Computer Hardware Memory Chapter -5

Memory
The memory holds instructions, data that needs to be
processed and the results. It is divided into two types,
Primary memory is the main memory on the
motherboard of the computer, and Secondary memory
is the storage media used to store the program or data
permanently. The primary memory is of two types :
ROM and RAM

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a type of memory that normally can only be read, as opposed to RAM which can
be both read and written. There are two main reasons that read-only memory is used for
certain functions within the PC:

The values stored in ROM are always there, whether the power is on or not. A ROM can
be removed from the PC, stored for an indefinite period of time, and then replaced, and
the data it contains will still be there. For this reason, it is called non-volatile storage. A
hard disk is also non-volatile, for the same reason, but regular RAM is not.

Read-only memory is most commonly used to store system-level programs that we want
to have available to the PC at all times. The most common example is the system BIOS
program, which is stored in a ROM called the system BIOS ROM. Having this in a
permanent ROM means it is available when the power is turned on so that the PC can use
it to boot up the system.

The following are the different types of ROMs with a description of their relative
modifiability:

• ROM: A regular ROM is constructed from hard-wired logic, encoded in the

silicon itself, much the way that a processor is. It is designed to perform a specific
function and cannot be changed. This is inflexible and so regular ROMs are only
used generally for programs that are static (not changing often) and mass-
produced. This product is analogous to a commercial software CD-ROM that you
purchase in a store.
• Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type of ROM that can be programmed
using special equipment; it can be written to, but only once. This is useful for
companies that make their own ROMs from software they write, because when
they change their code they can create new PROMs without requiring expensive
equipment. This is similar to the way a CD-ROM recorder works by letting you
"burn" programs onto blanks once and then letting you read from them many
times. In fact, programming a PROM is also called burning, just like burning a
CD-R, and it is comparable in terms of its flexibility.

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• Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): An EPROM is a ROM that can be

erased and reprogrammed. A little glass window is installed in the top of the
ROM package, through which you can actually see the chip that holds the
memory. Ultraviolet light of a specific frequency can be shined through this
window for a specified period of time, which will erase the EPROM and allow it
to be reprogrammed again. Obviously this is much more useful than a regular
PROM, but it does require the erasing light. Continuing the "CD" analogy, this
technology is analogous to a reusable CD-RW.
• Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): The next level of eras
ability is the EEPROM, which can be erased under software control. This is the
most flexible type of ROM, and is now commonly used for holding BIOS
programs. When you hear reference to a "flash BIOS" or doing a BIOS upgrade
by "flashing", this refers to reprogramming the BIOS EEPROM with a special
software program. Here we are blurring the line a bit between what "read-only"
really means, but remember that this rewriting is done maybe once a year or so,
compared to real read-write memory (RAM) where rewriting is done often many
times per second!

Finally, one other characteristic of ROM, compared to RAM, is that it is much slower,
typically having double the access time of RAM or more.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

The kind of memory used for holding programs and data being executed is called random
access memory or RAM. RAM differs from read-only memory (ROM) in that it can be
both read and written. It is considered volatile storage because unlike ROM, the contents
of RAM are lost when the power is turned off. Obviously, RAM needs to be writeable in
order for it to do its job of holding programs and data that you are working on. The
volatility of RAM also means that you risk losing what you are working on unless you
save it frequently.

There are many different types of RAMs, including static RAM (SRAM) and many
flavors of dynamic RAM (DRAM).

Static RAM (SRAM)

Static RAM is a type of RAM that holds its data without external refresh, for as long as
power is supplied to the circuit. This is contrasted to dynamic RAM (DRAM), which
must be refreshed many times per second in order to hold its data contents. SRAMs don't
require external refresh circuitry or other work in order for them to keep their data intact
and SRAM is faster than DRAM.

SRAM is superior to DRAM, and we would use it exclusively if only we could do so

economically. Unfortunately, 32 MB of SRAM would be prohibitively large and costly,
which is why DRAM is used for system memory. SRAMs are used instead for level 1

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cache and level 2 cache memory, for which it is perfectly suited; cache memory needs to
be very fast, and not very large.

