1. Describe the purpose of communication protocols.

Describe the purpose of communication

protocols.
Communication protocols are like rules that devices follow when they talk to each other in a network.
They help devices connect, format data, find the right path for information, fix errors, and keep data
safe. Protocols also make sure different devices can understand each other, even if they come from
different brands. Overall, communication protocols make sure data is sent and received properly in a
network.

2. Describe the function of DHCP?

DHCP is a smart network tool that automatically gives devices their unique IP addresses and
other essential settings when they connect to the network. It saves time by managing all this
on its own, so administrators don't have to set up each device individually. This helps keep
the network running smoothly and prevents conflicts between devices. DHCP also allows for
easy updates and changes across the entire network from a central server. In a nutshell,
DHCP makes it easy for devices to join and work together on a network without any manual
fuss.

3. What is a multi-core processor and how it works.

Multi-core processors are CPUs with multiple independent processing units, called cores,
inside a single chip. These cores work together to handle tasks simultaneously, improving
overall performance and efficiency. The operating system assigns tasks to each core, and they
can execute different tasks at the same time. This makes multi-core processors faster and
better at multitasking than single-core CPUs. They are widely used in modern devices and
computers to provide faster and more responsive computing experiences.

How it improves performances?

"A multicore processor improves performance by doing many tasks at once. Each core can
handle different tasks simultaneously, making the computer faster and better at multitasking.
The operating system spreads the work across the cores, ensuring efficiency. Multicore
processors are energy-efficient and provide a smooth computing experience, even with
demanding applications. They are essential in modern devices for faster and more responsive
performance

4.Explain what is meant by Network Performance Monitoring?

Network Performance Monitoring (NPM) is all about continuously checking how well a
computer network is working. It involves using tools and metrics to measure things like
speed, data loss, and delays in the network. By doing this, administrators can find and fix any
problems early on, ensuring that the network runs smoothly and efficiently. NPM also helps
with planning for the network's future needs and making sure critical services and
applications get the resources they need. Additionally, it can help detect security threats and
optimize the network for better performance. Overall, NPM is essential for keeping the
network running well and providing a good experience for users and applications.

5. Explain the purpose of Wide Area Networks.

Wide Area Networks (WANs) serve to connect distant locations together. They enable
communication and data sharing between offices, branches, and facilities spread across large
areas, like cities or countries. WANs help organizations work together seamlessly, access
shared resources, and use central servers for easier management. They also support global
connectivity for multinational companies and provide access to cloud services. Overall,
WANs enhance collaboration, data transfer, and resource utilization across different sites of
an organization, making it easier for remote users to connect and work efficiently.

6.Explain THREE advantages and THREE disadvantages of laser printers in

comparison with ink jet printer

Advantages of Laser Printers over Inkjet Printers:

 Speed: Laser printers are faster, making them great for high-volume printing.
 Print Quality: Laser printers produce sharp text and graphics, perfect for formal
documents.
 Cost per Page: Laser printers have lower cost per page for large print jobs.
Disadvantages of Laser Printers compared to Inkjet Printers:
 Initial Cost: Laser printers are more expensive upfront.
 Size and Bulk: Laser printers are larger and may take up more space.
 Limited Media Compatibility: Laser printers are not as versatile for different paper
types and specialty media.

7.Characteristics of Biometric Security Systems:

 Uniqueness: Biometric traits are distinct to each individual and can't be easily
duplicated or altered.
 Non-Transferable: Biometric data resides within the person and can't be shared or
stolen like passwords or cards.
 Accuracy: Biometric systems can combine multiple traits for high accuracy, reducing
false results and enhancing security.

Disadvantages of Biometric Systems:

 Privacy Concerns: Raises worries about personal data protection and potential misuse.
 False Acceptance and Rejection: System errors can lead to unauthorized access or
denial for authorized users.
 Cost and Infrastructure: Implementation can be costly, requiring specialized hardware
and upgrades.
8.Describe how malware can affect a system’s reliability and performance
Impact of Malware on System:
 System Instability: Malware disrupts normal functions, leading to crashes and errors.
 Slow Processing: Malware consumes resources, causing the system to run slower.
 Network Congestion: Malware spreads through networks, slowing down internet
speed.
 Longer Boot Time: Malware adds to startup processes, increasing boot time.
 Annoying Ads: Malware shows intrusive ads, distracting users.
 Data Loss: Malware can delete or corrupt data.
 Unauthorized Access: Malware can steal sensitive information.
 Resource Drain: Malware uses resources, causing heat and battery issues.

