scaling of specific parts of the system.

Part II: Choose the correct answer and encircle it.

1. What is reserve capacity in the context of a database?
a) The ability to handle increased workload or growth effectively.
b) Identifying potential peak loads and allocating additional resources.
c) Dynamic resource allocation based on real-time demand.
d) Planning for scalability by keeping a buffer of resources.
2. Which factor is NOT considered in long-term capacity planning for a database?
a) Forecasting growth.
b) Business expansion plans.
c) Current transaction rate.
d) Technology trends.
3. What is a key difference between parallel database systems and distributed database systems?
a) Both systems share main memory and disks.
b) Parallel databases are geographically separated, while distributed databases are not.

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c) Distributed databases may be separately administered, while parallel databases are centrally
administered.
d) Parallel databases communicate through high-speed private networks.
4. What is the main purpose of load balancing in the context of scalability?
a) Allocating additional resources during peak loads.
b) Implementing emergency failover mechanisms.
c) Distributing incoming traffic across multiple servers.
d) Forecasting growth for long-term capacity planning.
5. How does micro services architecture contribute to scalability in database systems?
a) It facilitates independent scaling of specific parts of the system.
b) It focuses on redundancy and high availability.
c) It provides a buffer for peak loads.
d) It supports dynamic resource allocation.

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Unit Four: Report preparation
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:

 Database features documentation

 Report submission
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Create detailed documentation covering the functionality features of a database, enabling
effective communication with stakeholders.
 Adopt a standardized format for documentation to enhance readability.
 Emphasize the importance of regularly reviewing and updating documentation to reflect the
current state of the database.
 Understand the importance of maintaining up-to-date documentation to support ongoing
database management and development efforts.

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 4.1. Database features documentation

Documenting the functionality and scalability features of a database is a critical step in

understanding, communicating, and managing the capabilities and limitations of the chosen
database system. This documentation serves as a reference for database administrators,
developers, and other stakeholders. Here's a guide on how to document these features:

4.1.1. Documenting functionality features:

 Data model: Specify the type of data model supported by the database (e.g., relational,
document-oriented, graph). Describe how data is structured and the relationships between
different entities.
 Query language: Document the database's query language, including its syntax and
capabilities. Provide examples of common queries and operations. Note any extensions or
unique features that the query language offers.
 ACID Compliance: Indicate whether the database adheres to ACID properties
(Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability). Explain how the database ensures data
integrity and consistency, especially in transactional scenarios.
 Security features: Detail the security measures implemented by the database, such as
authentication, authorization, and encryption. Specify how user access is controlled and
how sensitive data is protected.
 Concurrency control: Describe how the database handles concurrent transactions to
maintain consistency. Document isolation levels and mechanisms for handling conflicts.
 Data integrity constraints: List and explain the data integrity constraints supported by the
database, including primary keys, foreign keys, unique constraints, and check constraints.
 Backup and recovery: Provide information on the database's backup and recovery
capabilities. Outline procedures for creating backups, restoring data, and ensuring
business continuity in case of failures.

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 Replication and high availability: Document features related to replication and high
availability. Explain how data is replicated, and detail the mechanisms in place to ensure
continuous access to data.
4.1.2. Documenting Scalability features:
 Horizontal scaling: Specify whether the database supports horizontal scaling by adding
more servers or nodes. Provide details on how data is distributed across multiple
instances.
 Vertical scaling: Document the database's support for vertical scaling, indicating how
resources (CPU, RAM) can be increased on individual servers.
 Auto-scaling: Describe if the database supports auto-scaling, allowing it to automatically
adjust resources based on demand. This is especially relevant in cloud environments.
 Partitioning and sharding: Explain features related to data partitioning and sharding.
Describe how the database handles the distribution of data across multiple servers or
shards.
 Load balancing: Document how the database handles load balancing. Explain
mechanisms in place to distribute incoming requests across multiple servers, preventing
performance bottlenecks.
 Caching and in-memory processing: Detail features related to caching and in-memory
processing. Explain how the database optimizes performance through caching frequently
accessed data or utilizing in-memory processing.
 Asynchronous processing: Document features related to asynchronous processing.
Describe how the database handles background tasks and offloads resource-intensive
operations.
 Global distribution: Indicate whether the database supports global distribution. Detail
features that allow data to be replicated and accessed from servers located in different
geographic regions.

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  Keep documentation updated: Regularly review and update the documentation to ensure
that it reflects the current state of the database. Changes in functionality or scalability
features should be promptly documented.

General best practices:

 Use a standard format: Adopt a standardized format for documenting features, such as
tables, lists, or a combination of both. This enhances readability and makes it easier for
stakeholders to find specific information
 Include examples: Provide practical examples or scenarios to illustrate how specific
features work. This can aid in better understanding and application by users and
developers.
 Cross reference documentation: Cross-reference functionality and scalability features to
illustrate how they interrelate. For example, explain how a particular scalability feature
impacts a specific functionality aspect.
 Include version information: Specify the version of the database for which the
documentation is applicable. Databases may undergo updates, and different versions may
have varying features.
By following these steps and best practices, you can create comprehensive and user-friendly
documentation that serves as a valuable resource for anyone involved in managing or
developing with the database.

