Chapter 9

Differentiation by Rule

We have seen in the previous chapter that finding derivatives from

first principles can be complicated and time consuming, even for
quite simple functions. In this chapter we introduce some formulae
for differentiating which we can use to differentiate many functions
very easily.

Differentiation facts

First we present some simple facts that can be established relatively

easily from the definition of the derivative as a limit. These all follow
from the analogous limit laws.
Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions, and that c is a
constant. Then

d df
• (cf ) = c . That is, (cf )0 = cf 0 .
dx dx

d df dg
• (f + g) = + .
dx dx dx
That is, (f + g)0 = f 0 + g 0 .

1
2 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIATION BY RULE

d df dg
• (f − g) = − .
dx dx dx
That is, (f − g)0 = f 0 − g 0 .

d f f0
It is not true, however, that (f ×g)0 = f 0 ×g 0 or that ( )
dx g
= g0
. For
products and quotients you need to use the appropriate rules below.

The Power Rule

For any real number r:

If f (x) = xr then f 0 (x) = rxr−1

That is,
d r
(x ) = rxr−1
dx

Example 1. Using the Power Rule, find the derivative of the function
f (x) = x4 .

Solution: We have r = 4, and so

f 0 (x) = 4x4−1

= 4x3 .

Combined with the facts listed above, the power rule is all we
need to differentiate polynomials and simple rational functions.

3
Example 2. Find the derivative of f (x) = 3x3 − 5x2 + 2 + .
x
 3

Solution:

Set f (x) = 3x3 − 5x2 + 2 + 3x−1

then f 0 (x) = 3 × 3x2 − 5 × 2x + 0 + 3 × −1x−2

3
= 9x2 − 10x − 2 .
x

Example 3. Differentiate the following functions:

√
(a) f (x) = x

Solution:

√ 1
f (x) = x = x2
1 1
⇒ f 0 (x) = x 2 −1
2
1 1
= x− 2
2

1
(b) f (x) =
x2

Solution:

1
f (x) = = x−2
x2
⇒ f 0 (x) = −2x−3
2
= − 3
x

1
(c) f (x) = √
3
x2
4 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIATION BY RULE

Solution:

1 2
Since f (x) = √3
= x− 3
x 2

2 2
then f 0 (x) = − x− 3 −1
3
2 5
= − x− 3
3

The Product Rule

As noted earlier. if neither f or g are constant, (f g)0 (x) 6= f 0 (x)g 0 (x).

Instead, the derivative of a product is given by the following rule
(which is known as the product rule):

(f g)0 (x) = f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x)

(as long as f and g are both differentiable functions).

This rule is often written without the variable x, and the functions
involved are often called u and v, hence:

(uv)0 = u0 v + uv 0

Proof of the Product Rule: (Not examinable.)

Let F (x) = f (x)g(x), where f and g are differentiable functions.

 5

Then
F (x + h) − F (x)
F 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
= lim
h→0 h
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x + h) + f (x)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
= lim
h→0
 h 
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim g(x + h) + f (x)
h→0 h h
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim × lim g(x + h) + lim f (x) × lim
h→0 h h→0 h→0 h→0 h
0 0
= f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)

Example 4. Find the derivative of

 
1
3
f (x) = x + 2x − 2 (3x5 + x2 − 8).
x
Solution: f is a product of u and v where

u = x3 + 2x − 1
x2
= x3 + 2x − x−2 and v = 3x5 + x2 − 8.

⇒ u0 = 3x2 + 2 + 2x−3 and v 0 = 15x4 + 2x.

By the Product Rule,

f 0 (x) = u0 v + uv 0
   
2 2 5 2 3 1
15x4 + 2x .



= 3x + 2 + 3 3x + x − 8 + x + 2x − 2
x x

The Quotient Rule

The derivative of a quotient is given by the following rule (which is
known as the quotient rule):

 0
f f 0 (x)g(x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
(x) =
g [g(x)]2
6 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIATION BY RULE

(as long as f and g are both differentiable functions).