9. Explain and differentiate between physical, virtual, and logical memory

Physical Memory:
 Actual hardware (RAM) that temporarily stores data while the computer is running.
 Fast but volatile (content lost when computer is off).
 Holds data used by CPU during program execution.
Virtual Memory:
 Technique extending usable memory beyond physical RAM.
 Uses a portion of the hard disk as an extension of physical memory.
 Helps run larger programs and multiple programs simultaneously.
Logical Memory:
 Total addressable memory available to a process or application.
 Includes both physical (RAM) and virtual memory.
 Provides an abstraction layer for independent program execution.

10.Why is main memory not suitable for permanent program storage or backup
purposes?

Main Memory also known as RAM is Unsuitability for Permanent Storage:

 Volatility: RAM is volatile, data lost when power off.
 Limited Capacity: RAM is small compared to storage devices.
 Speed vs. Persistence: RAM is fast but lacks data persistence.
For Permanent Storage, use non-volatile storage devices like hard drives or SSDs.

1. What is the main disadvantage to storing information on a magnetic disk

drive as opposed to main memory?

Magnetic Disk Drive:

 Slower access speed due to mechanical movement.
Main Memory (RAM):
 Faster access speed as there are no moving parts.
11. Explain why data fragments in memory and how both internal and external
fragmentation can occur

Data Fragmentation in Memory:

 Data fragments when free memory spaces are scattered instead of contiguous.
 Internal Fragmentation:
 Wasted space within allocated memory blocks.
 Occurs when the data is smaller than the block size.
 External Fragmentation:
 Enough total free memory but divided into non-contiguous chunks.
 Can't find a single continuous block for memory requests.
 Both cause inefficiencies and slow memory access.

12. Explain the purpose of the OSI model

Purpose of the Open Systems Interconnection Model:

 Standardization for communication between different systems.
 Layered architecture simplifies design and troubleshooting.
 Promotes interoperability among diverse networking technologies.
 Helps in understanding and developing communication protocols.
 Facilitates modularity and flexibility in network evolution.

Briefly describe each of the SEVEN layers of the OSI model.

OSI Model Layers:

Physical Layer:
 Deals with physical transmission (cables, switches)
 Handles electrical and mechanical aspects.
Data Link Layer:
 Ensures reliable data transfer on the same network.
 Manages addressing and access to the network medium.
Network Layer:
 Routes data between different networks.
 Uses logical addressing (IP addresses).
Transport Layer:
 Manages end-to-end communication between hosts.
 Provides reliable data delivery (TCP) or faster but unreliable (UDP).
Session Layer:
 Establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions.
 Handles synchronization and recovery.
Presentation Layer:
 Translates data formats for compatibility.
 Manages encryption and data formatting.
Application Layer:
 Provides network services directly to end-users and applications.
 Interacts with applications and manages user interfaces.

Discuss the organisation and purpose of the data link layer and examples of
transmission protocols
Data Link Layer:
 Purpose: Ensures reliable data transmission between directly connected devices.
 Objectives: Link establishment/termination, framing, error detection/correction, flow
control, MAC control.
Examples of Transmission Protocols:
 Ethernet:
 Used in LANs, CSMA/CD for shared medium access.
 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11):
 Wireless LANs, variations of CSMA for wireless medium.
 HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control):
 WANs, synchronous, reliable transmission.
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol):
 Point-to-point connections, authentication, error detection.
 SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol):
 Serial connections, older dial-up links.
 Frame Relay:
 Packet-switched networks, efficient data encapsulation.

13.Describe THREE common types of cyber-attack.

Common Types of Cyber-Attacks:
Phishing Attacks:
 Trick individuals to share sensitive info through fake emails or websites.
 Can lead to identity theft and financial fraud.
Malware Attacks:
 Malicious software infects and harms computer systems.
 Can steal data, disrupt operations, or demand ransom (ransomware).
DDoS Attacks:
 Overwhelm target's online services with excessive traffic.
 Makes the service unavailable to legitimate users.

Explain how the attacks could be prevented.

Preventing Cyber-Attacks:
Phishing Attacks:
 Educate users to spot suspicious emails and websites.
 Use email filters to block phishing attempts.
 Apply Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) for added security.
Malware Attacks:
  Install and update antivirus software regularly.
 Keep software up to date with security patches.
 Limit user permissions to prevent unauthorized installations.
DDoS Attacks:
 Employ traffic filtering and content delivery networks.
 Set rate limits on incoming traffic.
 Use anomaly detection to identify unusual traffic.

