Air Pollution & Control (Environmental Engg.

-II)
Rajesh Bhagat
BE (Civil Engg) MTech (Env. Engg)
GCOE, Amravati VNIT, Nagpur
Achievement:
❖ Selected Scientist, NEERI-CSIR, Govt. of India.
❖ GATE Qualified Three Times.
❖ UGC - NET Qualified in First Attempt.
❖ In 2020, Recognized by SWAYAM, NPTEL & IIT:
1) Discipline Star 2) NPTEL Believer 3) NPTEL Motivated Learner

❖ Topper of PhD Course Work at UGC-HRDC, RTMNU Nagpur.

❖ Selected Junior Engineer, ZP Washim.
❖ Three Times Selected as UGC Approved Assistant Professor:
1) Assistant Professor, PCE, Nagpur.

2) Assistant Professor, Cummins College of Engg. for Women.

3) Assistant Professor, YCCE, Nagpur.

Mobile No.:- 8483002277 / 8483003474 Email ID :- [email protected]

Website:- www.rajeysh7bhagat.wordpress.com
UNIT-VI

1) Introduction to Air Pollution, Sources, Types.

2) Meteorological Parameters, Plume behavior, Effects and Causes of Air

Pollution.

3) Monitoring Methods.

4) Techniques of Air Pollution Control.

What is Environment ?
• Natural world
• Surrounding in which we live
• Life sustaining system in which various living and non-living things are inter-related
• Collection of all the external factors or conditions influencing the life of the organisms

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Why it is important to study air pollution:-
Man can Survive
for 5 weeks without food,
For 5 days without water,
But cant survive 5 minutes without air

Man consumes 2 liters water per day

Man breaths on an avg. 25000 times a day at a rate of 1-2 liters per breath

It means requires enormous quantity of air for his survival and it goes into direct contact with the
most sensitive organs of the human body.

In water Conc. Of lead More than 300000ug/m3 is harmful.

In air conc. Of lead more than 1.5ug/m3 is harmful.

Once it is discharged in the atmosphere then it is impossible to control.

Air pollutants can transfer from one point to other and can give adverse effect …..
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Pollution is defined as the excessive discharge of undesirable substances into the
environment, adversely altering the natural quality of the environment and
causing damage to humans, plants and animals.

1) Water Pollution
2) Soil Pollution
3) Air Pollution

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What is Air Pollution ?
❖ Perception (When did you last say – Hey, that is air pollution ?)
❖ Visible (smoke, dust, chimney smoke) (Grey Scale)
❖ Odour (petrol, diesel, H2S, bleaching powder)

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How will you define Air Pollution?
1) Air pollution is the presence of one or more contaminants in the ambient atmosphere
which is injurious to living and non-living things or which unreasonably interfere with the
comfortable enjoyment of life and property.

2) Air pollution is the presence of foreign matter in the air either gaseous or particulate or
combination of both which is dangerous to the health and welfare of human beings.

3) Air pollution is the excessive concentration of foreign matter in the air which adversely
affects the human-being or living things or causes damages to property.

4) Air pollution is the presence of substances in air in sufficient concentration and for
sufficient time, so as to be, or threaten to be injurious to human, plant or animal life, or to
property, or which reasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life 8and
property. Air pollutants arise from both manmade and natural processes.
What is clean air ?
:- 78.1% Nitrogen + 20.9% Oxygen + 1% Trace

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Composition of Dry Atmospheric Air

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Natural and Artificial Sources of Air Pollution 12
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➢ Air pollutant:- A substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment
is known as an air pollutant.

➢ The ambient air quality may be defined by the concentration of a set of pollutants which
may be present in the ambient air we breath in. These pollutants may be called criteria
pollutants.
➢ Ambient air quality refers to the quality of outdoor air in our surrounding environment. It
is typically measured near ground level, away from direct sources of pollution.

➢ Emission standards express the allowable concentrations of a contaminant at the point of

discharge before any mixing with the surrounding air.
➢ Emission standards are legal requirements governing air pollutants released into the
atmosphere. Emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible amount of
specific air pollutants that may be released from specific sources over specific timeframes.
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Types of Air Pollutants:
Primary Air Pollutant: Harmful substance that is emitted directly into the atmosphere.
Ex. Natural Contaminants, Particulate Matter (PM), Sulfur dioxide, Oxides of Nitrogen,
Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen Sulfide, Hydrogen Fluoride, Hydrocarbons,
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), Toxic Metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper,
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Ammonia (NH3), Odors, Noise, etc.

Secondary Air Pollutant: These are not emitted directly but formed in the atmosphere when
a primary air pollutant reacts with substances normally found in the atmosphere or with other
air pollutants. Examples are ground level Ozone, Smog (Photochemical Smog), Peroxy-
Acytyl Nitrate (PAN), Formaldehyde, Acid Mist, etc.

Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted
directly and formed from other primary pollutants. 16
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Table 6.1 Air Pollutants (16)
Major Classes of Air Pollutants:
1) Particulate Material (Dust, Fog, Mist, Fumes)
2) Oxides of Nitrogen ( NO, NO2, NO3)
3) Oxides of Sulphur ( SO2, SO3, etc)
4) Oxygen compound (CO, CO2, O3)
5) Hydrocarbons (VOC, CH4, Non CH4)
Air Pollutants:-
1) Natural Contaminants:-
➢ Ex. Natural Fog, Pollen grains, bacteria, and product of volcanic eruption.
➢ Pollen is important because of its peculiar properties irritating to some individuals.
➢ It discharged into atmosphere from plant, vegetation, weeds, trees grass, etc.
➢ Many people suffers from asthama or hey fever & bronchitis.
2)Aerosols (Particulate Matter):- (200 ug/m3)
➢ Ex. Dust, Smoke, Mist, Fog, & Fumes.
➢ Solid or liquid particle of microscopic size suspended and dispersed in a gas or
atmosphere.
➢ They range from 0.01 to 500 u.
➢ Aerosol also defined as a colloidal system in which the dispersion medium is a gas and
the dispersed phase is a solid or liquid.
➢ They differs widely in terms of particle size, particle density and their importance as
pollutants.
➢ PM10 & PM2.5
Dust:-
➢ Small solid particle generated by crushing, grinding, blasting of material.
➢ range from 1u to 200u.
➢ Can settle under gravity.
➢ Ex. Fly Ash, Cement, Foundry dust, etc
Smoke:-
➢ Aerosol particle resulting from incomplete combustion.
➢ size less than 1u.
Fog:-
➢ Liquid particle formed by condensation of vapour.
➢ Visible aerosol
➢ Dispersed phase is liquid
➢ Reduces visibility less than 0.5 km
➢ Size range from 1u to 40u.
Mist:-
➢ Liquid particle formed by condensation of vapour.
➢ Water droplet in air of size 40u to 500u
➢ Visibility upto 1km or more
➢ Low concentration of dispersion of liquid particle of large size.
Fumes:-
➢ Very fine solid particle.
➢ Size 0.001 to 1u.
➢ Unpleasant smelling airborne effluent.
➢ Generated by condensation from the gaseous state and often accompanied by a
chemical reaction such as oxidation.
3) Gases:-
➢ Ex. Sulphur Dioxide,
➢ Oxide of Nitrogen,
➢ Hydrogen sulphide,
➢ Carbon Monoxide,
➢ Carbon Dioxide,
➢ Hydrogen Fluoride,
➢ Hydrogen Chloride,
➢ Hydrocarbons,
➢ Aldehydes,
➢ Radio active gases,
➢ CFC, etc.
Sulphur Dioxide:- 80ug/m3
1) Principal constituents of air pollutants.
2) Combustion of fuel specially coal.
3) Sulphur content of fuel.
4) Crude petroleum product contain1% to 5% of sulphur content.
5) Fuel gases contain sulphur but small quantity.
6) Another source is metallurgical operations.
7) Many ores like zinc, copper, lead are primarily sulphides.
8) Sulphuric acid plant.
9) Paper manufacturing plant.
10) Incinerator.
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Oxides of Nitrogen:- 80ug/m3
1) 2nd most abundant atmospheric contaminants.
2) Highest conc. Of NOx in effluent from industry where nitric acid is used.
3) Next highest conc. is in automobile exhaust.
4) Large power plant, low heat burners, furnace etc. also contribute.
5) High temp. processes.
Carbon Monoxides:- 2000ug/m3 (0.03%)
1) Odourless & colourless gas.
2) Dangerous gaseous pollutant.
3) Produced from incomplete combustion of carbonaceous matter.
4) Chief source is automobile exhaust.
5) Loss of consciousness, concentration, headache, retardation of mental activity, weakness,
etc
6) Reacts with haemoglobin of blood to give carboxy haemoglobin.
Hydrogen Sulphide:- 2ug/m3 (Rotten egg emits.)
➢ highly toxic, flammable & Foul smelling gas.
➢ Anaerobic biological decay processes.
➢ Volcanoes & water springs.
➢ Kraft pulp industry, petroleum refineries, coke-oven plants & chemical processes.
Carbon Dioxide:- CO2
1) Occurs naturally in the atmosphere.
2) Essential ingredient in photosynthesis, the process by which plants make food and energy,
3) Released due to respiration by animal & plant.
4) Deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal
Eruption of volcanoes, forest fires, biological decay, etc.
5) Green house gas increase mean ambient temp & mean sea level.
Hydrogen Fluoride:- HF
1) Major- Manufacturer of phosphate fertilizer, aluminum industry, brick plants, etc.
2) Minor - Other metallurgical operations & burning of coal.
3) More important in terms of injury to vegetation & animal than human.

Hydrogen Chloride:- HCl

1) Industrial Chemical processes.
2) Effects on respiratory irritation from chlorine.
3) Damage to vegetation.
4) Corrosion.

Chloro Fluro Carbon:- CFC

1) Non-toxic, non-flammable & non-carcinogenic.
2) But harmful or damages to ozone layer allows UV rays to reach the earth surface.
3) A.C., Refrigerator, Sprays, etc.
Aldehydes:-
1) Combustion of gasoline, diesel, oil, fuel, & natural gas.
2) Incomplete oxidation of motor fuel & lubricating oils.
3) Irritates to eyes.

Radioactive Gases:-
1) Nuclear power reactor & related fuel handling facilities.
2) Experimental accelerator, testing of nuclear bombs, agricultural, industrial , medical use
of radioactive isotopes.
Ozone:-O3
1) In the earth’s upper atmosphere ozone plays imp. role by providing a shield from UV rays
but Ozone at GL is harmful air pollutant.
2) Not emitted directly in the air but it is created by chemical reaction between NOx & VOC
in presence of sunlight. 3O2 ( + NO2 catalyst & Sunlight) ==> 2O3
3) Breathing Ozone trigger health problems like asthama, chest pain, coughing, throat
irritation & congestion.
4) Reduces lung function & inflame the lining of lungs.