This rule is often written without the variable x (and in terms of
u and v) as follows :

 u 0 u0 v − uv 0
=
v v2
4x2 + 7
Example 5. Find the derivative of y = .
x5 − 2x + 6
Solution: Let u = 4x2 + 7 and v = x5 − 2x + 6.
Then u0 = 8x and v 0 = 5x4 − 2.
So

dy u0 v − uv 0
= (by the quotient rule)
dx v2
8x(x5 − 2x + 6) − (4x2 + 7)(5x4 − 2)
=
(x5 − 2x + 6)2
8x6 − 16x2 + 48x − 20x6 + 8x2 − 35x4 + 14
=
(x5 − 2x + 6)2
−12x − 35x − 8x2 + 48x + 14
6 4
=
(x5 − 2x + 6)2

The Chain Rule

The chain rule is used to differentiate composite functions. It is a par-
ticularly useful rule, as it allows us to replace a complicated deriva-
tive with easier derivatives. The chain rule is as follows:
If the functions y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable,
then

dy dy du
=
dx du dx
Example 6. Differentiate y = (2x − 1)4 .
 7

Solution: We need to use the chain rule for this, but how we choose
to present it could vary.
Presentation 1:
dy du
Let u = 2x − 1, so that y = u4 . Then du
= 4u3 and dx
= 2.
Hence
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
= 4u3 × 2

= 8u3

= 8(2x − 1)3

Presentation 2:

dy d
= (2x − 1)4
dx dx
d
= 4 (2x − 1)3 × (2x − 1)
dx
= 4 (2x − 1)3 × 2

= 8 (2x − 1)3

In either version, we are using the chain rule to differentiate the

function. Presentation 1 is a little more ver-
bose, but it makes everything easier
to keep track of. This is a big advan-
Example 7. Differentiate y = (x3 + 2x)3 . tage in more complicated situations.

dy du
Solution: Let u = x3 + 2x so that y = u3 . Then du
= 3u2 and dx
=
3x2 + 2. Then
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
= 3u2 × (3x2 + 2)

= 3(x3 + 2x)2 (3x2 + 2).

8 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIATION BY RULE

 9
x−2
Example 8. Differentiate y = .
2x + 1

Solution: We have

 8  
dy x−2 d x−2
= 9 ×
dx 2x + 1 dx 2x + 1
8  0
u v − uv 0
 
x−2
= 9 ×
2x + 1 v2
where u = x − 2 and v = 2x + 1
 8  
dy x−2 (1)(2x + 1) − (x − 2)(2)
∴ = 9 ×
dx 2x + 1 (2x + 1)2
 8  
x−2 2x + 1 − 2x + 4
= 9 ×
2x + 1 (2x + 1)2
 8
x−2 5
= 9 ×
2x + 1 (2x + 1)2
45(x − 2)8
= .
(2x + 1)10

√
Example 9. Differentiate f (x) = x2 2x + 5.

√ 1
Solution: Let u = x2 and v = 2x + 5 = (2x + 5) 2 .
1
Then u0 = 2x and v 0 = 12 (2x + 5)− 2 × 2 = √ 1
2x+5
.
By the product rule,

f 0 (x) = u0 v + uv 0
√ x2
= 2x 2x + 5 + √
2x + 5
 9

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Recall, from Chapter 7, that
sin x
lim = 1,
x→0 x

We shall use this fact to obtain formulae for differentiating the

trigonometric functions.
Our first derivative is:

f (x) = sin x

⇒ f 0 (x) = cos x

Proof. (Not examinable.)

First note that
 
cos h − 1 cos h − 1 cos h + 1
lim = lim ×
h→0 h h→0 h cos h + 1
2
cos h − 1
= lim
h→0 h(cos h + 1)

− sin2 h
= lim
h→0 h(cos h + 1)
sin h − sin h
= lim × lim
h→0 h h→0 cos h + 1
0
= 1×
1+1
= 0.

Hence

sin(x + h) − sin x
(sin(x))0 = lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
cos x sin h sin x(cos h − 1)
= lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h
sin h cos h − 1
= cos x lim + sin x lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= cos x × 1 + sin x × 0 (using the results from above)

= cos x.
10 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIATION BY RULE

A similar calculation gives

f (x) = cos x

⇒ f 0 (x) = − sin x

Example 10. Find the derivative of y = x2 sin x.

Solution: Let u = x2 and v = sin x.

Then u0 = 2x and v 0 = cos x.
By the product rule,

dy
= u0 v + uv 0
dx
= 2x sin x + x2 cos x

Example 11. Find the derivative of y = cos3 x.

Solution:

Since y = (cos x)3

dy
we have = 3(cos x)2 × − sin x
dx
= −3 cos2 x sin x.

Example 12. By applying the quotient rule, together with the differentiation
rules for sin x and cos x, show that the derivative of tan x is sec2 x
 11

sin x
Solution: We have f (x) = .
cos x
Let u = sin x and v = cos x.
Then u0 = cos x and v 0 = − sin x.
By the Quotient Rule,

u0 v − uv 0
f 0 (x) =
v2
cos x × cos x − sin x × − sin x
=
(cos x)2
cos2 x + sin2 x
=
cos2 x
1
=
cos2 x
 2
1
=
cos x
= (sec x)2

= sec2 x.