14. Describe the function of the following devices with the help of a diagram:
Switch, Router.
Switch:
Function:
 Forwards data packets within a local network (LAN).
 Uses MAC address table to determine where to send packets.
 Enables direct communication between devices in the LAN.

Router:
Function:
 Connects multiple networks and directs data packets between them.
 Uses IP addresses and routing table for intelligent packet forwarding.
 Enables communication between devices across different networks.

15.Describe SIX points to explain the purpose and functions of an operating

system.

Purpose and Functions of an Operating System:

Resource Management:
 Manages computer resources like CPU, memory, and peripherals.
 Allocates resources efficiently to different applications.
Process Management:
 Oversees the execution and termination of processes (programs).
 Schedules tasks to enable multitasking.
Memory Management:
 Handles allocation and deallocation of memory to processes.
 Uses virtual memory to run large programs.
File System Management:
 Organizes and stores files on disk drives.
 Regulates access and provides data security.
User Interface:
 Provides user-friendly interaction with the system.
 Offers command-line or graphical interfaces.
Device Management:
 Controls input/output devices (printers, keyboards).
 Enables smooth data transfer between devices and CPU.
16.Describe each of the following:
a) RS Flip-Flop
b) JK Flip-Flop
c) D Flip-Flop

a) RS Flip-Flop:
 Simple digital circuit with Reset (R) and Set (S) inputs.
 Has outputs: Q and Q̅ .
 Q changes to 1 when R=0 and S=1.
 Q changes to 0 when R=1 and S=0.
 Retains previous state for R=0 and S=0.
 Invalid for R=1 and S=1.
b) JK Flip-Flop:
 Advanced version of RS flip-flop with J and K inputs.
 Has outputs: Q and Q̅ .
 Q changes based on J, K, and clock signal.
 J=0, K=1 resets Q to 0.
 J=1, K=0 sets Q to 1.
 J=0, K=0 retains previous state.
 J=1, K=1 toggles Q (0 to 1, or 1 to 0).
c) D Flip-Flop:
 Has single data input (D) and clock input.
 Outputs: Q and Q̅ .
 Q changes based on D and clock signal.
 On rising clock edge, Q copies D value.
 Retains previous state on clock 0.

17.Explain the concept of cyber security.

Cybersecurity:
 Protects computer systems, networks, and data.
 Ensures confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information.
 Involves authentication, authorization, and intrusion detection.
 Addresses vulnerabilities and promotes security awareness.
 Requires continuous monitoring and incident response.
Three Methods to Safeguard Your Computer from Viruses:
Install Antivirus Software:
 Install reputable antivirus software.
 Keep it updated with the latest virus definitions.
  Schedule regular system scans.
Keep OS and Software Updated:
 Regularly update operating system and software.
 Apply security patches to address vulnerabilities.
 Enable automatic updates for convenience.
Exercise Caution Online:
 Be cautious when clicking links or downloading files.
 Avoid unfamiliar websites and emails.
 Stay away from suspicious pop-ups and ads.

18. Describe the characteristics of single core and multicore processors

Single Core Processor:

 Executes one task at a time.
 Relies on clock speed for performance.
 Limited multitasking, switches between tasks.
 Generates less heat, simpler design.
 Older technology, less common now.
Multicore Processor:
 Handles multiple tasks simultaneously.
 Allows parallel processing for better performance.
 Efficient multitasking, each core manages tasks.
 Offers better power efficiency and scaling.
 Common in modern devices for improved performance.

Discuss the limits of Moore’s law

Limits of Moore's Law:
 Physical Constraints: Transistors approach atomic levels, affecting reliability and
predictability.
 Heat Dissipation: More transistors lead to increased heat, requiring better cooling
solutions.
 Power Consumption: Rising transistor count results in higher energy consumption.
 Economic Factors: Developing high-transistor chips becomes costly.
 Technological Hurdles: Lithography faces physical limitations.
 Diminishing Returns: Transistor growth may not directly translate to performance
gains.
 Shift in Focus: Focus shifts to multi-core and specialized architectures.

19.Describe the concept of Cloud Computing.

Cloud computing is a paradigm in information technology that enables users to access and
use computing resources over the internet on a pay-as-you-go basis. Instead of owning
physical hardware and software, users can utilize virtualized resources hosted on remote data
centers owned and managed by cloud service providers.
  Access computing resources over the internet.
 On-demand self-service for users.
 Broad network access from any device.
 Resource pooling for efficient usage.
 Rapid elasticity for quick scaling.
 Pay-as-you-go billing based on usage.
 Deployment models: public, private, hybrid.
 Benefits: cost savings, scalability, flexibility, reliability.