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Smog:-
1) Combination of smoke & fog.
2) Photochemical & Coal Induced smog.
3) Restricted & highly motorized area in metro cities.
4) Occurs under adverse meteorological condition when air movement is restricted.
5) Reduces visibility, causes eye irritation, damages to vegetation & cracking of rubber.
6) Prolonged exposure may result high mortality rate.
Photochemical Smog
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 39
Fig. 6.2 Air Pollutant Sources (16)

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Acid Mist / Acid Rain:-
➢ Acid mist or acid rain is any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning
that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects
on plants, aquatic animals and infrastructure.
PAN ( Peroxy Acyl Nitrate):-
➢ Produced from the combination of hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide in the presence of
sunlight and heat.
Hydrocarbons + O2 + NO2 + light → CH3COOONO2 (PAN)
The general equation is CxHyO3 + NO2 → CxHyO3NO2

➢ Cause eye irritation, damages to plant, skin cancer, etc.

Formaldehyde:-
1) It is organic chemical prevalent in environment.
2) Colourless gas with pungent odour from family of gases aldehyde.
3) It is formed by numerous natural sources & anthropogenic activities.
4) Released from through biomass combustion / forest fires, decomposition & through
volcanoes.
5) Power plant, incineration, automobile exhaust, etc.
6) Cause cancer.
7) Irritation to respiratory tract.

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Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health:-
Man easily affected by air pollution. Inhalation of air pollutants through respiratory system
gives direct impact on human health.

Factors affecting impact of air pollutants on man are :-

➢ Type of air pollutant.
➢ Concentration of air Pollutant.
➢ Duration of exposure of air pollutant.
➢ Health condition of the receptor.
➢ Age group of the receptor.

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Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health:-
1) Cause irritation to the eye.
2) Cause nose & throat irritation.
3) SO2 & PM: Irritate respiratory tract and causes damages to lungs.
4) NO2: Causes airway restriction
5) CO: reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood, Causes headache, fatigue, drowsiness,
death.
6) CO increase stress on those suffering from cardio-vascullar & pulmonary disease.
7) Ozone: Causes burning eyes, coughing, and chest discomfort
8) Gases like H2S, amonia, etc. cause odour nuisance.
9) Increases mortality rate & morbidity rate.
10) Pollen initiate asthamatic attack.
11) Chronic pulmonary disease like bronchitis & asthama are aggravated by SO2, NO2, PM,
Smog, etc.

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Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health:-
12) HF cause diseases of the bone (fluorosis) & molting of teeth.
13) Carcinogenic agents causes cancer.
14) PM (Dust) cause respiratory disease like silicosis, asbestosis, etc.
15) Heavy metals like lead cause poisoning.
16) Retardation of mental activity.
17) Loss of concentration, weakness, etc.
18) Cause skin cancer.

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Effects of Air Pollution

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Table 6.2 Air Pollutant Effects (16)
Effects of Air Pollution on Animal:-
1) Two step process:-
a) Accumulation of the air borne contaminant in the vegetation & forage.
b) Subsequent poisoning to the animals when they eat it.
2) 3 Pollutants responsible for damage are Fluorine, Dust & Lead.
3) Fluorine can cause rapid loss in weight, decline in health, poisoning, etc.
4) It may increase bone failure.
5) Arsenic in dust or spray on plants lead to poisoning of animal
6) Air pollutants can causes salivation, thirst, vomiting, uneasiness, irregular pulse &
respiration.
7) Depressing effect on central nervous system.
8) Animal becomes dull & losses weight.
9) Can result in paralysis and death.
10) Acid rain falling in rivers, killing fish that are sensitive to pH fluctuations.

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Effects of Air Pollution on Plant :-
1) Interfere with plant growth.
2) weakens plants and makes them more susceptible to insect infestation.
3) Reduces the amount of light reaching the leaf by clogging the stomata & reduces CO2
intake & thus interfere with photosynthesis.
4) Damages to leaves ( bleaching of leaves, collapse of leaf, necrosis of leaves, etc.)
5) Retard the yield.
6) Acute & chronic injury to plant.
7) Spoil the appearance of plant.
8) Air Pollutants affecting Plant:- SO2, PM, HF, O3, NOx, HCl, etc.

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Effects of Air Pollution on Material :-
1) Damages the material or metals by corrosion. SO2---SO3----H2SO4
2) CO2 in presence of moisture produces Carbonic acid, which is then leached out as water
soluble bicarbonate.
3) PM adhere to building surfaces to produce unsightly coating.
4) Paint is also affected & requires frequent painting.
5) H2S is common cause of darkening of surfaces covered with paint.
6) SO2 cause deterioration of natural & some synthetic textile fibers.
7) O3 cause pronounced fading of certain dyes on cotton & rayon fabrics.
8) Rubber can be damaged by cracking.
9) SOx causes lather to lose its strength & ultimately disintegrate.

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Air Pollutants cause damage to material by 5 mechanism :-
1) Abrasion:-
➢ Solid particle of sufficient size & travelling at high velocities can cause abrasion action &
accelerate wear.
2) Deposition & Removal:-
➢ Particle deposited on a surface may spoil appearance & also may cause some deterioration.
3) Direct Chemical Attack:-
➢ React directly & irreversibly with material to cause deterioration. Ex. Bleaching of marble by
SO2 & etching of a metallic surface by acid mist.
4) Indirect Chemical Attack:-
➢ Certain material absorbs some pollutants & get damaged when the pollutants undergo
chemical changes. Ex. SO2 absorbed by leather is converted to H2SO4, which deteriorates the
leather.
5) Corrosion:-
➢ Atmospheric deterioration of ferrous metal is by an electro-chemical process ie corrosion.

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Table 6.3 Air Pollutant effects (16)
Table 6.4 Air Pollutant Effects (16)
Effects of Air Pollution on Atmosphere:
1) Inversion.
2) Acid Rains.
3) Climate Change.
4) Green house effects / Global warming.
5) Heat Islands.
6) Photochemical Smog.
7) Depletion of Ozone layer.
8) Eutrophication.