Each SRAM bit is comprised of between four and six transistors, which is why SRAM
takes up much more space compared to DRAM, which uses only one (plus a capacitor).
Because an SRAM chip is comprised of thousands or millions of identical cells, it is
much easier to make than a CPU, which is a large die with a non-repetitive structure. This
is one reason why RAM chips cost much less than processors do

FIGURE RAM soldered onto an ancient motherboard.

FIGURE SRAM on a motherboard

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Dynamic RAM is a type of RAM that only holds its data if it is continuously accessed by
special logic called a refresh circuit. Many hundreds of times each second, this circuitry
reads the contents of each memory cell, whether the memory cell is being used at that
time by the computer or not. Due to the way in which the cells are constructed, the
reading action itself refreshes the contents of the memory. If this is not done regularly,
then the DRAM will lose its contents, even if it continues to have power supplied to it.
This refreshing action is why the memory is called dynamic.

All PCs use DRAM for their main system memory, instead of SRAM, even though
DRAMs are slower than SRAMs and require the overhead of the refresh circuitry. The

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 Computer Hardware Memory Chapter -5

reason that DRAMs are used is simple: they are much cheaper and take up much less
space, typically 1/4 the silicon area of SRAMs or less. To build a 64 MB core memory
from SRAMs would be very expensive. The overhead of the refresh circuit is tolerated in
order to allow the use of large amounts of inexpensive, compact memory. The refresh
circuitry itself is almost never a problem; many years of using DRAM has caused the
design of these circuits to be all but perfected.

There are many different kinds of specific DRAM technologies and speeds that they are
available in. These have evolved over many years of using DRAM for system memory.

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) used only a single capacitor per bit of data
and, thus, cost substantially less than SRAM, but had many disadvantages. The DRAM
memory registers (that is, the transistors) required periodic refreshing (every few
milliseconds) during which the processor couldn't access the RAM (called a wait state).
Refreshing caused DRAM to be slower than SRAM. Additionally, DRAM used more
power than SRAM. Cost drives many things, however, so DRAM became the primary
system RAM in all computers for many years. DRAM came in two varieties, such as Fast
Page Mode (FPM) and Extended Data Out (EDO). FPM was the standard DRAM until
edged out by the better technology of EDO.

EDO RAM
Extended Data Out RAM (EDO RAM) is a special type of FPM DRAM that works faster
by grabbing larger chunks of data to feed to the CPU. Like regular FPM DRAM, EDO is
asynchronous and doesn't use the system clock for timing. EDO RAM is sold in 72-pin
SIMMs and 168-pin DIMMs, and it has access times of 50-60 nanoseconds.

SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM)

Synchronous Dynamic RAM (SDRAM)-the current RAM of choice in most systems-
offers a great improvement over FPM and EDO RAM, delivering data in high-speed
bursts. Plus, SDRAM runs at the speed of the system bus (thus, synchronously) and has
access times in the 8-10 ns range.

Manufacturers rate SDRAM according to the highest speed data bus it runs on, such as
66, 100, and 133 MHz, and name the RAM accordingly: PC66, PC 100, and PC 133. This
measurement of speed for SDRAM causes some confusion in older techs because until
SDRAM, RAM was measured in nanoseconds. Manufacturers now label SDRAM with
both a nanosecond and a megahertz rating to avoid any confusion.

The most common form of SDRAM uses a 168-pin DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module).
SDRAM for laptops comes in two varieties, 72-pin and 144-pin SO (Small Outline)
DIMMs.

RDRAM
Rambus Inc. developed Rambus Dynamic RAM (RDRAM). RDRAM uses Rambus
channels that have data transfer rates of 800 MHz. If that's not fast enough for you, you can

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 Computer Hardware Memory Chapter -5

also double the channel width for faster speeds. When the channel rates are doubled,
RDRAM can reach data transfer speeds of up to 1.6 GHz. Naturally, RDRAM can only be
used in systems that support it.

VRAM (Video RAM)

Video RAM (VRAM) can be found on video cards. VRAM provides faster access than
EDO RAM because it can be both read from and written to at the same time, that is,
VRAM is dual ported. The speed of VRAM makes it perfect for video.