With the support of ONE example each, discuss THREE models of cloud
computing
Deployment Models of Cloud Computing:
Public Cloud:
Services are provided over the internet and shared among multiple users. It is cost-effective
and offers flexibility, but data security concerns may arise as resources are shared with
others.
Private Cloud:
Resources are dedicated to a single organization and hosted within their own data centers or
through a third-party provider. It provides more control and security but may involve higher
initial costs.
Hybrid Cloud:
Combines elements of public and private clouds to achieve a balance between cost-
efficiency, scalability, and data control. Organizations can choose where to host specific
resources based on their requirements.

20.Indicate the role of the following in the implementation of multitasking:

a) Interrupts
b) Concurrency
c) Scheduling and timers

a) Interrupts:
 Role: Pauses current process, switches to another task.
 How: Hardware or software signals trigger interrupts.
 Purpose: Helps operating system manage multitasking efficiently.
b) Concurrency:
 Role: Enables simultaneous task execution.
 How: Time-sharing on single-core or multi-core processors.
 Purpose: Creates illusion of tasks running in parallel.
c) Scheduling and Timers:
 Role: Manages process execution and resource allocation.
 How: Scheduling algorithms and timers.
 Purpose: Ensures fair and efficient multitasking.

21.All digital systems are constructed from two types of component:
combinational logic element (i.e. gates) and sequential elements (i.e. flip flops).
Describe the fundamental difference between these TWO circuit elements and
explain why both types are needed to construct a digital computer

Logic Gates:
 Purpose: Perform logical operations (AND, OR, NOT) on binary inputs.
 Function: Process and manipulate binary data.
Flip-Flops:
 Purpose: Store binary values and maintain state until changed.
 Function: Store data and maintain digital circuit states.
Why Both Are Needed:
 Logic gates perform computations and control data flow.
 Flip-flops store results, intermediate values, and memory states.
 Together, they enable efficient data processing and storage in digital computers.

Explain the difference between the following flip-flops: i) D flip-flop; ii) RS

flip-flop.
D Flip-Flop:
 Purpose: Stores one bit of data (0 or 1) from input (D).
 Operation: Transfers input to output on clock pulse.
 Input: Has a single input (D).
RS Flip-Flop:
 Purpose: Stores one bit with Reset (R) and Set (S) inputs.
 Operation: Changes output based on R and S states.
 Input: Has two inputs (R and S).
Difference:
 Inputs: D has one input, RS has two (R and S).
 Operation: D transfers input to output on clock pulse, RS changes output based on R
and S states.
 Simplicity: D is simpler with one input, RS requires careful handling to avoid invalid
state (R=1, S=1).
 Function: D used for data storage and transfer, RS for control and latch-like behavior.

What is meant by system performance and how it is measured?

System Performance:
 Definition: Efficiency and effectiveness of a computer system's tasks and results.
 Importance: Impacts user experience, productivity, and workload handling.
Measurement of System Performance:
  Response Time: Time to respond to user requests or commands.
 Throughput: Rate of completing tasks or transactions.
 CPU Utilization: Percentage of time the CPU is busy.
 Memory Usage: Amount of RAM currently in use.
 Disk I/O Performance: Speed of reading/writing to storage.
 Network Performance: Efficiency of data transfer in the network.
 Benchmarking: Standardized tests to compare performance.
 Real-world Workloads: Measuring time for specific tasks or applications.

What is the purpose and use of benchmarking?

Purpose and Use of Benchmarking:
 Purpose: Measure and evaluate computer system performance.
 Benefits: Compare with standards, identify bottlenecks, optimize, validate changes,
aid selection, assure quality.
 Uses: Hardware selection, software performance evaluation, gaming, data centers,
network optimization, mobile devices.

Definition and description Purpose:

Router:
 Purpose: Connect and direct data traffic between different networks.
 Function: Determines the best path for data packets using routing tables and
protocols.
Bridge:
 Purpose: Connect and segment different parts of a LAN.
 Function: Forwards data frames selectively based on destination MAC addresses.
Switch:
 Purpose: Connect multiple devices within a local network.
 Function: Uses MAC addresses to create dedicated communication paths for efficient
data transmission.

Anti-virus Software:
 Purpose: Detects and removes viruses from the computer.
 Function: Protects data and system integrity.
Anti-spyware:
 Purpose: Detects and removes spyware.
 Function: Preserves user privacy.
Access Control List (ACL):
  Purpose: Controls user access to resources.
 Function: Enhances system security.
Pop-up Blocker:
 Purpose: Prevents unwanted pop-up windows.
 Function: Improves browsing experience and reduces risks.