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Effects of Air Pollution on Atmosphere:
1) Can cause visibility reduction.
2) Change in precipitation.
3) Fog formation.
4) Solar radiation can be reduced.
5) Can cause alternation in temp. and wind distribution.
6) Global warming.
7) Humid condition.
8) Depletion of ozone layer.
9) Life of mosquitoes can be increased.
10) Can cause Heat Islands.
11) Acid Rains.
12) Water Logging.
13) Change in mean sea level, energy supply & demand, water sources availability, and its
consequences etc. 57
Heat Islands :-
1) Cities are warmer than their rural surroundings.
2) In highly urbanized & industrialized area a difference in temp of 6 to 100C.
3) Cities are warmer, rainier and foggier.
4) Heat energy release causes a significant climate change.
5) Thermal capacitance of street, buildings & Industries for solar input & Energy dissipation.
6) Artificial production of energy approaches nearly 1000 watts/m2 while the solar absorption
by the atmosphere averages out to be only 25 watts/m2.
7) Energy release may occur through evaporation of water and direct heat of air.
8) Further cone. Of GHGs may increase the heat content of urban area.
9) Inevitably disrupt the climatological & ecological balance.

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Write a note on ozone layer depletion?
1) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated substances are mainly responsible for
ozone depletion.
2) One of the greatest and most dangerous effects of pollution on the ozone layer is that it
creates holes in the atmosphere, which allow powerful ultraviolet rays from the sun to
reach the Earth's surface.
3) When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes them to
break apart and release chlorine atoms which react with ozone, starting chemical cycles of
ozone destruction that deplete the ozone layer.
4) One chlorine atom can break apart more than 100,000 ozone molecules.

Effects of ozone layer depletion.

Skin Cancer: exposure to UV rays from sun can lead to increased risk for developing of
several types of skin cancers.
Eye Damage: UV rays are harmful for our eyes too.
Air Pollution Episodes:-
1) 1930 -3 Day Fog in Meuse Valley, Belgium
2) 1931 -9 Day Fog in Manchester, England
3) 1948 -Plant Emissions in Donora, Penn, US
4) 1952 -5 Day Smog in London, England
5) 1970 –Radionuclide Emissions, Three Mile Island, US
6) 1984 -Release of Methyl Iso-Cynate (MIC) in Bhopal, India
7) 1986 -Radionuclide Releases, Chernobyl, Ukraine
8) 1997 – Haze Disaster in Indonesia
9) 2001 – Wildfires in Sierra Nevada, US
10) 2001 – Enormous Clouds of Dust in New York during Collapse of World Trade Center, US
11) 2002 – Violent Dust Storm in Queensland, Australia
12) 2005 - Jilin Chemical Plant Explosions, Jilin city, China
13) 2007 – Wildfires in TALLAHASSEE Florida, US
14) 2008 - Kingston Fossil Plant Coal Fly Ash Slurry Spill, Kingston, US

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Bhopal Gas Tragedy:
1) On the night of December 2, 1984, the Union Carbide Pesticide Plant in Bhopal, India
began to leak methyl Iso-Cyanate gas and other poisonous toxins into the atmosphere.
2) About 40 tons of toxic gases had leaked and spread throughout the city.
3) The Bhopal Disaster was the worst episode in the history of industrial air pollution.
4) Over 5,00,000 were exposed and there were up to 15,000 deaths at that time.
5) In addition, more than 20,000 people have died since the accident from gas-related
diseases.

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Bhopal Gas Tragedy:
1) The cause was the entry of water into Methyl Iso-Cyanate (MIC) storage tank.
2) Resulting exothermic reaction increase the temp. inside tank above 2000C and raised the
pressure. (BP of MIC is 390C)
3) Safety system failed.
4) Gases were blown by wind towards city Bhopal.

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The Great London Smog:- (The Killer Smog) 4th Dec. 1952
1) With the advent of industry, London’s population was accustomed to seeing foggy,
pollution laden air.
2) In 1952 however, this pollution took a tragic turn in winter.
3) Weather was cold & residents burned more coal in their fireplaces to reduce the chill.
4) High-pressure air mass created a subsidence & temperature inversion.
5) The smoke with sulfur dioxide & nitrogen oxides and left London cover in a black
cloud of near total darkness.
6) The old and respiratory affected died first, but younger people exposed to the outside
atmosphere were also affected.
7) The maximum daily SO2 concentration recorded at that time was 4000 µg/m3, smoke
levels were 4.46 mg/m3 & PM were 5 times higher than normal.
8) The Great London Smog lasted for five days and lifted on 9th Dec, resulting in about
12000 deaths & 100,000 illnesses.

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The Los Angeles Smog:-
1) July 1973.
2) Photochemical Smog episode.

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Donora (Washington) Fog, 27th Oct. 1948:-
1) Horror visited the US Steel company town of Donora.
2) The fog started building up in Donora on October 27, 1948, on the night when a
temp. inversion started and made sudden attack on the town.
3) Fluoride emissions from the Donora Zinc Works smelting operation and other
sources containing sulphur, carbon monoxide and heavy metal dusts were trapped by
weather conditions.
4) Causing coughing and other signs of respiratory distress (pain) for many residents of
the community.
5) Illnesses, asthma and deaths had taken place.
6) The smog continued until it rained on October 31, by which time 20 residents of
Donora had died and approximately 2000 residents had been suffered.
7) Another 50 residents died of respiratory causes within a month after the incident.
Meuse Valley, Dec. 1930 (Inversion) :-
1) First week of December 1930, when a thick mist lay over large parts of Belgium
Country.
2) Several thousand cases of acute pulmonary attacks occurred in the densely populated
valley of the Meuse.
3) Resulting in 60 deaths.
4) The cause was poisonous products in the waste gas of the many factories in the valley,
in conjunction with unusual climatic conditions.
5) The disaster in all probability had been brought about by sulphur dioxide (SO2) or
oxidation products of that compound.
6) During that time, the day temperature was a little above freezing point while at night it
measured up to 10oC below, while the wind speed was only 1-3km/hr.
Meuse Valley, 1930
Atmosphere:-
1) Insulating blanket protecting the earth.
2) Softens the intense light & heat of the sun.
3) Ozone layers acts as protecting umbrella that absorbs dangerous UV rays.
4) Atmosphere is bound to the earth by gravity.
5) As we go higher & higher, the characteristics & composition changes.
6) Atmosphere is divided into four sphere.
I. Troposphere
II. Stratosphere
III. Mesosphere
IV. Thermosphere or Ionosphere

