APH 202.

INTRODUCTORY ANIMAL
AGRICULTURE

GENERAL BIOLOGY, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF

COMPANION (PETS) AND THOSE IN ZOOS, RESEARCH
FACILITIES AND KENNELS.

JAYEOLA, O.A. Ph.D

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND WILDLIFE
MANAGEMENT.
FUNAAB.`
 INTRODUCTION
Every form of animal species that have ever existed on earth are of wild
origin. Process of domestication predates agriculture. It continues as
humans and animals cohabit in homes, interact, and profoundly
influences the shape of each other's social spaces.

What looks like a simple beginnings has become an increasingly complex

process. The attention to relationships between humans and companion
animals commonly focuses on dogs and cats previously but recently,
companion animals otherwise referred to as pets in homes has had to
take various shapes and diversity in numerous places with overlapping
COMPANION ANIMALS are the domesticated or domestic-bred animals
whose physical, emotional, behavioral and social needs can be readily met
as companions in the home, or in close daily relationship with humans.

They are also referred to as Pets, i.e an animal kept at home for pleasure,
rather than for work or food.

Dogs and Small cats are the common group of animals in this category, but
the list is unlimited nowadays since Snail, rabbit, small primates and several
species of birds are now being kept around individual home as pets.
 Domestic dogs, begins to attain sexual maturity from six to twelve months for
both males and females. This can be delayed until up to two years old for some
large breeds to experience first estrous.
 They will experience subsequent estrous cycles biannually, during which the
body prepares for pregnancy.
 At the peak of the cycle, females will come into estrus, i.e becoming mentally
and physically receptive to copulation. At this time the ova survive and are
capable of being fertilized for a week after ovulation. It is possible for a female
to mate with more than one male.
 Fertilization occurs 2–5 days after copulation, 14–16 days later the embryo get
attached to the uterus and after 22–23 days the heart beat is detectable.
Dogs bear their litters roughly at 58 to 68 days after
fertilization. It takes an average of 63 days as a result of varied
length of gestation.
Despite their descent from wolves and classification as
Carnivora, dogs are variously described as carnivores or
omnivores.
Unlike obligate carnivores, dogs can adapt to a wide-ranging
diet, and are not dependent on meat-specific protein in order to
fulfill their basic dietary requirements.
Dogs will healthily digest a variety of foods, including
vegetables and grains, and can consume a large proportion of
these diet, however all-meat diets are not recommended for dogs
due to their lack of calcium and iron.
 Female cats are seasonally polyestrous, which means they experience many periods
of heat in a year.
 Heat periods occur about every two weeks and last about 4 to 7 days. Making them to
be receptive at any time until successful fertilization has occurred. Otherwise, they
are referred to as instantaneous Ovulators.
 Multiple males are attracted to a female during heat.
 The males will fight over her, and the victor wins the right to mate.
 The female utters a loud yowl (Painful noise) as the male pulls out of her because a
cat's penis has a backwards-pointing penile spines, about 1 mm long and about
120–150 band; upon withdrawal, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, to
trigger ovulation.
 After mating, the female washes her vulva thoroughly. An attempt by other male to
mate with her at this point will trigger an attack.
 Subsequent mating can occur after about 20 to 30 minutes when the female has
finished grooming and the cycle will repeat.
 Because ovulation is not always triggered by a single mating, females may not be
impregnated by the first male with which they mate.
Furthermore, cats are super-fecund; that is, a female may mate with more than one
male when she is in heat, with the result that different kittens in a litter may have
different fathers.
The gestation period for cats is between 64 and 67 days, with an average of 66 days.
The size of a litter usually is three to f ive kittens, with the f irst litter usually smaller than
subsequent litters.
Kittens are weaned between six and seven weeks old, and cats normally reach sexual
maturiy at 5–10 months (females) and at 5–7 months (males), although this can vary
depending on breed.
Females usually have two to three litters sets per year.
Cats hunt small prey, primarily birds and rodents, and are often used as a form of
biological pest control especially in Poultry and grain stores.
ANIMALS IN ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN are those groups that are kept for their
economic values, aesthetic values, conservation education as well as
recreation purposes.

They include all form of Wildlife species which are either tamed or
domesticated and kept in open, restricted, and or fenced pen, cages or
paddocks.

Animals in zoo are cared for by the curators and zookeepers.

These zoos are either owned by higher educational training institution,

individual or organizations for the purpose of academic training,
conservation or profit.
 Animals in zoos are referred to as inmates because
their freedom is restricted to the four corners of their
cages.
 For those that are living within the open zoo site, they
are also restricted to the inner walls of the park
perimeter.
 The visitors, tourists or holiday makers or
excursionists visit them to satisfy their curiosity, learn
and get educated about their Natural History mostly
hfor a fee.
 Some of the wild varieties that are usually kept in
zoos and home environments are Parrots, Geese,
 ANIMALS IN EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORY or Research farms are non-
agricultural animals that are kept in facilities where they are being trained, tamed
and managed and utilized as “guinea pigs” purposely for research.

 Such facility are built with the type, classes and requirement of the animal to be
kept in mind.

 Such facilities are mainly owned by research and training institutions where
medical and other related researches is their major mandates.

 Animals in this category are either rodents, birds, reptiles f ishes non-human
primates and several other invertebrates such as Snails and insects are part of
the animals that can be kept in this facilities for research.
 ANIMALS IN KENNELS. Several species of dogs and other animal
which are kept for the purpose other than as a companion or as pets in
homes are usually kept in specialized training and breeding cages
referred to as Kennels.

 A facility for commercial breeding of non-agricultural animals that are

mainly utilized as pets are referred to as a mill or Kennel.

 Animals in this type of facility are trained for specif ic purposes. Either
as a security guard, alarmists, entertainer (Circus animals) or as a pet.
 APH 202. INTRODUCTORY ANIMAL
AGRICULTURE

GENERAL BIOLOGY, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF

COMPANION (PETS) AND THOSE IN ZOOS, RESEARCH
FACILITIES AND KENNELS.

JAYEOLA, O.A. Ph.D

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND WILDLIFE
MANAGEMENT.
FUNAAB.`
Generally, companion animal biology usually consider the following attributes

1.Their physical structure,

2.nutrition,

3.behavior, and

4.Reproduction.

5. Basic preventive health care.

6 Legal and economic issues, and

7.Ethical considerations associated with these sets of animals.

Most often they are dogs and cats, but horses, birds, rabbits, goats, gerbils, snakes, rats, mice, f ish, amphibians
and other species also share our homes and our lives.

