Chapter 3

Fundamentals of Logic
 Section 3.1

Number Systems
 Section 3.1.1

Decimal System
The radix or base of a number system determines
the total number of different symbols or digits
used by that system.
The decimal system has a base of 10 with
the digits 0 through 9 being used.
The value of a
decimal number
depends on the
digits that make
up the number
and the place
value of each
digit.
Section 3.1.2

Binary System
The binary system has a base of 2 and the only
allowable digits are 0 and 1.

With digital circuits it is easy to distinguish

between two voltage levels, which can be
related to the binary digits 1 and 0.
Since the binary system uses only two digits,
each position of a binary number can go through
only two changes, and then a 1 is carried to the
immediate left position.

All numbering systems start at zero.

NUMBER SYSTEMS

Decimal (base 10)

Binary (base 2)

Octal (base 8)

Hexadecimal (base 16)

Converting a binary number to a decimal number.
Each digit of a binary number is known as a bit.

Each word is capable of storing data in the form of bits.

A group of 8 bits is a byte.

The least significant bit (LSB) represents the smallest
value and the most significant bit (MSB) represents the
largest value.
PLC memory is organized using bytes, single
words, or double words.

If the memory size is

1 K word, it can
store 1024 words or
16,384 (1024 x 16)
bits of information
using 16-bit words,
Converting a decimal number to a binary number.
Computer memory is a series of binary 1s and 0s.

Output status file made up of single bits grouped into

16-bit words.
One 16-bit output file word is reserved for each slot in
the chassis.
Each bit represents the ON or OFF state of one output
point.
 Section 3.1.3

Negative Numbers
Binary systems can Signed Binary Numbers
not use positive and
negative symbols to
represent the polarity
of a number.

In signed binary
numbers, the left-most
bit is the equivalent of a
+/- sign. "0" indicates
that the number is
positive, "1" indicates
negative.
Another method of expressing a negative number
is by using the complement of a binary number.
To complement a binary number, change all the
1s to 0s and all the 0s to 1s. This is known as the
1’s complement form of a binary number.
2’s complement
is the binary
number that
results when
1 is added to the
1’s complement.

0 sign bit indicates

a positive number.

1 sign bit indicates

a negative number.
Section 3.1.4

Octal System
The octal
numbering
system is a
base 8 system Numbers
8 and 9
not allowed
 Octal is a convenient means of handling
large binary numbers.
One octal digit can
be used to express
three binary digits.

Converting an octal number

to a decimal number.
Octal converts easily to binary equivalents.

The octal number 462 is converted to its binary

equivalent by assembling the 3-bit groups.
 Section 3.1.5

Hexadecimal System

Copyright (c) 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education
The hexadecimal (hex) system is a base 16 system.

Letters A to
F are used
to represent
decimal
numbers
10 to 15.
 The hex numbering system is used in PLCs
because a word of data consists of 16 data bits.
Converting hexadecimal to decimal.

Hexadecimal digits in the columns are multiplied by the

base 16 weight, depending on digit significance.
Converting decimal to hexadecimal.

Conversion is accomplished by writing the 4-bit

binary equivalent of the hex digit for each position.
 Section 3.1.6

Binary Coded Decimal System

[BCD]
The binary
coded decimal
(BCD) system
uses 4 bits to
represent each
decimal digit.

The 4 bits used

are the binary
equivalents of the
numbers from
0 to 9.
The BCD representation of a decimal number
is obtained by replacing each decimal digit by
its BCD equivalent.
To distinguish the BCD numbering system
from a binary system, a BCD designation
is placed to the right of the units digit.

Decimal 4910 expressed is binary is

1100012

Decimal 4910 expressed in BCD is 01001001BCD

 A thumbwheel switch is an input device that
makes use of the BCD numbering system.
The input module
attached to the
thumbwheel has one
connection for each
bit’s weighted value.

Selected digit of
decimal 8 outputs the
equivalent 4 bits of
BCD data – 1000BCD
Single Digit Thumbwheel Switch Simulation

Decimal Settings Binary Input

Double Digit Thumbwheel Switch Simulation

Decimal Settings Binary Input

PLCs contain number conversion functions.

The Convert-to-BCD instruction will convert the binary

bit pattern at the source address, N7:23, into a BCD
bit pattern of the same decimal value and store it at the
destination address, O:20.
 Many PLCs allow you to change the format
of the data that the data monitor displays.