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 Atmospheric Layers:-

➢Atmosphere is divided into four sphere:-

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere or Ionosphere

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Mesosphere:-
1) Region where few energy release reaction occur.
2) Lapse rate is +ve (decrease in temp.)
3) Coldest layer of atmosphere.
4) This layer has no significance in air pollution.
Ionosphere:-
1) Thermosphere
2) Very high temp. 8700c over equator
3) 1430c over north pole.
4) Highest & vastest zone of atmosphere.
5) Starting at 115km above the earth upto 600km.
6) Region beyond 600km is termed as exosphere.

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Atmospheric stability:-
➢ The resistance of the atmosphere to vertical motion or mixing.
Lapse rate :- (vertical temp. gradient)
1) Rate at which temp. changes with elevation is called lapse rate.
2) Lapse rate in a Dry Adiabatic Atmosphere is called DALR (100c/km) &
(WALR 60c/km).
3) Actual lapse rate is called Environmental Lapse Rate ie ELR may be greater or less
than the DALR.
4) ELR determines whether the air or atmosphere is stable or unstable.
5) If the air is unstable, the vertical movement of air is encouraged, & If the air is stable,
vertical movement of air is discouraged.
6) Super Adiabatic Lapse rate = Rate is more than DALR.
7) Inversion = -ve lapse rate.

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Stability of atmosphere depending upon the vertical air temperature distribution :-

Very stable : Temperature increases with increase in altitude. This is a -ve lapse rate, or an
inversion.

Stable : Environmental lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, but temperature
decreases with altitude increase.

Neutral : Environmental lapse rate is the same as the dry adiabatic lapse rate.

Unstable : Environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate.

Very unstable : Environmental lapse rate is much greater than the dry adiabatic rate, and
is called super-adiabatic.

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1) Stability is the degree to which the atmosphere will support, tolerate, or suppress
vertical motions.
2) In a stable atmosphere, a parcel of air that is displaced upwards will tend to return to its
original level while in an unstable atmosphere, a parcel of air displaced upwards will
continue to rise.

Fig. 6.9 Lapse Rate (16) 84

 Lapse Rate Example

Que.1:- Assuming the surface temperature is 15° at the surface of the

earth, what is the temperature at 5510.5 m?
Take ELR = 6.49°C/km

Solution:
5510.5 m = 5.5105 km
For each km the temperature decreases by 6.49°c
So the temperature decreases: 5.5105 x 6.49 = 35.76°c
Original temp was 15°,
temp at 5.5105 km = 15°c - 35.76°c = -20.76°C
Plume:
➢ Plume refers to the path and extent in the atmosphere of the gaseous effluents, released
from a source usually a stack (chimney)
➢ The behavior of a plume emitted from any stack depends on localized air stability. By
looking at the plume one can state stability condition and dispersive capacity of
atmosphere. The behavior and dispersion of a plume entirely depend on the environmental
lapse rate Effluents from stacks are often injected to an effective height of several 100m
above ground.
➢ The spread of the plume is directly related to the vertical temperature gradient:
1) Looping
2) Coning
3) Fanning
4) Lofting
5) Fumigation
6) Trapping
Coning plumes
1) Shaped like a cone roughly 100 with horizontal axis.
2) Coning plume gets resulted in when the vertical air temperature gradient has been
between dry adiabatic and isothermal, the air being slightly unstable with some horizontal
and vertical mixing occurring.
3) Coning is most likely to occur during cloudy or windy periods.

Fig. 6.14 Coning Plumes (16)

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Fumigation Plume
1) causes the high pollutant concentration plume reaching the ground level along the length of
the plume and is caused by a super-adiabatic lapse rate beneath an inversion.
2) The super-adiabatic lapse rate at the ground level occurs due to the solar heating.
3) This condition has been favored by clear skies and light winds.
4) Usually start when a fanning plume breaks up into a looping plume.

Fig. 6.15 Fumigating Plumes(16)

Trapping:
1) In stable atmosphere both above & below stack with an unstable atmosphere in between
two inversion layer.
2) Diffuse only in the limited vertical height
3) Occur at any time of the day in any season.

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Fanning Plumes
1) form under very stable conditions. (extreme inversion condition)
2) spread out horizontally but do not mix vertically.
3) take place when the air temperature increases with altitude (inversion or –ve lapse rate).
4) The plume rarely reaches the grounds level unless the inversion is broken by surface
heating or the plume encounters a hill.
5) At night, with light winds and clear skies, fanning plumes are most probable.

Fig. 6.11 Fanning Plumes (16)

Lofting Plumes
1) form when there is a stable layer beneath unstable layer.
2) diffuse upward but not downwards and occur when there is a super-adiabatic layer above a
surface inversion.
3) generally not reach the ground surface.
4) a flat bottom and a rising top.

Fig. 6.12 Lofting Flumes (16)

Looping plumes
1) take place when there has been a super-adiabatic lapse rate and solar heating. (Warm
season)
2) Wavy character occurs in a highly unstable atmosphere bcoz of rapid mixing. (Day Time)
3) High turbulence disperse the plume rapidly but high conc. may occur close to the stack if
plume touches the ground.

