MODULE 3 PLANNING AND COMMUNICATING
Planning
Planning is the function of management that involves setting objectives and determining a
course of action for achieving those objectives. Planning requires that managers be aware of
environmental conditions facing their organization and forecast future conditions. It also
requires that managers be good decision makers.
Planning is a process consisting of several steps. The process begins with environmental
scanning which simply means that planners must be aware of the critical contingencies facing
their organization in terms of economic conditions, their competitors, and their customers.
Planners must then attempt to forecast future conditions. These forecasts form the basis for
planning.
Planners must establish objectives, which are statements of what needs to be achieved and
when. Planners must then identify alternative courses of action for achieving objectives. After
evaluating the various alternatives, planners must make decisions about the best courses of
action for achieving objectives. They must then formulate necessary steps and ensure effective
implementation of plans. Finally, planners must constantly evaluate the success of their plans
and take corrective action when necessary.
There are many different types of plans and planning.
Strategic planning involves analyzing competitive opportunities and threats, as well as the
strengths and weaknesses of the organization, and then determining how to position the
organization to compete effectively in their environment. Strategic planning has a long time
frame, often three years or more. Strategic planning generally includes the entire organization
and includes formulation of objectives. Strategic planning is often based on the organization’s
mission, which is its fundamental reason for existence. An organization’s top management most
often conducts strategic planning.
Tactical planning is intermediate-range (one to three years) planning that is designed to
develop relatively concrete and specific means to implement the strategic plan. Middle-level
managers often engage in tactical planning.
Operational planning generally assumes the existence of organization-wide or subunit goals and
objectives and specifies ways to achieve them. Operational planning is short-range (less than a
year) planning that is designed to develop specific action steps that support the strategic and
tactical plans.
Planning
Planning is the process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve a
desired goal. Planning involves the creation and maintenance of a given organizational
operation. This thought process is essential to the refinement of objectives and their
integration with other plans. Planning combines forecasting of developments with preparing
scenarios for how to react to those developments. An important, albeit often ignored, aspect of
planning is the relationship it holds with forecasting. Forecasting can be described as predicting
what the future will look like, whereas planning predicts what the future should look like.
Planning is also a management process, concerned with defining goals for a company’s future
direction and determining the missions and resources to achieve those targets. To meet
objectives, managers may develop plans, such as a business plan or a marketing plan. The
purpose may be achievement of certain goals or targets. Planning revolves largely around
identifying the resources available for a given project and utilizing optimally to achieve best
scenario outcomes.
Strategic Planning
Strategic planning is an organization’s process of defining its strategy or direction and making
decisions about allocating its resources to pursue this strategy. To determine the direction of
the organization, it is necessary to understand its current position and the possible avenues
through which it can pursue a particular course of action. Generally, strategic planning deals
with at least one of three key questions:
What do we do?
For whom do we do it?
How do we excel?
The key components of strategic planning include an understanding of the firm’s vision,
mission, values, and strategies. (Often a “vision statement” and a ” mission statement ” may
encapsulate the vision and mission. )
Vision: This outlines what the organization wants to be or how it wants the world in which it
operates to be (an “idealized” view of the world). It is a long-term view and concentrates on the
future. It can be emotive and is a source of inspiration. For example, a charity working with the
poor might have a vision statement that reads “A World without Poverty.”
Mission: It defines the fundamental purpose of an organization or an enterprise, succinctly
describing why it exists and what it does to achieve its vision. For example, the charity above
might have a mission statement as “providing jobs for the homeless and unemployed.”
Values: These are beliefs that are shared among the stakeholders of an organization. Values
drive an organization’s culture and priorities and provide a framework in which decisions are
made. For example, “knowledge and skills are the keys to success,” or “give a man bread and
feed him for a day, but teach him to farm and feed him for life.” These example values place
the priorities of self-sufficiency over shelter.
Strategy: Strategy, narrowly defined, means “the art of the general”—a combination of the
ends (goals) for which the firm is striving and the means (policies) by which it is seeking to get
there. A strategy is sometimes called a roadmap, which is the path chosen to move towards the
end vision. The most important part of implementing the strategy is ensuring the company is
going in the right direction, which is towards the end vision.