Companion animals are our friends, confidants, and help to make the family complete.
Pets not only provide love and affection - they may even help keep us well.
In short, companion animals make us happier and healthier.
Acquiring a Companion Animal: Housing or Caging: Cage or housing systems should
provide adequate space, accommodate appropriate
oBuy a puppy bred in a puppy mill
population densities, allow animals suf ficient freedom
oPurchase bird that has been kidnapped of movement, permit normal postural adjustments and
from its natural environment or bred under include a resting place appropriate for the species being
housed.
inhumane conditions of the pet trade.
Preventive medicine areas for isolation of sick animals
o Tho se fo und i n zo o s and sev e ral
and quarantine of newly arriving animals should be
experimental laboratories or research provided where appropriate.
facilities are either purchased, seized from Special housing accommodations are sometimes

poachers, gift from friends, and exchange necessary for unusual species such as those with
unique metabolic or genetic characteristics, or special
with surplus species for the needed ones or
behavioral and/or reproductive needs.
on leaseholds.
Exercise areas, runs, or pens should be considered for
animals that will be held for long periods.
 Some primary considerations includes:
COMPANION ANIMAL CARE GUIDELINES
1.Safety: Providing a secure enclosure that
The following are general guidelines for the addresses physical safety, fear, and stress;
proper care and humane treatment of 2.Food and water: Providing easy access to
food and water;
animals in non-agricultural facilities, such
3.Biological needs: Maintaining appropriate
as humane societies, municipal animal body temperature, permitting urination and
control agencies, pet stores, boarding defecation, ensuring timely waste removal,
and , as appro priate , fac ilitating o r
kennels, dog training establishments, preventing reproduction;
grooming facilities, dealers, and veterinary 4.Cleanliness : Keeping animals dry and
clean, depending on species requirements;
hospitals and clinics.
5.Restraint: Avoiding unnecessary physical
A single set of guid elines c annot restraint; and
completely describe appropriate care for all 6.Behavior: Ensuring the animals' ability to
engage in normal species behavior.
species in all situations
Points to Note

Animals housed outdoors should have access to shelter from the whether
elements.

Caging or housing systems should be constructed of sturdy, durable materials and

be designed to maximize biosecurity.

 Surfaces should be smooth and impervious to moisture, and be designed for easy
maintenance.

The design should allow for ease of inspection of cage occupants.

Feeding and watering devices should be easily accessible for f il ling, changing,
cleaning, and servicing.

Cages, runs and pens must be kept in good shape to prevent injury, maintain
Ponits to note contd.

Sharp edges and broken wires must be eliminated, f lo ors must be kept in good
condition, and deteriorating equipment must be refurbished or replaced.

Rough surfaces or uncoated wire f lo oring in primary enclosures should be avoided

because they can lead to foot and skin trauma.

Flooring material should not f le x under weight, should accommodate footing and
resting off of open metal f loors, and may have perforations large enough to allow only
moisture and fecal waste to pass through.

Separation between food and water, urination and defecation, and resting areas should
be maximized.
Personnel – Staff selection and training.
•Staff should be screened and selected for suitable tasks
assigned and should be trained to performance their duties
optimally.
•Training must address animal, personnel, and public safety,
appropriate handling and animal restraint techniques.
•Caring for animals in captivity today is complex and involves
different f ie lds, as well as being intricately tied to species
survival in home and the wild.
•Zoos are no longer simply showcasing where animals are
presented only for entertainment of guests but a complete
home environment.
•Modern zoos work to conserve threatened and endangered
• Available career include, public relations, record-keeping, research,
conservation biology, horticulture, veterinary services, and a career
progression that may include zookeeper, senior zoo keeper, and curators.
• The biology and management of zoo animals requires a great deal of
knowledge to maintain a sustainable population of animals in captivity
and ensure their physical and mental well-being.
• It is critical to learn about the anatomy, physiology, reproduction, behavior,
and nutrition of a very wide variety of animals.
• Knowledge of Animal husbandry, handling, health management,
population management, taming, enrichment, record-keeping, and exhibit
care are all important.
• Education and guiding the public towards an appreciation of animals is a
new and critical role of the zookeeper/interpreter
 Feeding: Animals must be fed palatable and nutritionally adequate
food daily or based on their needs.
 Feeders must allow easy access to food, and soiling by urine and
feces must be prevented.
 Food must be available in suf ficient amounts to ensure growth, and
maintenance of normal body weight, reproduction, and lactation.
 Areas where food is prepared or stored must be kept clean.
 Bulk supplies of food should be stored in areas that are cool, dry,
clean, and free of vermin/Insect and ants, preferably off the floor on
pallets, racks, or carts.
 S torag e tim e m ust b e m inim ized and the m anuf ac turer's
recommendations must be followed to preserve food quality and
prevent contamination.
 Open bags of food should be stored in vermin-proof containers.
Watering: Animals must have access to fresh, potable, uncontaminated drinking water.
Watering devices such as drinking tubes and automatic waterers should be made to
work perfectly.
When water bottles are used, they should be appropriately sanitized.
 Bedding: Bedding should be appropriate, free of toxic chemicals or other substances
that could injure animals or personnel, and of a type not easily eaten by animals.
•Temperature and Humidity: Generally, for dogs and cats, the ambient temperature
should be kept above 10 degrees celsius), and below 27 degrees celsius.

•Relative humidity should range from 30 to 70%. Animals should be protected from
extreme temperatures so as to maintain their health and be comfortable in their
environment.

•When climatic conditions pose a threat to the animal’s health or well-being, taking into
consideration its age, breed, overall health status, and acclimatization, then appropriate
• Ventilation: Housing unit must be built to encourage air exchange.

• Adequate ventilation for animal facilities when ensured aid optimum performance of the animal. Room
air should not be recirculated unless it has been properly treated.

• Proper ventilation removes heat, dampness, odor, airborne microbes, and pollutant gases such as
ammonia and carbon monoxide, while allowing for the introduction of fresh air especially in Kennels,
laboratory pen and in zoos.

• If recirculating systems or other energy-recovery devices are used, these systems must be adequately
maintained.

• Areas for quarantine, isolation, or soiled equipment should be appropriately exhausted to avoid
contamination.

• Lighting: Lighting may be both natural and or artificial.

• It should be uniformly distributed in the animal facilities,

• Must be of sufficient intensity to permit good observation of animals,

• Noise: Activities that create noise with the potential to cause stress should be minimized and
conducted away from animal housing.

• Excessive noise should be minimized by training staff and by use of appropriate equipment and
facilities.

• Animals that produce levels of noise having the potential to cause stress should be housed
separately.

• Appropriate noise protection for personnel should be provided where noise levels are high.

• Social: Where group housing is appropriate, consideration should be given to behavioral and social
interactions.

• Environmental enrichment :should be appropriate to the species.

o Cleaning: All equipment and areas must be cleaned with appropriate detergents and disinfectants as
often as needed to keep them sanitary and free of debris and harmful contaminants.

o Bedding used in cages or pens should be changed as required to keep animals dry and clean.

o Animal waste should be removed at least once daily, via collection, hosing, or flushing.

o Animals should be kept dry during these procedures. Liters should be emptied from cages and pens in a
manner that minimizes exposure of animals and personnel to waste.

o Cages must be sanitized, using proper detergents followed by thorough rinsing, before animals are
placed in them.

o Animals and personnel must be protected from noxious agents. Waste cans or containers must be
cleaned and sanitized frequently.

o The facility should be cleaned in order of animal susceptibility to disease and potential risk to the
general population, starting with the most susceptible animals and ending with those who carry the
highest risk of transmitting infectious disease.
Waste Disposal: Waste must be removed regularly and frequently.