Fig. 6.13 Looping Plumes (16)

93
Meteorology & Air Pollution:
a) Meteorology is the study and forecasting of weather changes resulting from large scale
atmospheric circulation
b) Meteorological parameter can trigger an air pollution episodes.
c) Once Pollutants Emitted:- Transported, Dispersed, Concentrated By meteorological
conditions.
d) Parameters can be classified into primary and secondary depending upon importance.
1. Wind Direction & Speed
2. Atmospheric Stability
3. Temperature
4. Mixing Height
5. Precipitation
6. Humidity
7. Solar Radiation

94
Wind Direction & Speed:-
➢ Govern the drift & diffusion of air pollutants discharged.
➢ Higher the wind speed at or near the point of discharge, the more rapidly will carry away
from the source and will disperse dilute with greater volume of air.
➢ On the other hand, when wind speed are low pollutants tend to be concentrated near the
area of discharge for longer periods.

95
Temperature & Heat:-
1) Heat is the critical atmospheric variable.
2) Comes from the sun as a short wave radiation.
3) After striking the earth it losses energy & reradiates to the space as a long wave radiation.
4) Some of radiation absorbed by the atmosphere & temp. increases.

Atmospheric Stability:-
1) Ability to resists or enhance vertical motion.
2) Rate at which temp. changes is called lapse rate.
3) DALR = 10OC/Km & WALR = 6.5OC/Km (Neutral atmosphere)
4) Reverse or -ve lapse means Inversion.
5) During Inversion, vertical air movement is stopped & pollution will be concentrated
beneath the inversion layer.

96
Mixing Height:-
1) Height above the earth surface to which related pollutants will extend.
2) Primarily through the action of atmospheric turbulence.
3) Related to wind direction, wind speed & wind turbulence.

97
Precipitation:-
1) Cleansing action on the air pollutants discharged onto the atmosphere.
2) Removes the gaseous pollutants that are soluble in water.
3) Act as scrubbing fluid for the removal of air pollutants.
4) Thus it accelerates the deposition of pollutants on the ground.(water pollution & soil
Pollution)

98
Humidity:-
1) Measure of water vapour in atmosphere.
2) Always present in atmosphere & depends on temp.
3) Coastal regions & areas adjacent to huge water bodies are humid.
4) Moisture content of the atmosphere influence the corrosive action of air pollutants.
5) Also influence the potentiality for fog formation.
6) Humidity act as catalyst in the reaction of air pollutants like SO2, NO2, etc.

Solar Radiation:-
1) Depending on the location, solar radiation can have a pronounced effect on the type & rate
of chemical reaction in the atmosphere.
2) Photochemical smog formation at Los Angels is a typical example of the effect of solar
radiation on air pollution.

99
Stack Height & Effective Stack Height:-
• Height of the stack and the height of rise of the plume above the stack play a major
role in the ground level conc. expected on the down wind side.
• The plume Rise depends upon many factors such as exit velocity, wind speed,
diameter of stack, temp. of plume, lapse rate, etc.

100
101
102
H = h + Δh
Where, H – effective height if stack
h – Actual Height of stack
Δh – The Rise of Plume

There are several formulae are available to calculate the stack height.

As per Emission regulation published by the central board for prevention and control
of pollution, New Delhi, The chimney height is to be calculated according to the
formulae.

PM :- H = 74 (Q) 0.27
Where, Q = Particulate Matter Emission in Tonnes per Hour.
h = Height of Chimney in meters.

Gaseous Pollutants :- H = 14 (Q) 0.3

Where, Q = Gaseous Emission in Kg per Hour.
h = Height of Chimney in meters.

103
 Air Pollution Indices or Index (API)
1) It is system in which one can explain the quality of air to common man.
2) It is a scheme that transforms values of individual air pollution parameters into a single
number.
3) Technical terms may not be known to public.
4) There must be easiest, understanding & simplified way to define quality of ambient air.
5) Criteria for Index:-
1) Easily understand by public
2) Include major air pollutants
3) Calculated in simpler manner
4) Based on scientific data
5) Meaningful
6) Relate to ambient air quality standards & goals
7) Can be forecasted a day in advance

104
 Air Pollution Indices or Index

API = ¼ (Cspm / Sspm +CNOx / SNOx + CSO2 / SSO2 + CCO / SCO) x 100

API =¼ (180.2 / 200 +98.5 / 80 + 19.9 / 80 + 2.55 / 20) x 100

API = 89.84 ~ 90

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 Air Pollution Indices or Index
Index Value Remark

0-25 Clean Air

26-50 Light Air pollution

51-75 Moderate Air Pollution

76-100 Heavy Air Pollution

>100 Severe Air Pollution

Other Rating:- Good, Acceptable, Satisfactory, Unsatisfactory, Unhealthy, Light

Moderate, Heavy, Normal, Severe, etc.

106
Wind Roses:-
1) Wind roses shows the prevailing direction of wind.
2) Defined as any diagram to show the distribution of wind direction experienced at a given
location, over a considerable period.
3) Wind data ie Direction, duration, & intensity are graphically represented by a diagram
called Wind Rose.
Wind Roses:-
1) For accurate estimation of the dispersion of air pollutants in the atmosphere a
knowledge of the frequency distribution of wind direction as well as wind speed is
essential.
2) This type of information varies from city to city and varies for given city from month to
month.
3) Wind data should be collected for a period of atleast 5 years and preferably of 1o years,
so as to obtain an avg. data with sufficient accuracy.
Wind Rose Construction:-
1) The most common form consist of circle from which eight or sixteen lines emerge, one
for each direction.
2) Length of each line is proportional to the frequency of wind from that direction and
frequency of calm conditions is entered in the entre.
3) There are many variation in the construction of wind roses. Some indicates the range of
wind speeds from each direction & some relates wind direction with other
meteorological condition.
4) Line or bar extending to the north on the wind rose indicates the frequency of winds
blowing from the north.
5) Wind rose diagram is prepared using an appropriate scale to represent % frequencies of
wind direction and appropriate index shades, lines, etc. to represent various wind
speeds.
6) Observation corresponding to wind speed below 1Km/Hr are recorded as Calm.
Special Pollution Wind roses are:-
1) Precipitation Wind Rose
2) Smoke Wind Rose
3) SO2 Wind Rose
4) HC Wind Rose
Air Pollution Controlling Technology:-
➢ Air pollutants pose a great danger to the environment.
➢ A removal of air pollutants from flue gases by a proper technology has a greater
significance.

