Calculate Annular Capacity

Annular capacity is volume of fluid between two diameter of cylindrical objects per length or length per volume. This
article demonstrates you how to calculate annular capacity between casing or hole and drill pipe, tubing, or casing. There are
several formulas as shown below to calculate annular capacity depending on unit of annular capacity required.

Note: Dh is bigger ID and Dp is smaller OD. The examples below will show the Dh as hole size and Dp is drill pipe OD

Oilfield Unit
a) Calculate annular capacity in bbl/ft
Annular capacity in bbl/ft = (Dh – Dp ) ÷1029.4 2 2

Where;
Dh in inch
Dp in inch
Example: Hole size (Dh) = 6-1/8 in.
Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 3.5 in.
Annular capacity in bbl/ft = (6.125 – 3.5 ) ÷1029.4
2 2

Annular capacity = 0.0245 bbl/ft

Annular volume in bbl = annular capacity (bbl/ft) x length of annulus (ft)
Example:
Annular capacity = 0.0245 bbl/ft
Length of annulus = 1000 ft
Annular volume = 1000 x 0.0245 = 24.5 bbl.

b) Calculate annular capacity in gal/ft

Annular capacity in gal/ft = (Dh – Dp ) ÷ 24.51
2 2

Where;
Dh in inch
Dp in inch
Example:
Hole size (Dh) = 6-1/8 in.
Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 3.5 in.
Annular capacity in gal/ft = (6.125 – 3.5 ) ÷24.51
2 2

Annular capacity = 1.031 gal/ft

Metric Unit
c) Calculate annular capacity in cu-meter/meter (m /m) 3

Annular capacity in m /m = (Dh – Dp ) ÷1,273,240

3 2 2

Where;
Dh in mm
Dp in mm
Example:
Hole size (Dh) = 155.56 mm.
Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 88.90 mm.
Annular capacity in m /m = (155.56 – 88.90 ) ÷1,273,240
3 2 2

Annular capacity = 0.0128 m /m 3

Annular volume in m = annular capacity (m /m) x length of annulus (m)
3 3

Example:
Annular capacity = 0.0128 m /m 3

Length of annulus = 330 m

Annular volume = 330 x 0.0128 = 4.224 m . 3

d) Calculate annular capacity in litre/meter (l/m)

Annular capacity in m /m = (Dh – Dp ) ÷1,273.24
3 2 2

Where;
Dh in mm
Dp in mm
Example:
Hole size (Dh) = 155.56 mm.
Drill pipe OD (Dp) = 88.90 mm.
Annular capacity in m /mt = (155.56 – 88.90 ) ÷1,273.24
3 2 2

Annular capacity =12.8 l/m

Calculate inner capacity of open hole/inside cylindrical objects (Internal Capacity Factor)
From the previous post, you learn how to calculate annular capacity and this article shows you how to use the same principle to calculate internal capacity factor of open
hole & inside cylindrical objects such as tubular, drill pipe, drill collars, tubing, casing, etc.

Oilfield Unit
Calculate Internal Capacity Factor in bbl/ft
Inner Capacity in bbl/ft = (ID) ÷1029.4 2

Where;
Internal Diameter (ID) in inch
Example:
Determine Internal Capacity Factor in bbl/ft of a 6-1/8 in. hole:
Internal Capacity Factor in bbl/ft = 6.125 ÷1029.4 2

Internal Capacity Factor in bbl/ft = 0. 0364 bbl/ft

Volume = Internal Capacity Factor x LengthWhere; Volume in bbl, nternal Capacity Factor in bbl/ft, Length in ft
Example:
Internal Capacity Factor = 0. 0364 bbl/ft, Hole Length = 3,000 ft, Volume = 0. 0364 x 3,000 = 109.2 bbl.

Calculate Internal Capacity Factor in gal/ft

Inner Capacity in gal/ft = (ID in.) ÷24.51 2

Where;
Internal Diameter (ID) in inch
Example:
Determine Inner Capacity Factor in gal/ft of 6-1/8 in. hole:
Internal Capacity Factor in gal/ft = 6.125 ÷ 24.51 2

Internal Capacity Factor in gal/ft = 1.53 gal/ft

Metric Unit
Calculate Internal Capacity Factor in cu-meter/meter (m /m) 3

Annular capacity in m /m = (ID ) ÷1,273,240

3 2

Where;
Internal Diameter (ID) in mm
Example:
Hole size (ID) = 155.56 mm.
Internal Capacity Factor in m /m = (155.56 ) ÷1,273,240
3 2