 Waste cans should be leak-proof and have tight-fitting lids.

Waste storage areas should be separate from animal housing areas and be kept free of
vermin.

Biological wastes must be stored appropriately prior to disposal.

 Vermin: A program to control, eliminate, and prevent infestation by ants and various
dangerous insects is required.

 Preventing entry is the most effective method, and may be accomplished by screening
openings, sealing cracks, and eliminating breeding and refuge sites.

When possible, relatively nontoxic compounds (e.g., boric acid) or drying substances
(e.g., amorphous silica gel) should be used to control insects.
 Identification and Record: An individual record should be prepared for each animal.

 Records should include a description of the animal, the date obtained, the source, the
length of time held, and any treatment provided together with its final disposition.

 Individual animals should be identif ied in a consistent and recordable manner (e.g.,
tags, cage cards, microchips, tattoos).

 Identif ic ation should be physically attached to the animal unless this poses a safety
hazard for the animal or staff.
 Weekend and Holiday Care: Animals must be observed and cared for by qualif ie d personnel everyday.
Procedures must be established for providing animal care during emergencies.
 Disaster Plan: A disaster plan should be prepared and rehearsed. Appropriate training for personnel
should be provided.
 Veterinary Care and Euthanasia: A program of preventive and emergency medicine
must be established by and supervised by a qualified personnel.
 Sick or injured animals must receive veterinary care promptly.
 Medications and treatments must only be administered under the advice of or in
accordance with written protocols provided by a veterinarian, and all drugs must be
dispensed in accordance with federal and state regulations.
 An emergency medical plan must be in place to provide appropriate and timely
veterinary medical care for any animal who is injured, in distress, or showing signs
of illness.
 Animals should be euthanatized when necessary only by qualif ie d personnel, in
accordance with recommendations in the Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals,
Mouse Husbandry Methods of mouse husbandry must be given considerable attention
in the emerging prominence of mouse models in contemporary research.
Mice can be raised in micro barrier cages, individually ventilated cages open top
cages etc. Flooding should be prevented when using Automatic watering systems due
to an automatic valve leaks or its continuously manipulation by the mice.
Criteria for selecting a particular system depends on ease of sanitation, ef ficiency of
operation, and intensity of oversight necessary to ensure proper function in the
decision to deploy these systems.
 Micro barrier cages are changed more frequently than open-top cages because of
ammonia accumulation.
 The average interval between changes in micro barrier cages was 5 days in small
institutions, 4 days in medium institutions, and 6 days in large institutions, with a range
of 3–7 days.
 The cost of animal care is lower in rooms that house larger numbers of animals. Since
an average of 5 mice are kept in each cage while the average number of mouse-cage
per racks in a room was 4
 Some general observations regarding cost considerations and potential savings are
expressed with respect to common areas of animal husbandry, such as cage sanitizing
, watering, and environmental enrichment, purchasing supplies, and acquiring animals.
Transferring animals to clean cages and sanitizing
primary enclosures constitute the bulk of physical labor
required in facilities with large rodent populations.
Several innovations like Individually Ventilated Cages
(IVC) show promise for minimizing costs associated with
husbandry requirements.
IVC systems saves cost by decreasing the frequency of
cage changing and increasing number of cages per
square meter of floor space.
IVCs is suitable for many facility settings and warrant
consideration as a method of cost containment in
programs dealing with large populations of mice.
Use of IVCs and certain types of bedding allow animal husbandry
programs to decrease the cage-changing frequency and still have
an acceptable micro-environment.
The labor required to process cages are significantly reduced and
have major cost saving impact on facilities housing large numbers
of rodents.
IVCs can also house many more rodents per square meter of
facility space than the traditional method of using shelf racks and
standard shoe-box cages
The cost of sanitizing caging and accessories involves more
than just wages of personnel who perform the labor.
The cage-washing area has inherent liabilities associated with
the presence of various chemicals, steam, and conditions that can
lead to repetitive-motion injuries of personnel.
 Newer, more durable polymer plastics are available for
rodent cages, with a cost that increases as the strength
and durability of the plastic at high temperature increase.
 High-temperature-resistant plastic rodent cages are
superior to standard polycarbonate cages in maintaining
transparency and resisting formation of micro f is sures
under conditions of frequent autoclaving.
 Facilities that require frequent autoclaving of rodent
cages, such as biohazard facilities or rodent barriers,
might find that the more durable high-temperature plastic
cages, which cost more, would result in savings over
time.
Water-Delivery Systems Automatic watering systems are a labour-saving
device.
Most mice housed in a variety of cage types in biomedical research
facilities are provided water via bottles to maximize efficiency.
Water bottles with screw caps or with weep holes (drilled bottles) eliminate
the need for rubber stoppers and the effort needed to insert them into
bottles, which is considerable.
The use of bottle holders with retainer lids that hold several water bottles at
once makes dumping and handling of water bottles easier and reduces
operation time.
Environmental Enrichment
The primary aim of environmental enrichment is to enhance animal well-
being by providing animals with sensory and motor stimulation, through
structures and resources that facilitate the expression of species-typical
behaviors and promote psychological well-being through physical exercise,
manipulative activities, and cognitive challenges according to species-
specific characteristics.

Examples of enrichment include structural additions such as perches and

visual barriers for nonhuman Primates, elevated shelves for cats and rabbits
and shelters for guinea pigs, as well as manipulable resources such as novel
objects and foraging devices for nonhuman primates; manipulable toys for
nonhuman primates, dogs, cats, and swine; wooden chew sticks for some
rodent species; and nesting material for mice.
Record keeping Records containing basic descriptive information are essential for
management of colonies of large long-lived animals and should be maintained for each
animal.

These records often include species, animal identif ier, sex, birth or acquisition date,
source, exit date, and final disposition.

Such animal records are essential for genetic management and historical assessments
of colonies.

Records of rearing and housing histories, mating histories, and behavioral prof iles are
useful for the management of many species, especially nonhuman primates.

Relevant recorded information should be provided when animals are transferred

between institutions.
Population Management
Identification Animal records are useful and variable, ranging from limited information
on identification cards to detailed computerized records for individual animals.

Means of animal identif ic ation include room, rack, pen, stall, and cage cards with
written, bar-coded, or radio frequency identification (RFID) information.

Identif ic ation cards should include the source of the animal, the strain or stock,
names and contact information for the responsible investigator(s), pertinent dates (e.g.
, arrival date, birth date, etc.), and protocol number when applicable.