Peripheral Polling:
 Purpose: CPU checks peripheral devices for attention or data transfer.
 Explanation: CPU repeatedly queries peripherals, may cause inefficiency.
DMA (Direct Memory Access):
 Purpose: Allows certain hardware devices direct access to memory.
 Explanation: Devices access memory without involving CPU, faster data transfer.
I/O (Input/Output):
 Purpose: Interaction between computer and external devices.
 Explanation: Involves input from users and output to peripherals.
Display Driver:
 Purpose: Enables OS to control graphics hardware.
 Explanation: Translates OS commands to GPU for correct display.

Register Storage:

 Explanation: Fast, small internal memory in CPU for temporary data and instructions.
 Example: Holds operands and results during arithmetic calculations.
Permanent Disk Storage:

 Explanation: Long-term, non-volatile memory for permanent data storage.

 Example: Hard disk drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs) retain files even when the
computer is powered off.


Virtualization:
 Purpose: Create virtual representations of computing resources.
 Uses: Server virtualization, desktop virtualization, application virtualization, network
virtualization, storage virtualization, testing, and development.
Cloud Computing:
 Purpose: Access shared computing resources over the internet.
 Uses: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), Software as a
Service (SaaS), scalability, remote collaboration, backup, and disaster recovery

Program Counter (PC):

 Explanation: Holds the memory address of the next instruction to be executed.
 Function: Guides CPU to the next instruction during program execution.
Memory Address Register (MAR):
  Explanation: Stores the memory address of data or instructions.
 Function: Facilitates communication between CPU and memory for data access.
Memory Buffer Register (MBR):
 Explanation: Temporarily holds data fetched from or sent to memory.
 Function: Facilitates smooth data transfer between CPU and memory during read and
write operations.

Explain the purpose of each of the following commands:

FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

 Purpose: Transfer files between client and server over a network.
 Function: Upload, download, and manage files on remote servers.
Pathping:
 Purpose: Network diagnostic command in Windows.
 Function: Tests network path, measures packet loss, and latency.
Tracert (Traceroute):
 Purpose: Trace route from source to destination on IP network.
 Function: Shows routers or hops, measures latency, identifies issues.
Netstat (Network Statistics):
 Purpose: Command-line network utility for network information.
 Function: Displays active connections, ports, and network statistics.

Quad-Core Processor:
 Explanation: CPU with four independent processing cores on a single chip.
 Example: Intel Core i5-11400F.
Display Resolution:
 Explanation: Number of pixels a screen can display.
 Example: Full HD (1920x1080).
Hard Drive Capacity:
 Explanation: Amount of data a storage drive can hold.
 Example: 1TB (1,000 gigabytes).


aBandwidth:
 Explanation: Maximum data transfer rate of a network.
 Example: 100 Mbps (megabits per second).
Latency:
  Explanation: Time delay in data transfer.
 Example: Delays in online gaming.
Collision:
 Explanation: Data clash in a network.
 Example: Simultaneous data transmission causing packet loss.


Describe THREE advantages and THREE disadvantages of the following

technology

WiFi:
Advantages:
 Wireless convenience - no cables.
 Mobility - use devices anywhere in coverage.
 Easy setup - no extensive wiring.
Disadvantages:
 Limited range - weak signal over distance.
 Interference - disruptions from other devices.
 Security risks - vulnerable to unauthorized access.

Broadband:

Advantages:
 High-speed internet - faster than dial-up.
 Always-on connection - no need to dial in.
 Multiple device support - shared connectivity.
Disadvantages:
 Cost - can be expensive.
 Availability - limited in some areas.
 Potential interruptions - service outages.

RAM (Random Access Memory):

 Function: Stores data for immediate CPU access.
 Purpose: Enables efficient multitasking and running applications.
Cache:
 Function: Holds frequently accessed data for fast CPU retrieval.
 Purpose: Enhances system performance by reducing data access time.
SSD (Solid-State Drive):
 Function: Uses flash memory for data storage.
 Purpose: Improves system speed and reliability compared to traditional HDDs.

SSL (Secure Sockets Layer):

 Function: Secures data transmission on the internet.
 Purpose: Encrypts data for protection during communication.

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):

 Function: Ensures secure data transfer for websites.
 Purpose: Combines HTTP with encryption (SSL/TLS).
FTPS (File Transfer Protocol Secure):
 Function: Secures file transfer over networks.
 Purpose: Adds encryption (SSL/TLS) to FTP for protection.