Physical Memory Organization

SIMMs (Single Inline Memory Module)
Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMMs) were originally created to free up room on the
motherboard. These RAM modules are available in either 30-pin or 72-pin layouts. 30-pin
SIMMs put out 8 bits of data on the data bus at one time, which makes them 8-bits wide.
They come in 1-16MB sticks. 72-pin SIMMs are 32-bits wide and are available in MB to
64MB sticks.

Installing SIMMs is straightforward. You need to insert the SIMM into the memory slot on
the motherboard at about a 45-degree angle. After you place the RAM in the correct
location, you need to snap it into place, so it's upright or perpendicular to the
motherboard. The keyed notches on the SIMMs help to ensure a proper insertion.
To remove SIMMs from the memory slots, you need to push the tab on either side out
of the way. After moving the tabs, simply pull the SIMM out of the memory slot.

FIGURE 72-pin and 30-pin SIMMs

FIGURE Installing a 72-pin SIMM

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 Computer Hardware Memory Chapter -5

DIMMs (Dual Inline Memory Module)

Dual Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs) for regular desktop PCs look similar to SIMMs,
but are wider and longer. DIMMs have 168-pins, are 64-bits wide, and range in capacity
from 8M B to 256MB sticks. The 144-pin SO DIMMs are also 64-bits wide and come in
roughly the same capacities as regular DIMMs. The 72-pin SO DIMMs for laptop PCs, in
contrast, are only 32-bits wide.

To install a DIMM into the motherboard, you need to drop it into a blank memory slot
and press down firmly. When you've pressed the RAM down into the slot firmly enough,
the white locking pins snap into place. DIMMs always have a notch on the pin-edge, so
you cannot install them backwards. If a DIMM seems overly resistant to installation,
check the orientation of the board!

FIGURE 168-pin DIMMs

FIGURE Installing a DIMM

RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module)

RDRAM comes on Rambus Inline Memory Modules (RIMM). RIMM sticks look like
DIMMs, but have 184 pins and are 16-18-bits wide. Rambus memory modules can be
purchased in 32, 48, 64, 96, 128, and 256MB sizes, and have 600, 700, and 800 MHz data
transfer rates.
Installing RIMMs is a straightforward affair, similar to installing a DIMM, but you have to
jump through a hoop or two. Some motherboards require you to place the RIMMs in every
other slot, for example, if you install only two RIMMs. Further, each unpopulated slot must
have a special CRIMM stick installed. A CRIMM is not RAM, but rather a terminator for
open slots.

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FIGURE RIMM

FIGURE CRIMM and RIMM

Memory Banks

Most memory devices are installed in sets (or banks). The amount of memory in the bank
can vary, depending on how much you wish to add, but there must always be enough data
bits in the bank to fill each bit position. For example, the 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor
(two bytes). This means that two extra bits are required for parity, providing a total of 18
bits. Thus, one bank is 18 bits wide. You might fill the bank by adding eighteen 1-bit
DIPs or two 30-pin SIMMs. As another example, an 80486DX is a 32-bit CPU, so 36 bits
are needed to fill a bank (32 bits plus 4 parity bits). If you use 30-pin SIMMs, you will
need four to fill a bank. If you use 72-pin SIMMs, only one is needed. Notice that the size
of the memory in MB does not really matter, so long as the entire bank is filled.

There is more to filling a memory bank than just installing the right number of bits.
Memory amount, memory matching, and bank order are three additional considerations.
First, you must use the proper memory amount that will bring you to the expected volume
of total memory. Suppose a Pentium system has 8MB already installed in Bank 0, and
you need to put another 8MB into the system in Bank 1.

Another bank requirement demands memory matching - using SIMMs/DIMMs of the

same size and speed within a bank. For example, when adding multiple SIMMs to a bank,
each SIMM must be rated for the same access speed and share the same memory
configuration.

You should also be sure to use the same type of memory (i.e., EDO, FPM, SDRAM, etc.).
For example, if your motherboard is designed to use EDO RAM, and you have EDO
RAM already installed, you should be sure to install more EDO RAM. Some
motherboard designs allow you to mix memory types, but mixing memory types on other
(especially older) motherboards might cause the system to malfunction.

*****

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