In addition, the animals may wear collars, bands, plates, or tabs or be marked by
colored stains, ear notches/punches and tags, tattoos, subcutaneous transponders,
and freeze brands.

 As a method of identification of small rodents, toe-clipping should be used only when

no other individual identification method is feasible.
BREEDS OF LIVESTOCK
Breeds of Cattle
• Indigenous breeds of cattle

• White Fulani: The coat colour is white

with black points on the ears, muzzle,
feet and tip of tail.

• Red Fulani: They are found in Borno

and Sokoto states and Chad Republic.
Plain red coat colour, temperament
can be nervous and intractable.
• S o ko to Gud al i : T he y are
bigger than the White Fulani.
Colour varies from white, gray
white to green. Less resistant
to tick and trypanosomiasis.

• Wadara (Shuwa Arab): They

are used for milk, meat and
d ra f t p u r p o s e . C o l o u r i s
generally dark red and black. It
is a hardy (rugged) animal.
• Ndama: Colour is light brown, black.
Highly resistant to trypanosomiasis. Larger
body than other breeds that are humpless.
They are hardy breed, with a large and
strong head and with lyre-shaped horns.

• Kuri: They have gigantic bulbous horns.

They are predominantly white

• Muturu: The typical coat colour of forest

Muturu is black and that of the Savannah
Muturu is black and white. The smallest
cattle breed. They are trypanotolerant.
Exotic breeds of cattle
• Jersey: Jersey cattle are a small
breed of dairy cattle. Jerseys come in
all shades of brown, from light tan to
almost black frequently fawn in colour.

• Holstein Friesian: Large, colour is

black and white or red and white.
World’s highest producing dairy animal.

• Brown Swiss: Brown in colour. Noted

for their dairy strength, longevity,
reproduce longer than cattle of other
breeds.
 BREEDS OF GOAT IN NIGERIA


• There are three main breeds of goats in
Nigeria.
• The Sahel goat: It is found more abundantly
in the Sahel of the country. They have varying
coat colour but usually mixed black, white and
brown. They possess f ine hair coat, short ears
and long legs.

• Red Sokoto or Maradi goat: The breed is

found mainly in the north-western Nigeria but
has spread to the savannah belt of Nigeria. It
is uniformly dark red in colour Both sexes are
horned.

• West African Dwarf (WAD) goats: They are

f ou nd m a i nl y i n t h e f or e st be l t s of t h e
southern Nigeria. The breed is hardy and
trypanotolerant. They have small body sizes
and strongly set short legs. The breed is black,
brown or white or a combination of black,
Nigerian Sheep Breeds

• West African Dwarf: A predominant

breed of the humid tropics. Common in
south west Nigeria. The West African
Dwarf is a small-bodied, compact breed.
They may be all white, black, brown, or
spotted black or brown on a white coat.

• Yankasa: The Yankasa breed is the

commonest sheep in Nigeria. The body
colour is white. It has black patches
around the eyes and sometimes on the
feet. The muzzle and ears are usually
black.
• OUDA : Found in northern Nigeria.It is a
meat breed with distinctive markings. It is
easily recognised by a distinctive coat
colour pattern; entirely brown or black
forequarters and white behind. The rams
of the ouda are horned. Ewes are usually
polled.

• Balami: Balami can be found majorly in

Borno State and other areas in North-East
Nigeria. This particular sheep breed is big
and the coat/skin color is predominantly
white. Balami has a convex face; large,
droopy earlobes; and a thin, long tail.
 Breeds of Rabbit
• Dutch: It has a wide white band of fur
around its body at the shoulders as
well as a white stripe down the
middle of its face.

• New Zealand White: This breed is

used most widely throughout the
world for meat production. It is all
white in colour
• New Zealand Red: This is essentially red
but has not been intensively selected for
growth rate.

• Chinchilla: This breed is blue-grey in

colour with a white belly. There is a thick
fold of skin around the front of the chest
which is very obvious when the rabbit is in
good condition and sitting in a resting
position.

• Californian: The colour is all white but

with black tipping on the nose, ears, feet
and tail.
Breeds of Pigs
• Large white (Yorkshire) –They are
white with erect ear, and
appreciable body length. It is best
known for its large litter size and
mothering ability.

• Landrace – they are white and

possess large floppy ears and
longest body compared with any
other breed. They have large litter
size and very good mothering
ability.
• Duroc – they are sound and
vigorous, very fast growing and
profitable in production under
varying production practices. The
pigs are red to golden brown in
• Large Black –It is a long,
black pig with lop ears and
good ham and is considered
a good grazer and mother.

• Hampshire- They are a black

colour type of pig easily
recognized by a white belt
around the shoulder
including the fore-legs.
• Indigenous breed – Small in size with
a long snout, back swept ears and a
straight tail. The commonest colours
are brown with black patches, brown,
black, and black with gray or white
patches
 Module Title
Description (Department, Course Content etc)

Dr. L. T. Egbeyale

1





APH 202

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL



PRODUCTION




Terminologies in Animal
Husbandry
Dr. L. T. EGBEYALE
Term for each Animal
•Cattle – Bovine
•Sheep – Ovine
•Goat – Caprine
•Pig – Swine
•Poultry – Avian
•Horse - Equine
GENERAL TERMS IN ALL LIVESTOCK
Breed: A group of animals related by decent and are similar in most of
the characters like general appearance, size, colours, horns it is called
breed.



Environment: The sum of all external influences to which an individual
is exposed.

Gene: It is the unit of inheritance, which is transmitted in gametes or

reproductive cells. It is the physical basis of heredity.




Genotype: The complete genetic make up of an individual- or its
combination of genes it possesses which influences its characters.
Several different genotypes may.


Phenotype: The external appearance or some other overall or
measurable characteristics of an individual or it is the actual
expression of the character as determined by his genes and the
environment in which he has lived.

Cryptorchids: The failure of testes to descend fully into the
scrotum.

Foetus: A term for developing young one during last quarter of

pregnancy.

Sire: The male parent

Dam: Female parent

Yearling – an animal that is one year of age but not yet two.


Lactation period: The period after parturition in which the animal
produces milk.

Dry period: The period after lactation in which the animal does
not produce milk.




Culling: removal or killing of animal that are not productive
Reproductive terms
Service: The process in which mature male covers the female i.e.
in heat with the object to deposit spermatozoa in the female
genital tract.




Conception: The successful union of male and female gametes
and implantation of zygote.




Gestation: It is the condition of female when developing foetus is
present in the uterus.




Gestation period: The period from the date of service (actual
conception) to the date of parturition is termed as parturition
period or pregnancy period.




Parturition: The act of giving birth to young one.
Parturition terms
Cattle - Calving
Sheep – Lambing
Goat – Kidding
Pig – Farrowing
Rabbit – Kindling
Poultry - Hatching
Animal Meat


Veal: The meat of calf below the age of 3
months.