Tools and Approaches
There are many approaches to strategic planning, but typically one of the following is used:
Situation-Target-Proposal: Situation – Evaluate the current situation and how it came about.
Target – Define goals and/or objectives (sometimes called ideal state). Path/Proposal – Map a
possible route to the goals/objectives.
Draw-See-Think-Plan: Draw – What is the ideal image or the desired end state? See – What is
today’s situation? What is the gap from ideal and why? Think – What specific actions must be
taken to close the gap between today’s situation and the ideal state? Plan – What resources are
required to execute the activities?
Among the most useful tools for strategic planning is a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, and Threats). The main objective of this tool is to analyze internal strategic
factors (strengths and weaknesses attributed to the organization) and external factors beyond
control of the organization (such as opportunities and threats).
The 4 Types of Plans
Operational Planning
“Operational plans are about how things need to happen,” motivational leadership speaker
Mack Story said at LinkedIn. “Guidelines of how to accomplish the mission are set.”
This type of planning typically describes the day-to-day running of the company. Operational
plans are often described as single use plans or ongoing plans. Single use plans are created for
events and activities with a single occurrence (such as a single marketing campaign). Ongoing
plans include policies for approaching problems, rules for specific regulations and procedures
for a step-by-step process for accomplishing particular objectives.
Strategic Planning
“Strategic plans are all about why things need to happen,” Story said. “It’s big picture, long-
term thinking. It starts at the highest level with defining a mission and casting a vision.”
Strategic planning includes a high-level overview of the entire business. It’s the foundational
basis of the organization and will dictate long-term decisions. The scope of strategic planning
can be anywhere from the next two years to the next 10 years. Important components of a
strategic plan are vision, mission and values.
Tactical Planning
“Tactical plans are about what is going to happen,” Story said. “Basically at the tactical level,
there are many focused, specific, and short-term plans, where the actual work is being done,
that support the high-level strategic plans.”
Tactical planning supports strategic planning. It includes tactics that the organization plans to
use to achieve what’s outlined in the strategic plan. Often, the scope is less than one year and
breaks down the strategic plan into actionable chunks. Tactical planning is different from
operational planning in that tactical plans ask specific questions about what needs to happen to
accomplish a strategic goal; operational plans ask how the organization will generally do
something to accomplish the company’s mission.
Contingency Planning
Contingency plans are made when something unexpected happens or when something needs
to be changed. Business experts sometimes refer to these plans as a special type of planning.
Contingency planning can be helpful in circumstances that call for a change. Although managers
should anticipate changes when engaged in any of the primary types of planning, contingency
planning is essential in moments when changes can’t be foreseen. As the business world
becomes more complicated, contingency planning becomes more important to engage in and
understand.
The 5 Steps of the Strategic Planning Process
Strategic Planning Process Steps
Determine your strategic position.
Prioritize your objectives.
Develop a strategic plan.
Execute and manage your plan.
Review and revise the plan.
COMMUNICATING
Communication refers to the process by which information is exchanged between two or more
people (increasingly, machines are also included in communication, but we limit the discussion
here to communication between people). Each of the management roles—planning, organizing,
leading, and controlling—depends on effective communication. Managers must be able to
receive accurate information to determine plans, and they must be able to send accurate
information for the plans to be implemented. When information is accurately sent and
received, everyone in an organization can be informed. As we see in the earlier example,
however, when information is misinterpreted or when incorrect information spreads,
communications can create significant problems in organizations.
he Role of Communication in Management
The role of management is to accomplish the goals of an organization. To do this, managers
create a plan that defines what needs to be done, when it will be done, and how it will be done.
To implement the plan, managers must convey this information to everyone in the
organization. That is, they must communicate the plan to members of the organization.
However, managers need to do much more than just inform people what they need to do to
support the plan. They also must motivate people to support the plan, build commitment to the
organization, establish rapport and collaboration, and keep everyone informed of events and
actions that affect the organization. Good communication not only informs but also helps to
create a culture that makes people feel like they belong to and want to support the
organization. The opening example shows what can result from poor communication. Following
are some of the benefits of effective communication.