The change radix function found on Allen-Bradley

controllers allows you to change the display format of
data to binary, octal, decimal, or hexadecimal.
Change Radix Function Simulation
Section 3.2

Codes
Section 3.2.1

Gray Code
The Gray code is set up so that as we progress
from one number to the next, only one bit changes.
Each position does not
have a definite weight.
This can be quite
confusing for counting
circuits, but it is ideal
for encoder circuits.
 Gray codes are used with position encoders
for accurate control of the motion of robots,
machine tools, and servomechanisms.

Source: Photo courtesy Avtron, www.avtron.com.

Since only one bit changes at a time, the Gray code is

considered to be an error-minimizing code.
Optical encoder disk that uses a 4-bit Gray code.

Source: Photo courtesy Baumer Electric.

The encoder disk is attached to a rotating shaft and

outputs a digital Gray code signal that is used to
determine the position of the shaft.
 Section 3.2.2

ASCII Code

Copyright (c) 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education
 ASCII stands for American Standard Code
for Information Interchange.

It is an
alphanumeric
code because it
includes letters as
well as numbers.
The keystrokes on the keyboard of a computer
are converted directly into ASCII for
processing by the computer.

The communication interfacing is done through

either an RS-232 or RS-422 protocol.
ASCII input modules convert ASCII code input
information from an external device to alphanumeric
information that the PLC can process.
Section 3.2.3

Parity Bit
Some PLC communication systems use a binary
bit to check the accuracy of data transmission.

When data are transferred

between PLCs, one of the
binary digits may be
accidentally changed from
a 1 to a 0.

A parity bit is used to detect errors that may occur

while a word is moved.
 Parity is a system in which each character
transmitted contains one additional parity bit.
The parity bit may be a 0
or 1, depending on the
number of 1s and 0s in
the character itself.
Odd parity means that the
total number of binary 1 bits
in the character, including the
parity bit, is odd.
Even parity means that the number of binary 1 bits in
the character, including the parity bit, is even.
 Section 3.2.4

Binary Arithmetic
When adding with binary numbers, there are
only four conditions that can occur:
Binary addition
example
Binary addition example cont.
To subtract from larger binary numbers, subtract
column by column, borrowing from the adjacent
column when necessary. When borrowing from
the adjacent column, there are now two digits,
i.e., 0 borrow 1 gives 10.
Binary numbers can also be negative. The procedure
for this calculation is identical to that of decimal numbers
because the smaller value is subtracted from the larger
value and a negative sign is placed in front of the result.
 There are other methods available for doing
subtraction: 1’s complement and 2’s complement.
Using the 1’s complement

When there is a carry at the end of the result, the result

is positive. When there is no carry, then the result is
negative and a minus sign has to be placed in front of it.
When there is a carry at the end of the result, the result
is positive. When there is no carry, then the result is
negative and a minus sign has to be placed in front of it.
For subtraction using the 2’s complement, the 2’s
complement is added instead of subtracting the
numbers. In the result, if the carry is a 1, then the
result is positive; if the carry is a 0, then the result
is negative and requires a minus sign.
When multiplying binary
numbers, there are only
four conditions that can
occur:
The process for dividing one binary number by
another is the same for both binary and decimal
numbers.
PLC data comparison instructions are used
to compare the data stored in two words.

At times, devices may need to be controlled

when they are less than, equal to, or greater
than other data values or set points.
 Section 3.2.5

Floating Point Arithmetic

 Features of Floating-point Arithmetic
➢ Support a much wider range of values in that it
can represent numbers that are very small or very
large.
➢ Provides an easy method of dealing with fractions.
Left side is the Right side is
significand, or the exponent
Mantissa. value.

The significand contains the number's digits and the

exponent indicates where the decimal point is located.

Decimal floating-point numbers usually take the form

of scientific notation with a decimal point always
between the 1st and 2nd digits.
The sign is represented by a single bit. A 1 bit indicates a
negative number, and a 0 bit indicates a positive number.
The mantissa, always a positive number, holds the
significant digits of the floating-point number.
The exponent indicates the positive or negative power of
the radix that the mantissa and sign are be multiplied by.
Single precision: 32 bits, consisting of
Sign bit (1 bit)
Exponent (8 bits)
Mantissa (23 bits)
Double precision: 64 bits, consisting of
Sign bit (1 bit)
Exponent (11 bits)
Mantissa (52 bits)

Decimal number 23.5 represented in a single

precision 32-bit floating point binary format.