Beef: The meat of cattle past calf stage.




Pork: The meat of swine.




Mutton: The meat of sheep




Chevon: The meat of goat


 Terms for different categories of
cattle
Calf: Young one of cattle below the age
of six months




Heifer: The younger female of cattle
above age of six months to first calving.




Cow: The adult female of cattle from
the date of first calving




Bull: uncastrated male beef/dairy
animal.




Bullock: It is the castrated male of cattle
used for work.
Herd: It is a group of cattle.

Freemartin – female born twin to a bull calf, usually

sterile.

Dogie – a motherless calf

Calving interval: The period between two

successive calving
Terms for different categories of Sheep

• Ram – uncastrated male

sheep.
• Ewe – female sheep.
• Lamb – young sheep.
• Ram Lamb – male sheep
less than 12 months old.
• Ewe Lamb – female sheep
less than 12 months old.
• Wether – castrated male
sheep
• Flock: It is a group of sheep.
• Hogg: A young yearling
sheep before shearing.
Terms for different categories of Goats

Buck: Matured Male

Doe: Matured Female

Kid: New born

Goatling: Young female

Buckling: Young male

Wether: Castrated male

Flock: It is a group of Goat

Terms for different categories of Pigs
• Barrow – castrated male swine.

• Boar – uncastrated male swine.

• Sow – female swine that has had a litter

• Gilt – female swine that has not had a litter.

• Pigglet – young pig or offspring

• In-sow: Pregnant sow

• Weaner- Just weaned pig

Terms for different categories of Rabbits

Kit: Young rabbit

Buck: Adult male rabbit

Doe: Adult female rabbit

Lapin: Castrated male rabbit

Terms for different categories of Horse
Foaling: act of giving birth

Foal: young horse

Colt – A young male horse or pony, generally under 3 years of age.

Filly – female horse less than two years of age that has not had a
foal.

Mare: Adult female horse

Stallion: Adult male horse

Gelding – castrated male horse

Hinny – offspring of a stallion and a female donkey.

Jack – A male donkey.

Jenny – A female donkey, also called Jennet

Terms for different categories of Poultry
• Poultry comprises of
 domestic fowls/chicken
 Turkey
 Geese
 Duck
 Quail
 Guinea fowl
 Pigeons
Terms for different categories of Poultry
Chick: young chicken

Poult: young turkey

Keet: young guinea fowl

Duckling: young duck

Gosling: Geese
Fertility: the ability of an animal to reproduce. In the case of
poultry it is the percent of eggs set which develops an embryo

Set: the acts of placing eggs under a hen or in an incubator

Hatch: the emergency of chick from the egg shell

Fowl: any vertebrate containing wings and feathers

Hatchability: the percent of eggs set which produce a living chick

Cockerel: young male bird/chicken

Pullet: young hen

Brooding: the process of caring for young chicks

Point of lay: age at which pullet begins to lay

Cock/Rooster: a male chicken that has completed one breeding

season

Layer: bird that has started laying eggs

Broiler – young chickens raised for meat

Roasters – mature chickens used for meat

Capon – castrated male chicken

Gander: adult male goose

Tom: Adult male turkey

Drake: Mature male duck

Concentrate: Feed that is low in fibre but high in total digestible
nutrients

Roughage: Feed that is high in fibre but low in total digestible

nutrients

Ad-libitum: when animal has access to feed at all times

Ruminant herbivore: compartmented stomach animal e.g. cattle,

sheep & goat

Non ruminant herbivore: simple stomach ruminant e.g. Horse, rabbit

Non herbivore: Monogastrics















ETHICAL ISSUES SURROUNDING
KEEPING ANIMALS AS PETS

 Introduction
• Many people get companionship and great happiness by
keeping pets.
• Certain animal species (e.g. dogs and cats) have a long history
of being human companions.
• Forcing companion animals to live in a wild environment would
be morally wrong.
• There are ethical problems involved in keeping animals as pets.
 Inappropriate Environment

• birds in small cages

• fish in bowls or small tanks
• large dogs in small flats
• animals that are chained up for long period


Inappropriate Treatment

• too little, too much or wrong food

• insufficient exercise
• insufficient space
• lack of veterinary care
• lack of training - good training will give a dog
a happier and more fulfilling life


Inappropriate Treatment

• insufficient companionship - some animals need

members of their own breed around them
• failure to spend enough time with the animal
• unnatural veterinary practices like tail-docking,
castration etc. except where these benefit the animal
e.g. working dogs
• cruelty, neglect and abandonment


Inappropriate Animals

• respect for wild animals means leaving them in the wild

• private owners can rarely provide the proper conditions
for keeping some exotic animals
• domesticated animals bred for high activity or agricultural
work should not be kept idle or in small flats
• domesticated animals bred for fighting should not be
kept


Over-breeding

• some domestic animals have been bred to over-

emphasise particular characteristics to the extent
that they suffer pain or discomfort

• some domestic animals are so over-bred that they

are at greater risk of genetic defects or disease


Exploitation


• using an animal to earn money or beg
may exploit the animal and violate its
rights
• buying an animal from a 'puppy farm'
encourages others to exploit animals
• using an animal for crime is exploitation


Breeding of Homeless Animals

• homeless animals often suffer from cold, hunger, and

disease.

• they are susceptible to multiple attacks by humans.

• every new unwanted birth poses further difficulty in finding

homes for the animals, and makes it difficult for caregivers
who temporarily accommodate them.


Breeding of Homeless Animals

• homeless cats and dogs cause the deaths of

other animals, mainly those they hunt.

• homeless cats, dogs and other pet/companion

animals are more at risk of disease, attacked
by other animals (including humans) and
accidents





REGULATORY ISSUES SURROUNDING THE

USE OF COMPANION ANIMALS IN CLINICAL

INVESTIGATIONS, TRIALS, AND STUDIES








PART A

 Introduction

• A career in laboratory animal medicine involves the care and

use of
• various animal species,
• diverse experimental protocols,
• personal contacts, and
• administrative processes.

• They do not usually participate actively in the development of

new vaccines, drugs, and treatments of companion animals.
 Introduction cont’d
• They do not work in traditional companion animal settings
such as
• Animal teaching hospitals,
• Veterinary clinics, and
• Subdivisions of pharmaceutical companies devoted to
animal health research.

• They direct their efforts at the care and use of animals that
ultimately serve as research models for the human biomedical
research sector.
 Introduction cont’d

• Special breeds of dogs or cats with rare conditions may require

conduct of interventional treatment outside the laboratory
(homes, veterinary clinics, or university research settings).

• Vaccination studies are performed to optimize preventive

health care or minimize physiological variability in preventive
medicine program for dogs and cats used for research
procedures.
 Differences In Animal Use

• Use of animals for human benefit vs Use of animals for animal benefit:

• The amount of jurisdictional authority that surrounds each type of study

differs.