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4.2. Report submission
When submitting a report on database functionality and scalability to a client for review, it's
important to present the information in a clear, organized, and easily understandable manner.
The goal is to provide the client with insights into the database's capabilities, limitations, and
how well it aligns with their requirements. Here's a guide on how to structure and present
such a report:
1. Cover page: Include a cover page with the report title, date of submission, and relevant
contact information. Clearly identify the document as a report on database functionality
and scalability.
2. Executive summary: Provide a brief summary at the beginning of the report, highlighting
key findings, recommendations, and the overall status of the database's functionality and
scalability. This section should give the client a quick overview without delving into too
much detail.
3. Introduction: Introduce the purpose of the report and the context in which the assessment
was conducted. Clearly state the objectives and goals, emphasizing the focus on
functionality and scalability.
4. Functionality features:
 Current features: Document the existing functionality of the database. This includes
details about the supported data model, query language, ACID compliance, security
measures, concurrency control, data integrity constraints, and backup and recovery
processes.
 Assessment: Evaluate how well the current features align with the client's functional
requirements. Identify any gaps or limitations in the database's functionality that may
impact the client's objectives

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5. Scalability features:
 Current scalability features: Document the existing scalability features of the database.
This includes information on horizontal and vertical scaling, auto-scaling, partitioning
and sharding, load balancing, caching, and support for global distribution.
 Assessment: Evaluate the scalability features in relation to the anticipated growth and
workload changes outlined by the client. Identify any scalability gaps or areas that may
hinder the database's ability to scale effectively.
 Gap analysis: Provide a dedicated section that explicitly outlines the gaps identified in
both functionality and scalability. Clearly articulate the implications of these gaps and
how they may impact the overall performance and suitability of the database for the
client's needs.
 Recommendations: Offer clear and actionable recommendations for addressing the
identified gaps. This may include suggestions for optimizing the current database,
implementing specific features, or considering alternative databases that better align with
the client's requirements.
 Cost and resource analysis: Include an analysis of the costs and resources associated with
implementing the recommended changes. Provide insights into potential investments,
both in terms of finances and manpower, and highlight the potential benefits.
 Roadmap for implementation: Outline a detailed roadmap for implementing the
recommendations. Provide a step-by-step plan with timelines, milestones, and key
activities. This roadmap should help the client understand the practical steps needed to
enhance the database's functionality and scalability.
 Conclusion: Summarize the key points of the report, emphasizing the importance of
addressing identified gaps and implementing the recommended changes. Conclude with a
call to action, encouraging the client to move forward with the proposed improvements.

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 Appendix: Include any supplementary materials, such as detailed technical specifications,
charts, graphs, or additional data that supports the findings and recommendations in the
report.
 Review and approval section: Provide space for client feedback and comments. Include a
section for the client to officially acknowledge the report, signifying their review and
understanding of the document.
 Contact information: Conclude the report with contact information for further inquiries or
discussions. Encourage the client to reach out with any questions or concerns.
 Distribution: Clearly specify who should receive the report and how it should be
distributed. Ensure that all relevant stakeholders have access to the document.
When submitting the report, consider presenting it in a professional format, such as a PDF
document, and use visual elements like charts and graphs to enhance clarity. Additionally,
follow up with the client to discuss the report, address any questions or concerns, and
collaboratively plan the next steps. Effective communication is key to ensuring that the client
understands the implications of the assessment and is aligned with the proposed
recommendations.

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Self-Check: 4
Part I: Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is wrong.
1. In the documentation of database functionality, the data integrity constraints section may
include information about primary keys, foreign keys, unique constraints, and check constraints.
2. The executive summary in a database functionality and scalability report is meant to provide
detailed technical insights into the database's features.
3. Including practical examples in the documentation of database features is considered a best
practice to aid in better understanding and application by users and developers.
4. The gap analysis section in a database functionality and scalability report explicitly outlines
the identified gaps in both functionality and scalability, emphasizing their positive impact on the
overall performance.
5. An interactive presentation of the report is recommended during the review session to discuss
key points, address questions, and ensure a collaborative understanding between the reporting
team and the client.
Part II: Choose the correct answer and encircle it.
1. Which of the following is a key aspect documented in the functionality features of a database?
a. Horizontal Scaling
b. Data Encryption
c. Load Balancing
d. Auto-scaling
2. What is the primary purpose of the executive summary in a database functionality and
scalability report?
a. Provide technical details
b. Summarize key findings and recommendations
c. Outline cost and resource analysis
d. Introduce the database data model

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3. Which best practice is recommended for documenting database features?
a. Use complex technical language for precision
b. Avoid visual aids to maintain professionalism
c. Include practical examples for better understanding
d. Exclude version information to streamline content
4. What is the purpose of the "Gap Analysis" section in a functionality and scalability report?
a. Highlight positive achievements of the database
b. Identify areas of improvement and potential limitations
c. Provide a detailed roadmap for implementation
d. Discuss the client's contact information
5. Which feature is associated with horizontal scaling in a database system?
a. Auto-scaling
b. Data Encryption
c. Partitioning and Sharding
d. Caching and In-Memory Processing

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Reference
Book

 Database System Concepts

 Database Systems Complete Book
 Fundamental_of_Database_Systems
 Database-Design-2nd-Edition-1660153697

URL

 https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2023/06/what-are-functions-of-dbms/

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Developer’s profile

Name Organization/ Mobile

No Qualification Field of Study E-mail
Institution number
1 Frew Atkilt M-Tech Network & Bishoftu Polytechnic 0911787374 [email protected]
Information Security
College

2 Gari Lencha MSc ICT Management Gimbi Polytechnic 0917819599 [email protected]

3 Kalkidan Daniel BSc Computer Science Entoto Polytechnic 0978336988 [email protected]

4 Solomon Melese M-Tech Computer Engineering M/G /M/Polytechnic 0918578631 [email protected]

College

5 Tewodros Girma MSc Information system Sheno Polytechnic 0912068479 girmatewodiros @gmail.com
College

6 Yohannes BSc Information system Entoto Polytechnic 0923221273 [email protected]

Gebeyehu College

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