Provides clarity. Confusion, uncertainty, and ambiguity make people uncomfortable and
uncooperative. Making roles, responsibilities, and relationships clear gives everyone the
information they need to do their jobs and to understand their contributions to the
organization. Effective communication reduces the cost associated with conflicts,
misunderstandings, and mistakes.
Builds Relationships. A culture that promotes open communication reduces tension between
hierarchical levels of employees, both professionally and socially. In a trusting and collaborative
culture, people are more likely to seek help with problems and to suggest solutions and
improvements. Effective communication creates a collegial culture that fosters teamwork and
encourages cooperation.
Creates commitment. Effective communication involves not only sending information but also
receiving it. By listening to employees’ concerns, allowing them to have input on their work and
their workplace, and giving consideration to their suggestions, managers can make everyone in
the organization feel like they are valued contributors. When employees feel like they are
valued in the organization, they will likely be more engaged and motivated. Effective
communication creates support and commitment.
Defines expectations. When people are uncertain about what is expected of them and how
they will be evaluated, they can’t do their jobs well. Performance reviews are difficult because
the employee does not know the performance standards they are expected to meet. And if
corrective measures are necessary, the employee may be resentful if he can’t see how his
behaviors reduced his effectiveness. When expectations and standards are clear, employees
know what they need to do to get a positive review and the benefits that come with it.
These are just a few of the many benefits that come from effective communications. Managers
can only reach organizational goals when the people in the organization are committed to the
goals. People perform much better when they are informed and involved.
The Communication-Process Model
The communication process may seem simple: one person sends a message and
others receive it. The process becomes more complex, however, because the
information in the message must be sent and received accurately. The communication-
process model describes how the information is sent and received.
The following diagram shows this model.
The communication-process model.
It is easiest to understand the model when one person is communicating with another
person. The person initiating the communication, the sender, has information he wants
the other person, the receiver, to know. However, before it can be sent, the information
has to be encoded into a form that can be transmitted. In a simple case, the information
is put into words spoken to the receiver. Or the information may be converted into
printed text, tables, charts, or graphs given to the receiver. In a more complicated case,
the information is encoded into words or images that are then converted into electronic
signals sent to the receiver. The channel is the medium through which the information
is conveyed. It could be air conveying sound waves, paper conveying text and images,
or wires or magnetic fields conveying electronic signals. (We will discuss channels in
more detail later in this module.) In the opening example, the management had
information that Mathias had been hired and when he would start. They wanted the
employees in the company to have that information so they put it in a message and sent
it to employees.
The receiver reverses the process. She receives the encoded message and then
decodes it. That means she converts the message back into information that can be
understood. In the opening example, an employee reads the message and knows who
has been hired and when he will start. Information has been transferred from managers
to employees. In an interactive communication process, the receiver can
send feedback to the sender to indicate that the message has been received and how it
has been interpreted. This can start an interactive back-and-forth exchange that can
assure the sender that the message has been received and understood correctly.
The two-person model can be generalized to the case of one person communicating
with many others. It could be a person making a presentation to a roomful of people, a
manager sending an e-mail to employees, a Facebook post to friends, or a tweet to
hundreds of followers.
Common Missteps in Communication
Each step in the communication-process model introduces the potential for missteps to occur.
In the opening scenario, two e-mail messages were described. They were both internal to the
company, but they achieved much different results. What was different about the messages
that caused the different outcomes?
The first misstep can occur when the information to be communicated is not encoded correctly.
Consider the e-mail sent by management to announce Mathias’s appointment. Management
had clear information to convey, and a simple e-mail conveyed it.
Mathias’s e-mail had a different purpose. He wanted to convey to his superiors that he was
following their directions and was working on a plan to cut costs. But when he put the
information into text, he didn’t encode it well. He wanted to convey that he was working on the
problem but had not made any decisions. What he actually conveyed was that he was going to
cut costs by whatever means necessary and soon. Because the information was not encoded
accurately, the wrong information was sent.