• Companion animal studies are subject to more regulations during the

development, testing, and final trials using veterinary procedures and
products as well as monitoring of their owners’ involvement.

• The distinction between what constitutes research, who qualifies as an

investigator, and what constitutes clinical discretion is often different
from traditional research settings.
 Differences In Animal Use cont’d

• A great number of federal authorities regulate the use of
drugs, vaccines, flea and tick products, and new veterinary
procedures in animal research.

• Animal clinical research, vaccine and drug testing, and the

regulation and monitoring of clinical trials may be subject both:
• to regulation from various federal government departments and
• to institutional-specific policies that may address issues not
completely covered by federal rules.
 Commonality of Regulatory Intent

• The following principles are common to the laboratory
animal industry and the drug development industry:

• Overall relevance of the study to human or animal

health
• Appropriate species, quality, and number to obtain
relevant results
• Appropriate care and housing; and minimization of
pain and distress, utilizing measures up to and
including humane euthanasia
• Properly trained and experienced investigators














REGULATORY ISSUES SURROUNDING THE

USE OF COMPANION ANIMALS IN CLINICAL

INVESTIGATIONS, TRIALS, AND STUDIES








PART B

 Testing New Techniques And Veterinary Methods

• Advances in companion animal care typically are the result of
cutting edge research.

• Standard minimal criteria for humane care are usually exceeded at

veterinary teaching hospitals using highly skilled/experienced
personnel in animal medicine and surgery.

• Universities must devise additional procedures to protect the

veterinary-client relationship, shield the pets from unnecessary
pain/distress, and safeguard the pet owner from consumer fraud.
 Consent Form

• The principle of informed consent is common to the use of
companion animals both in drug testing and in university
experimental, procedural, and testing validation.

• Clinical studies cannot proceed with a companion animal without

the owner’s consent.

• The owner must have information/facts about how new the

procedure/drug in question really is and the chances that the animal
might not benefit from such a new procedure.

• High rate of side effects in foundation research with the drug,

vaccine, or procedures should be discussed with the owners before
administration.
 Clinical Studies Involving Drugs

• The regulation of clinical studies involving companion animals is VERY
COMPREHENSIVE to ensure the utmost SAFETY AND EFFICACY of new
animal drugs.

• Basic research in pharmaceutical development is an activity performed in

the following sequence:
(1) using in vitro or small mammal models,
(2) using dogs or cats held as research subjects by research facilities,
and
(3) performing single or multiple centre clinical trials outside biomedical
research structures.

• The final phases of drug testing, when clinical trials are initiated, include
extensive legal discussions between pharmaceutical companies
(sponsors) and the responsible administrative centre.
 Clinical Studies Involving Drugs

• Before clinical drug trials on companion animals outside the

laboratory, preliminary work must be summarized to establish the
rational basis for further development of the drug:
• the discovery phases of the drug,
• the drug manufacturing or drug components,
• the intended use,
• the results of any laboratory animal studies and early pilot
studies.
• Final evaluation of the safety and efficacy of the drugs or techniques are
the responsibility of the animal owners
 Monitors

• Monitors of clinical trials are required during the investigational
and new animal drug approval process.

• Some veterinary teaching hospitals in which nonpharmacological

therapies are tested also establish internal monitoring committees.

• The monitors must:

• be qualified to oversee the study protocol and implement quality
assurance measures.
• be unbiased and personally contact each investigator.
• make frequent trips to the study site to ensure appropriate functioning
of the study, and
• continually record visits, actions, and correspondence with the
investigative staff and sponsor.
 Vaccine Development

• There are government agencies responsible for the pre-approval,

licensing, and policy development for companion animal vaccines. They:
• establish licensing, testing, and permit requirements and
procedures.
• provide licenses for production facilities and biological products.
• provide permits for importation of products.
• review production method, labels, and supporting data involved
in the licensing and permit process.
 Post-Marketing Surveillance

• The post-marketing period of use for common companion animal drugs,
vaccines, and new medical treatments is the most useful monitoring
process for animal clinical studies.
• Good clinical studies utilize the benefit of strong post-marketing
surveillance in an effort to seek true indices of the safety and efficacy of
new products and techniques.
• New surgical and medical techniques usually must meet the scrutiny and
selectivity of academic experts.
• This requirement and the fulfilment of the high standards shared by peer
reviewers preceding publication of new medical techniques serve as
ultimate safeguards for their eventual use in veterinary practice.
WORKING SAFETY WITH
COMPANION ANIMALS

APH 202

SOGEBI, E.A.O
A cat and dog,
The Maine Coon
 Companion Animals

●Domesticated species
– Dogs,
cats,
rabbits,
rodents,
birds
● Exotic pet species
– Reptiles,
amphibians,
small mammals,
monkeys,
– Wildlife or farm animals
● Service animals
– Remain with owner at human
shelters
A cat A Maltese puppy
Guinea pig

Pet Labrador, being petted
Margaret Gorman with her pet Greyhound in April
1925
Margaret Gorman (August 18, 1905 – October 1, 1995) is best
known for being the first Miss America, from the year 1921.
A pet rabbit
A pet hedgehog with albinism.
The Caribbean hermit crab
The Caribbean hermit crab is one example of a pet arthropod. The Caribbean hermit crab,
Coenobita clypeatus, also known as the soldier crab,[ the West Atlantic crab, the tree crab, and
[2 ]

thepurple pincher (due to the distinctive purple claw), is a species of land hermit crab native to the
west Atlantic, Bahamas, Belize, southernFlorida,[ Venezuela, the Virgin Islands, and the West
[3 ]

Indies.[ Adults burrow and hide under the roots of large trees, and can be found a considerable
[4 ]

distance inland.[
[3 ]
Katharine of Aragon with a monkey
The Girl with the Marmot
A treat for her pet
Young Lady with parrot by Édouard Manet 1866
A boy and his Rabbit
The Girl with the MarmotThe Girl with the Marmot
Signal, a Grey Arab, with a Groom in the Desert
An Elegant Lady with her Dog
The Nubian Giraffe.
Farmer Share.
Farmer and his wife in a barn with cows, spread the floor a plow,
milk boiler, a pitchfork, broom and jugs .. An open door gives a
glimpse into the living room of the farmhouse.
Hunt
The Lady with an Ermine (Stoat)
RESRAINT TOOLS AND
EQUIPMENT
Leash
Harness
Your Hand
COME-A-LONG/CONTROL POLE
Nets
Muzzles
Trucatch for cats
Trucatch for cats
Drugs
 Indications for restraint


Medical procedures
– Clinical examination
– Diagnostic procedures
– Surgical evaluation
Rescue from emergencies
- Natural disasters
- Fire outbreak
- Building collapse
Research
 Thanks for
listening!!!!
listening!!!!!
!!!!!
!!!!
 SHORT QUIZ
• Answer TRUE or FALSE
1. A digital pet is the same as a companion
animal, they serve the same purpose.
2. Companion animals had social and cultural
implications as far back as the 19 century.
th

3. One of the principle of safe animal handling

is to be aware of special stressor in the
environment
4. Companion animals are very dangerous.
5. Diseases transmitted from animals to
humans are called anthroponosis.
6. The reverse of question 4 is called zonosis.
 SHORT QUIZ
• Answer TRUE or FALSE
1. Diseases transmitted from animals to
humans are called anthroponosis.
2. The reverse of question 4 is called zonosis.
3. The number one principle of safe animal
handling is to understand animal behaviour.
4. It is good to be bold, as ‘hero’ are awarded
for being one.
5. State one restraint tool.
6. Companion animals are very dangerous.
 APH 202 : WORKING SAFETY WITH
COMPANION ANIMALS.
A pet or companion animal is an animal kept primarily for a person's company or
protection, as opposed to working animals, sport animals, livestock, and laboratory
animals, which are kept primarily for performance, agricultural value, or research.
The most popular pets are noted for their attractive appearances and their loyal or
playful personalities.