➢ There are 3 broad approaches to the control of air pollutants:-

1) Control at source.
2) Control by using pollution control equipments.
3) Dilution in the atmosphere.

112
1) Control at source:-
➢ Most effective is to prevent emission at the source itself.

➢ This can be achieved by investing various approaches at early stages of process

design and development,
➢ Selecting those methods which do not contribute to air pollution or have the
minimum air pollution potential.

➢ Control at source can be accomplished by:

a) Raw Material change
b) Process Change
c) Equipment Modification or Replacement

113
a) Raw Material Change:-
➢ Some raw materials are primarily responsible for causing air pollution.
➢ Use of pure grade raw material is often beneficial and may reduce the formation of
undesirable impurities and by-products or may even eliminate the trouble some
effluents.

114
b) Process Changes:-
➢ Changing the process being used is still another important method of controlling
emission at their source.
➢ Ex. Washing the coal before pulverization to reduce the fly ash emission.
➢ Ex. Reduction of the formation of NOx in combustion chambers by low excess air
combustion in two stages, fuel gas recirculation and water injection.

115
c) Equipment Modification or Replacement:-
➢ Another approach of control of pollutants at the source involves the proper use of
existing equipments, modification and replacement of equipments.
➢ Ex. The un-burnt CO & HC in the cylinders of an automobile engine can be burnt
by injecting into hot exhaust manifold of the engine.

116
2) Dilution:-
➢ Dilution of PM & gases can be accomplished by the use of tall stacks.
➢ Pollution released from taller stacks disperse easily & hence low ground level
concentration are observed.
➢ Thus, dilution is only a short term control measure & tends to bring about highly
undesirable long range effects.

117
3) Control by using Pollution Control Equipments:-
1. Particulates Air Pollution Controlling Devices
2. Gaseous Air Pollution Controlling Devices

➢ To remove the particulates from flue gases, various types of control equipments are
available.
➢ Controlling devices are divided into five major groups:
1) Gravity Settling Chamber,
2) Cyclone,
3) Fabric Filter,
4) Wet Scrubber &
5) Electrostatic Precipitator.

118
Selection of Equipments depends on:-
1) Quantity of gas & its variation.
2) Nature & concentration of particulates.
3) Temp. & pressure of the gas stream.
4) Quality of the treated effluent.

119
Objectives of Air Pollution Controlling Equipment:-
1) Prevention of physical damage to property.
2) Elimination of health hazards.
3) Recovery of valuable waste product.
4) Improvement of product quality.
5) Prevention of nuisance.

120
Gravitational settling Chamber:-
1) The force of gravity removes only large PM by allowing them to settle in the
chamber.
2) Gas stream enters a chamber where the velocity of gas is reduced to drop out the
large particles from the gas stream.
3) Settled large size PM are collected in hopper at the bottom.
4) Used in conjunction with a more efficient control devices because this chamber
removes only larger particles.

121
122
Gravitational settling Chamber:-
1) Constructed as long horizontal box with inlet, outlet & dust collection hoppers.
2) Velocity of the particle laden gas stream is reduced in the chamber.
3) All the particles are subjected to the force of gravity.
4) At reduced gas velocity in the chambers, the larger particles > 40u are settled into
hoppers.
5) It mainly used as a pre-cleaner for other particle emission control devices to remove
very large particles.
➢ > 100um --- 25cm/s
➢ 10um --- 0.3cm/s
➢ 1 um --- 0.003 cm/s

123
Cyclones:-
1) Simple mechanical device.
2) Used to remove relatively large particles from gas streams
3) Used as pre-cleaner for more sophisticated air pollution control equipment. (ESP)
4) More efficient than settling chamber.
5) Forces are responsible for removal are centrifugal & gravitational.

124
Cyclones:-
1) Shape of cyclones causes the gas stream to rotate in a spiral motion.
2) Larger particles move towards the outside of the wall by virtue of their momentum.
3) Particles loss kinetic energy there & are separated from the gas stream.
4) After this because of gravitational force it falls down to get collected.
5) > 25um

125
Wet Collectors :- (Wet Scrubber)
1) In wet scrubbing processes, liquid or solid particles are removed from a gas stream
by transferring them to a liquid.
2) The liquid most commonly used as water.
3) PM collection efficiency over 95%.
4) Requires low energy.

126
Wet Collectors :- (Wet Scrubber)
1) Consist of a open vessel with one or more sets of spray nozzles to distribute the scrubbing
liquid.
2) Gas stream enters at the bottom & passes upward through the sprays.
3) The most common high energy wet scrubber is the venturi scrubber.
4) Rain is the natural process of cleaning atmosphere or environment.

127
Fabric Filter:- (Bag Filter or Baghouses)
1) It uses a filter material such as nylon or wool to removes particles from the dust laden
gases.
2) The particles retained on the fabric material, while clean gas passes through the material.
3) Collected particles are then removed from the fabric filter by a cleaning mechanism which
is either the mechanical shaking or by use of air blast.
4) Removed particles are the stored in a collection hopper.