The first step in good communications is being able to clearly and concisely convey information,
whether written, spoken, graphic, or numerical. If information is not encoded properly, nothing
else matters. Later on we will look at specific suggestions for how to tailor messages to take the
needs of the receivers into consideration
Missteps also occur during decoding when the receiver interprets the message differently than
the sender intended. In Mathias’s case, the message he sent was “I’m thinking about ways to
cut costs and I will let you know when I have a plan.” But employees interpreted the message
as “I’m going to do whatever I have to in order to cut costs.”
Because feedback is a message sent in the opposite direction, from the receiver to the sender,
all of these problems can occur during feedback. In many cases feedback is not important and is
not wanted. Much information that is communicated is intended to keep people informed, and
acknowledgement or response is not expected. When management sent the notice about
Mathias’s appointment it did not expect every employee to respond. Sometimes, though,
feedback is important to be certain that both the sender and receiver have the same
information and interpret it the same way. The initial sender must be sure that she understands
the feedback provided by the sender, asks questions to clarify any misinterpretation, and
responds to any questions. The last step in good communication is to be a good listener. In the
following sections we will look more closely at the issues of miscommunication and ways to
collect feedback.
Formal and Informal Communication Systems
In most organizations there are both formal and informal information systems. Formal
communication systems are the methods used to convey information necessary for
conducting the business of the organization. Formal communications conform to rules
and regulations prescribed by the profession or law (for example, formal reporting
procedures for tracking injuries in the workplace). This is information that flows within
the chain of command or within task responsibilities. The message may be procedures
to provide regular progress reports to managers. It may be scheduled meetings to
exchange information on the status of a project. Human resources may arrange
seminars to convey new policies and procedures. The formal communication system
makes sure necessary information flows through the organization and that
dissemination of this information is controlled. Not everyone in an organization has
access to progress reports or attends project meetings. Formal communication systems
ensure that information is available to those who need it and not to others.
Not all communication in an organization is formal, and not all communication is
controlled. Informal communication systems are outside of the formal system.
Informal systems can connect almost anyone in an organization to anyone else. They
skip over hierarchical levels and between departments and functions. In the opening
scenario we saw how misinformation spread through the informal system can harm an
organization. However, informal communication systems are not necessarily disruptive.
In many organizations, the informal network is the primary way information is spread
and work gets done. There are some organizations where getting a job done depends
more on who you know than what you know.
There are two main types of informal communication systems: social networks and
the grapevine.
A social network is a system of personal relationships that cross hierarchical,
departmental, and organizational boundaries. A simple social network system is shown
in the following diagram.
In this diagram of social networks, each circle represents an individual.
In a social network, an individual can reach out to anyone else in his network for
information or assistance. Through the linking member, he can also seek help from
another group. People with large social networks have access to much information, and
linking individuals can spread information through an organization. Linking individuals
can be very influential in an organization.
The grapevine is how gossip is spread through an organization. Another term for a
grapevine is a rumor mill. Almost everyone engages in gossip in some manner, so it is a
very effective way of spreading information. In fact, information often spreads faster
through the grapevine than through formal information channels. Unfortunately, the
information is not controlled, and it can be distorted or even totally fabricated. The
grapevine is particularly important when formal communications are inadequate. People
don’t like to be uncertain about conditions that affect them. When information is not
provided by the formal system, they seek and spread information through the grapevine.
Unlike a social network, a grapevine is unstructured and transitory, although the
grapevine can follow social network links. Information flows in the grapevine through
chance encounters, informal meetings, and overheard conversations. Electronic
communication and social media has greatly increased the speed and spread of
grapevines.
The seven Cs of Communication
1. Clear
When writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message. What is your
purpose in communicating with this person? If you’re not sure, then your audience won’t be
sure either.
To be clear, try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence. Make sure that it’s easy for
your reader to understand your meaning. People shouldn’t have to “read between the lines”
and make assumptions on their own to understand what you’re trying to say.
Information and actions required, must be clear so the reader has the information they need to
take action.