A digital pet is a type of artificial human companion. They are usually kept for
companionship or enjoyment. People may keep a digital pet in lieu of a real pet.

History of Companion animals

This has been dated back to the Victorian Era: The Rise of Pet Keeping
Pet keeping gradually became accepted throughout Britain in the seventeenth and
eighteenth century. The church deemed affection for animals as immoral and
against natural order. Divine justification implied that the purpose for animals was to
sustain humanity. Initially, aristocrats kept dogs for both companionship and hunting.
Thus, pet keeping was a sign of elitism within society. By the nineteenth century, the
rise of the middle class stimulated the development of pet keeping and it became
inscribed within the bourgeois culture.
Economy
As the popularity of pet keeping rose, animals became a fixture within urban culture
as commodities and decorative objects. Pet keeping generated a commercial
opportunity for entrepreneurs. By the mid-nineteenth century, nearly twenty thousand
street vendors in London dealt with live animals. Also, the popularity of animals
developed a demand for animal goods such as accessories and guides for pet
keeping. Pet care developed into a big business by the end of the nineteenth century.
Profiteers also sought out pet stealing as a means for economic gain. Utilizing the
affection owner’s had for their pets, professional dog stealers would capture animals
and hold them for ransom. The development of dog stealing reflects the increased
value of pets. Laws were created that punished offenders for their burglary.
Social
Pets and animals also had social and cultural implications throughout the nineteenth
century. The categorization of dogs by their breeds reflected the hierarchical, social
order of the Victorian Era. The pedigree of a dog represented the high status and
lineage of their owners and reinforced social stratification. Middle-class owners,
however, valued the ability to associate with the upper-class through ownership of
their pets. The ability to care for a pet signified respectability and the capability to be
self-sufficient. According to Harriet Ritvo, the identification of “elite animal and elite
owner was not a confirmation of the owner’s status but a way of redefining it.”

1
Entertainment
The popularity of dog and pet keeping generated animal fancy. Dog fanciers showed
enthusiasm for owning pets, breeding dogs, and showing dogs in various shows. The
first dog show took place on 28 June 1859 in Newcastle and focused mostly on
sporting and hunting dogs. However, pet owners produced an eagerness to
demonstrate their pets as well as have an outlet to compete. Thus, pet animals
gradually were included within dog shows. The first large show, which would host
one thousand entries, took place in Chelsea in 1863. The Kennel Club was created in
1873 to ensure fairness and organization within dog shows. The development of
the Stud Book by the Kennel Club defined policies, presented a national registry
system of purebred dogs, and essentially institutionalized dog shows.

Types of Companion animals

The most popular pets are likely dogs and cats, but people also keep sheep, goats,
house rabbits, ferrets; rodents such as gerbils, hamsters, chinchillas, fancy rats,
and guinea pigs; avian pets, such as canaries, parakeets, corvids and parrots; reptile
pets, such as turtles, lizards and snakes; aquatic pets, such as goldfish, tropical
fish and frogs; pleasure horses and arthropod pets, such as tarantulas and hermit
crabs. “Exotic” or wild animals are unsuited for life as family pets.
Zoonoses also spelled zoönoses; singular zoonosis (or zoönosis); are infectious
diseases of animals (usually vertebrates) that can naturally be transmitted to
humans.
Major modern diseases such as Ebola virus disease, herpes B virus, monkey pox
virus, hanta virus, Rabies disease, Leptospirosis and influenza are zoonoses. Other
zoonotic diseases include Blastomycosis, Psittacosis, Trichinosis, Histoplasmosis,
Coccidiomycosis. Zoonoses can be caused by a range of disease pathogens such
as involve animal to human transmission, like rabies, are considered direct zoonosis.
In contrast, transmission can also occur via an intermediate species
(refeviruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites; of 1,415 pathogens known to infect
humans, 61% were zoonotic. Most human diseases originated in animals; however,
only diseases that routinely irred to as a vector), which carry the disease pathogen
without getting infected. When humans infect animals, it is called reverse
zoonosis or anthroponosis.

Many exotic animals as well as wild/domestic hybrids carry pathogens readily

transmittable and potentially fatal to humans.

Uses

2
 Service dog which assists an individual who has a mobility impairment with tasks
including, but not limited to, providing balance and stability, retrieving items and
pulling wheelchairs.
 Dog Guide which assists an individual who is blind or visually impaired with tasks
such as, but not limited to, aiding in navigation and alerting the individual to
dangers such as moving cars.
 Hearing Dog which assists an individual who is deaf or hearing impaired by
alerting the individual to the presence of sounds or people.
 Alert/Response Dog which alerts an individual to a seizure or other medical
condition.
 Psychiatric Service Dog which aids an individual with a cognitive, psychiatric or
neurological disability.
 Therapy dogs, emotional support dogs and companion dogs are NOT service
dogs under the ADA.

Animal Handling and Restraint

Good animal handling skills prevent staff from being injured and reduce stress for
the animal.
Principles of Safe Animal Handling:
i. Be aware of the special stressors for animals in the clinic setting. The clinic
is extremely chaotic for any animal, there are an incredible number of smells
and other stimuli and animals are likely to be confused and distressed. Many
of our patients have lived entirely outdoors and have not been handled or
examined before. They may not have any experience on a leash and may
panic in response. Even the most social animal may exhibit aggression
toward other animals, particularly in a strange environment and may redirect
to nearby people when over-stimulated.
ii. Never put your face directly into the face of a dog or cat. Do not move in
behind or crowd around a dog. Concentrate on the animal you are handling
without being distracted by other activities.
iii. Never sit on the floor while handling/examining a dog. If the animal becomes
aggressive or aroused, you will not be able to move away or protect yourself
and risk serious facial bites. Always be prepared to protect yourself or move
away quickly in the event an animal becomes aggressive unexpectedly.
iv. Safe and effective animal handling requires a thorough understanding of the
normal behaviour and responses of each species.

v. Attention must be given to the possible development of lesions or illnesses

associated with the restraint including contusions, decubital ulcers,
dependent edema, and weight loss. If these or other problems occur, prompt
veterinary care must be provided. This may require temporary or permanent
removal of the animal from the restraint device depending upon advice of the

3
 attending veterinarian.