Example 13. Find the derivative of y = sin(2x).

Solution:

d d
sin (2x) = cos (2x) × (2x)
dx dx
= 2 cos (2x) .

Derivatives of Exponential Functions

Consider the exponential function f (x) = ax , where a > 0.

12 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIATION BY RULE

Then

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
x+h
a − ax
= lim
h→0 h
ax ah − ax
= lim
h→0 h
x h
a (a − 1)
= lim
h→0 h
h
a −1
= ax lim .
h→0 h
2h − 1
• It can be shown that lim ≈ 0.693
h→0 h
h
2 −1
(obtained by finding on a calculator when h = ±0.00001).
h
Thus, if f (x) = 2x then

2h − 1
f 0 (x) = 2x × lim
h→0 h
x
≈ 2 × 0.693

3h − 1
• Similarly, it can be shown that lim ≈ 1.0986
h→0 h
3h − 1
(obtained by finding on a calculator when h = ±0.00001).
h
Thus, if f (x) = 3x then

3h − 1
f 0 (x) = 3x × lim
h→0 h
x
≈ 3 × 1.0986

It seems likely that there should exist a number a between 2 and

3 such that
ah − 1
lim = 1.
h→0 h
This number a would satisfy

f (x) = ax ⇒ f 0 (x) = ax × 1 = ax .
 13

This number does, in fact, exist and is approximately 2.7182818.

It is known as Euler’s number and denoted by e. That is, the number
e satisfies
eh − 1
lim = 1.
h→0 h

Thus we have the following result:

d x
e = ex
dx

This is the only non-constant function which is its own derivative.

Example 14. Find the derivative of y = e2x .

Solution:

dy d 2x

= e
dx dx
d
= e2x × (2x)
dx
= e2x × 2

= 2e2x

2
Example 15. Find the derivative of y = e−x .

Solution: Let u = −x2 so that y = eu . Then

dy dy du
=
dx du dx
= eu × −2x
2
= −2xe−x
14 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIATION BY RULE

Example 16. Find the derivative of y = xex .

Solution: Let u = x and v = ex .

Then u0 = 1 and v 0 = ex .
By the product rule,

dy
= u0 v + uv 0
dx
= ex + xex

= (1 + x)ex

Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

We can use the derivative of the exponential function to find the

derivative of the logarithm function. To do this, recall that the loga-
rithmic and exponential functions are inverses. i.e.

loga (ax ) = aloga (x) = x.

and in particular,

eln(x) = x

Differentiating both sides of this equation

d ln(x)

e =1
dx

To calculate the derivative of the left hand side of the equation we

 15

need to use the chain rule:

d ln(x)
d d
e = (ln(x)) eu = 1 where u = ln(x)
dx dx du
d d u
⇐⇒ (ln(x)) eu = 1 since (e ) = eu .
dx du
d
⇐⇒ (ln(x)) eln(x) = 1
dx
d
⇐⇒ (ln(x)) x = 1
dx
So
d 1
(loge (x)) = .
dx x

Example 17. Find the derivative of y = ln(x2 + x).

Solution:
dy 1
= 2 × (2x + 1)
dx x +x
2x + 1
= .
x2 + x

It is always worth considering whether the function you’re us-

ing can modified to make the differentiation easier. In the case of
logarithmic functions, you can often avoid having to use the chain,
product or quotient rules by using the log laws first.

Example 18. Find the derivative of y = ln(3x).

dy 1 1
Solution: Method 1: = ×3= .
dx 3x x
Method 2: Using a Log Law, we have

y = ln 3 + ln x
dy 1
=⇒ = 0+
dx x
1
= .
x
16 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIATION BY RULE

x2 + 1
 
Example 19. Find the derivative of y = ln .
x6 + 5
Solution: Method 1:

x2 + 1
 
dy 1 d
= x2 +1
×
dx x6 +5
dx x6 + 5
x + 5 2x(x6 + 5) − 6x(x2 + 1)
6
= ×
x2 + 1 (x6 + 5)2
2x(x6 + 5) − 6x(x2 + 1)
=
(x2 + 1)(x6 + 5)
2x(x6 + 5) 6x(x2 + 1)
= −
(x2 + 1)(x6 + 5) (x2 + 1)(x6 + 5)
2x 6x5
= 2 − 6
x +1 x +5

Method 2: Using a Log Law, we can write

y = ln(x2 + 1) − ln(x6 + 5).

dy 1 1
Thus = 2 × (2x) − 6 × (6x5 )
dx x +1 x +5
2x 6x5
= 2 − 6 .
x +1 x +5