128
Fabric Filter:- (Bag Filter or Baghouses)
1) Cyclones have lower collection efficiency than fabric filter.
2) Depending upon the design & choice of fabric, PM control efficiency can be more than
99%.
3) Fabric filter are better able to reduce fine PM when they are not overloaded with larger
PM.
4) Therefore best application of a bag filter includes a cyclone in a sequence.
5) Cyclone is good at removing larger particles, it complements the fabric filter well.
6) > 0.1um
7) Wet filter is better filter.

129
130
Electro Static Precipitators :- (ESP)
1) Widely used in power plant.
2) PM is removed by the use of +vely charged & -vely charged electrodes.
(Electromagnetic field).
3) ESP have no moving parts.
4) Requires electricity.
5) Extremely effective in removing sub micron PM.
6) Expensive.

131
Electro Static Precipitators :- (ESP)
1) At periodic intervals, the PM from charged plates are removed by rappers or hammers or
vibrators depending on the design & collected into the bottom hopper.
2) Collection efficiency more than 98% for PM10.
3) ESP can handle hot flue gases at temp. up to 5700C.
4) Compare to fabric filter ESP uses less energy & lower maintenance requirements.
5) Better separation efficiency.
6) > 0.1 um

132
Control of Gaseous Pollutants :-

The control of gaseous pollutants from stack gases depends on their properties.

The methods of control include:

1) Combustion
2) Absorption
3) Adsorption
4) Condensation.
5) Bio-filter.

6) Advanced Oxidation by UV, O3, HPO,etc.

133
Combustion :-
➢ Organic compounds from different manufacturing operations are converted to
innocuous carbon dioxide & water.

➢ Devices are designed to push oxidation reactions to leave minimum unburned

compounds.

➢ Three methods of combustion commonly used in air pollution control are:-

1) Direct combustion

2) Thermal Combustion

3) Catalytic Combustion

134
Direct Combustion :-
1) Gaseous air pollutants are burned directly in a combustor with or without aid of
additional fuel such as natural gas.

2) Combustion process should be designed in such a way that the flame burns at any wind
speed & any gas flow rate.

3) Mostly used in refineries & petrochemical plants.

4) Relatively safe method of highly combustible waste gases.

5) Economical only if the waste gases itself contribute more than 50% of total heating
value required for incineration.

135
136
Thermal Combustion :-
1) When conc. Of combustible pollutants is below the lower explosive limit, thermal
incinerator is one of the choice for combustion.

2) This method is often used when the heating value of the waste gas in the range of 50-
750 KJ/m3.

3) Waste gas stream is preheated in a heat exchanger & then passed through the
combustion zone of a burner supplied with supplemental fuel.

4) Properly designed & operated incinerator can completely destroy the organic vapor
from the exist gases.

137
138
Catalytic Combustion :-
➢ Accelerates the rate of a chemical reaction

➢ Waste gas stream need not to be heated to high temp. as in thermal incineration.

➢ Catalytic oxidation proceed through:-

1) Adsorption of the gas on the active surface

2) Chemical reaction of combustible with oxygen

3) Desorption of reaction product from the surface

139
140
Absorption :-
1) Effluent gases are passed through absorber (scrubber) which contain liquid absorbents that
remove one or more of the air pollutants.

2) Absorbent are being used to remove SO2, H2S, SO3, F & NOx.

3) Some of the absorbents are regenerative while other are of non-regenerative.

4) Some of the absorbing solution that are used in the removing different gaseous pollutants
from gas stream are:-

➢ SO2 – Ammonia Sulphate, Alkaline Water, Calcium Sulphate

➢ NOx -- Water, Nitric Acid

➢ H2S -- NaOH & Phenol Mix

➢ HF – Water & NaOH

141
Absorption :-
➢ Efficiency of process depends upon:-

1) Amount of surface contact between gas & liquid.

2) Contact time

3) Conc. Of the absorbing medium

4) Speed of reaction between absorbent & gases

➢ Major Equipments:-

1) Packed Bed

2) Plate Tower

3) Bubble Cap Tower

4) Spray Tower

5) Liquid Jet Scrubber

142
Adsorption :-
1) Effluent gases are passed through adsorbent which contain solids of porous structure

2) Commonly used adsorbent include Activated Carbon, Silica Gel, Activated Alumina,
Lithium Chloride, etc.

3) Adsorption is a surface phenomenon and requires very large solid surface area.

4) Adsorption equipment is generally the packed bed of some porous adsorbing material.

5) Efficiency of removal of gases depends on:-

➢ Physical & chemical characteristics of the adsorbent.

➢ The conc. & nature of the gas to be adsorbed.

143
Adsorption :-
➢ The commonly used adsorbent for removal of gases are:

1) SO2 --- Limestone

2) NOx --- Silica Gel

3) VOCs ---- Activated Carbon

4) H2S --- Iron Oxide

144
145
Condensation :-
➢ Process of converting a gas to liquid.

➢ Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by lowering its temp. and/or increasing its
pressure.

➢ Used as pretreatment device ahead of absorption, adsorption & combustion.

➢ Condenser are of two types contact condenser & surface condenser.

1) Contact Condenser:- contact with cold liquid

2) Surface Condenser :- contact with cooled surface

➢ Removal efficiency ranges from 50 to 95 % depending upon design & application.

146
147
Bio-filter :- ( Biological Oxidation)
➢ Used to destroy VOCs & odor by microbial oxidation of these problem compounds.

➢ Most effective on water soluble material.

➢ Polluted air passed is passed through a wetted bed, which support a biomass of bacteria
that adsorb & metabolize pollutants.

➢ Efficiency over 98% are possible.

148
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