Some general information on animal behaviour and handling techniques.

There is no substitute, however, for careful observation and experience. If there is
any doubt about the temperament of an animal-Ask for Assistance. There are no
extra points for being a 'hero'. The safety of our staff and patients is most important!
i. Communication
Any animal exhibiting potentially aggressive behaviour should have a kennel sign
(Caution) posted to alert others who may be handling the animal. Specific alerts or
recommendations should be written on the sign and in the medical record to provide
staff and other volunteers with as much information as possible when handling the
animal.
ii. Restraint or Control
The first rule to keep in mind when handling any kind of animal is that the least
restraint is often the best restraint. This does not mean that you give up your control,
just that you use as little restraint as necessary while maintaining control of the
situation. Every animal and every situation is different so there are no hard and fast
rules as to what method works best in which situation. Before attempting to restrain
an animal you should take a moment to allow the animal to become comfortable
with you: Crouch down so that you are on their level. Do not sit on the ground as you
will be unable to move away or protect yourself if necessary. Avoid direct eye
contact but maintain safe visual contact with the animal Talk in soothing tones.
Avoid high-pitched, excited talk. Try patting your leg or the ground, motioning the
animal towards you.
Approaching an Unknown Animal
● Safety first
● Watch animal’s body language – Cues to demeanour of animals
● Approach from the side
● Avoid cornering the animal
● Avoid direct eye contact
● Expect the unexpected
Types of Restraint
i. Verbal Restraint: Many dogs know some commands or can at least
recognize authority, even if the command is unfamiliar. Commands such
as Sit, Stay, Come, Down, No or even Heel may be useful tools to
encourage a dog to cooperate. Also, soft quiet words can calm a
frightened animal. Yelling or screaming should never be used as it can
cause the animal to become more fearful or aggressive.
ii. Physical Restraint: is the use of manual or mechanical means to limit
some or all of an animal's movements for the purpose of examination,
collection of samples, drug administration, therapy or experimental
manipulation. Animals are restrained for brief periods, usually minutes.

4
 Restraint devices should be suitable in size, design, and operation to
minimize discomfort and injury to the animal. Non-human primates must
not be maintained in restraint devices unless required for health reasons
as determined by the attending veterinarian.
iii. Chemical Restraint: For animals who are too aggressive or stressed to
handle safely for procedures, sedation (state of calmness with some
drowsiness) and/or general anaesthesia may be necessary to allow
treatment. If you are unable to handle an animal, notify a staff member to
determine whether sedation is appropriate. When receiving an animal for
surgery who exhibits difficult or aggressive behaviour consult the lead-
anaesthetist prior to kenneling the animal as you may opt to administer a
pre-anaesthetic sedative immediately and expedite the surgery process to
minimize the animal’s time in the clinic.
Tools and Equipment
i. Leash: The most common tool used to handle animals in the clinic is the leash.
Placed around a dog's neck, it normally controls even the largest dog. In the event a
dog refuses to cooperate with a leash – carry him/her. Some dogs have never seen
a leash before and will freeze up to the sensation around a sensitive area like the
neck. Leashes can be abused; never drag or strangle an animal with a leash; if the
animal starts to struggle, pulling and jerking away from you, she is probably not
leash trained. Pause and let the dog calm down and try again after reassuring
her/him. Sometimes a quick tug on the leash will encourage a fearful dog to walk. If
the dog refuses to walk, apply a muzzle (if necessary) and carry her/him.
ii. Harness: When handling cats, a leash should be used as a back-up in the event
the cat should become frightened and resist restraint. Make a figure-eight harness
by looping the free end of a slip lead back through the metal ring. The looser loop is
placed around the chest behind the cat’s front legs and the other loop placed around
the neck with the metal ring/handle on top between the shoulders. This will prevent
the cat from escaping or injuring someone should she get loose from your restraint.
The harness should be put on at intake and can be left on the cat throughout their
stay. EVERY animal being transported or handled in the clinic must ALWAYS wear a
slip-lead. This includes puppies, cats and sedated animals. It is too easy for a
frightened animal to get loose and escape. Animals presented on leash/collar
should be transferred to a slip lead. A slip lead allows you to walk
your dog on leash when he's not wearing his collar.
iii. Your hand: A very effective form of restraint, your hands are sensitive to the
amount of pressure that is being exerted on the animal and can be quickly modified
to the situation. Hands can be used to gently stroke a dog or to firmly grasp a
struggling cat. Although hands can be the most versatile, they are also the most
vulnerable to injury. Recognizing when they would not be effective is very important.
iv. Towels: A towel or blanket is a very useful tool for cats and small dogs. A towel
can be used to decrease an animal’s arousal by covering the head and body and can
help protect from sharp claws.
v. Come-a-long or Control pole: The control pole is used to safely handle extremely
aggressive dogs. Used appropriately, it is an effective tool. Inappropriate or unskilled
use can cause serious injury to the animal. The control pole may further distress an
upset animal and should only be used when the handler or other's safety is genuinely

5
threatened. Volunteers are NOT to use the control pole unassisted. If an animal is
aggressive enough to warrant the use of a control pole an experienced staff member
should be consulted for assistance as the animal will also be evaluated for chemical
restraint options.
vi. Nets: The net is the primary tool used to handle fractious cats or wildlife. It allows
for the safe handling and transfer of even the most aggressive small mammal.
Effective use of the net requires some training and practice. If you need to handle a
feral or fractious cat ask for assistance from a staff member.
vii. Muzzles: Muzzles are used when a snappy or potentially aggressive dog must be
handled. There are nylon muzzles and plastic basket available. A leash or strip of
rolled gauze can be used as a temporary muzzle. Because dogs often try to remove
a muzzle, it is important that the muzzle be placed securely. A weak or poorly made
muzzle may lead to a false sense of security and the possibility of being bitten. Even
with a securely placed muzzle, appropriate handling must be used to prevent injury
from an animal who resists. Muzzles designed for cats extend up to cover the eyes,
reducing visual stimulation. For some cats these can be very useful for calming the
animal and helping to protect the handler from injury.
viii. Credo: Never Let Go. The place where correct use of restraint is the most critical
is when two people are handling the animal. This could be to perform a physical
exam, administer anaesthetic or to give medications. The "holder" is the person
whose job it is to restrain the animal in such a way that the procedure can be
accomplished with the least amount of stress to both handlers and animal. The
specific amount of restraint used to control the animal is the key to safety for the
handlers and comfort for the animal. Too much restraint can cause the animal to
fight back, too little restraint can result in the handler or others being injured or in the
animal escaping.

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