2. Concise
When you’re concise in your communication, you stick to the point and keep it brief. Your
audience doesn’t want to read six sentences when you could communicate your message in
three.
Are there any adjectives or “filler words” that you can delete? You can often eliminate words
like “for instance,” “you see,” “definitely,” “kind of,” “literally,” “basically,” or “I mean.”
Are there any unnecessary sentences?
Have you repeated the point several times, in different ways?
3. Concrete
When your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you’re telling
them. There are details (but not too many!) and vivid facts, and there’s laser-like focus. Your
message is solid.
4. Correct
When your communication is correct, it fits your audience. And correct communication is also
error-free communication.
Do the technical terms you use fit your audience’s level of education or knowledge?
Have you checked your writing for grammatical errors? Remember, spell checkers won’t catch
everything.
Are all names and titles spelled correctly?
5. Coherent
When your communication is coherent, it’s logical. All points are connected and relevant to the
main topic, and the tone and flow of the text is consistent.
6. Complete
In a complete message, the audience has everything they need to be informed and, if
applicable, take action.
Does your message include a “call to action,” so that your audience clearly knows what you
want them to do?
Have you included all relevant information – contact names, dates, times, locations, and so on?
7. Courteous
Courteous communication is friendly, open, and honest. There are no hidden insults or passive-
aggressive tones. You keep your reader’s viewpoint in mind, and you’re empathetic to their
needs.
the five main processes of communication. The processes are: 1. Sender 2. Transmission 3.
Noise 4. Receiver 5. Feedback.
7 Principles of Communication
Following principles of communication make it more effective:
1. Principle of Clarity:
The idea or message to be communicated should be clearly spelt out. It should be worded in
such a way that the receiver understands the same thing which the sender wants to convey.
There should be no ambiguity in the message. It should be kept in mind that the words do not
speak themselves but the speaker gives them the meaning. A clear message will evoke the
same response from the other party. It is also essential that the receiver is conversant with the
language, inherent assumptions, and the mechanics of communication.
2. Principle of Attention:
In order to make communication effective, the receiver’s attention should be drawn towards
message. People are different in behaviour, attention, emotions etc. so they may respond
differently to the message. Subordinates should act similarly as per the contents of the
message. The acts of a superior also draw the attention of subordinates and they may follow
what they observe. For example, if a superior is very punctual in coming to the office then
subordinates will also develop such habits. It is said that ‘actions speak louder than words.
3. Principle of Feedback:
The principle of feedback is very important to make the communication effective. There should
be a feedback information from the recipient to know whether he has understood the message
in the same sense in which the sender has meant it.
4. Principle of Informality:
Formal communication is generally used for transmitting messages and other information.
Sometimes formal communication may not achieve the desired results, informal
communication may prove effective in such situations. Management should use informal
communication for assessing the reaction of employees towards various policies. Senior
management may informally convey certain decisions to the employees for getting their
feedback. So this principle states that informal communication is as important as formal
communication.
5. Principle of Consistency:
This principle states that communication should always be consistent with the policies, plans,
programs and objectives of the organization and not in conflict with them. If the messages and
communications are in conflict with the policies and programs then there will be confusion in
the minds of subordinates and they may not implement them properly. Such a situation will be
detrimental to the interests of the organization.
6. Principle of Timeliness:
This principle states that communication should be done at proper time so that it helps in
implementing plans. Any delay in communication may not serve any purpose rather decisions
become of historical importance only.
7. Principle of Adequacy:
The information communicated should be adequate and complete in all respects. Inadequate
information may delay action and create confusion. Inadequate information also affects
efficiency of the receiver. So adequate information is essential for taking proper decisions and
making action plans.
ACTIVITY # 3
1. Make a complete plan for an activity from start to finish.
2. What do you think is best to eradicate problems and barriers in communication?
Submit soft copy of activity through email. Compile hardcopy of activity to be passed at the end of the
semester.
Upon submission of the activity, put file name of the activity with this format…Module no. Activity no.
full name, year and section.
Reflections:
State your learnings on the module. Submit together with the activity on the module. (soft copy and
hard copy).
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