Internal Capacity Factor in m /m = 0.0190 m /m

3 3
Calculate Internal Capacity Factor in liter/meter (l/m)
Annular capacity in m /m = (ID ) ÷1,273.24
3 2

Where;
Internal Diameter (ID) in mm
Example:
Hole size (ID) = 155.56 mm.
Internal Capacity Factor in l/m = (155.56 ) ÷1,273.24 2

Internal Capacity Factor in l/m = 19.0 l/m

Volume = Internal Capacity Factor x Length Where; Volume in m3,
Example:
Internal Capacity Factor in m /m = 0.0190 m /m
3 3

Hole Length = 3,000 m

Volume = 0. 0190 x 3,000 = 57 m 3

How Does 1029.4 Come From?

1029.4 is used in several calculations in the oilfield and we’ve been asked about what is 1029.4, how it comes from, why it needs to be this figure so in this article, we will
show you how 1029.4 comes from.
First of all, we would like to give someone about the background of this figure. The 1029.4 is widely used for capacity calculations. The following
equations utilizing 1029.4 are listed below;
Annular capacity, bbl/ft = (OD – ID ) ÷ 1029.4
2 2

Internal capacity, bbl/ft = ID ÷ 1029.4

2

Where;
ID, OD are in inch.
Annular capacity and internal capacity are in bbl/ft.
As you can see, 1029.4 is the unit conversion used to convert square inch into bbl/ft.
Let’s see how we can find this figure mathematically.
Area of circle (square inch) = (π÷4) x D 2

D is diameter in inch.
For oilfield unit, the diameter (D) is inch.
In term of mathematic, Area (square inch) is equal to Volume per Height, cubic inch (in ) per inch (in).
3

Cubic inch per inch is not typically used in oilfield and oilfield unit usually uses bbl for volume and ft for length. Therefore, we need to convert from
in /in to bbl/ft.
3

The following figures are unit conversions used for the calculation.
1 bbl = 9702 cubic inch (in ) 3

1 inch = 0.08333 ft
Based on the unit conversions and Area of circle formula, we can put everything together like this.

This is the final formula.

You can see that 1029.4 is the final conversion unit for this formula.

Calculate Influx Height

Once you know how much pit gain you got, you are able to determine influx height. Please take a look at the figure below for more
understanding.
The influx height can be calculated by this following equation.

Influx height = Pit gain ÷ annular capacity

Where: influx height in ft,
Pit gain in bbl
Annular capacity in bbl/ft
The annular capacity can change depending on how big of your pipe and your hole.
Note: if you would like to get more understanding regarding annular capacity, please check this link, Annular Capacity Calculation.
Let’s get more understanding about it via this example.
Pit gain = 25 bbl
Hole size = 8.5 inch
BHA OD = 6 inch
BHA length = 420 ft
Drill pipe size = 5 inch
Firstly, you need to know annular capacity between BHA and hole.
Annular capacity, bbl/ft = (8.5 – 6 ) ÷ 1029.4 = 0.0325 bbl/ft
2 2

You can calculate how much annular volume between hole and drill collar via this following equation.
Annular Volume, bbl = BHA length x annular capacity
Annular Volume, bbl = 420 x 0.0325 = 14.8 bbl

Because you gain a total of 25 bbl, there will be some influx above the BHA.
Influx above the BHA, bbl = Total pit gain – Annular volume between hole and drill collar
Influx above the BHA, bbl = 25 – 14.8 = 10.2 bbl

Secondly, after knowing that 10.2 bbl of influx above the BHA, you need to convert this volume into height so as to determine
height of the influx.
Determine annular capacity between drill pipe an hole.
Annular capa แ ity, bbl/ft = (8.5 – 5 ) ÷ 1029.4 = 0.0459 bbl/ft
2 2

Determine height of 10.2 bbl influx across 5” DP.

Height, ft = Volume, bbl ÷ Annular Capacity, bbl/ft
Height, ft = 10.2 ÷ 0.0459 = 222 ft
It means that there is 222 ft of influx across DP so you can determine the total influx height:
Height of influx = 222 + 420 = 642 ft
Determine Bottom Hole Pressure from Wellhead Pressure in a Dry Gas Well
Gas behaves differently from fluid therefore you cannot use a simple hydrostatic formula to determine reservoir pressure. Gas is compressible but fluid is
incompressible.
The formula to determine the bottom hole pressure of dry gas well is shown below;

Where;
Pbh = bottom hole pressure in psia (absolute pressure)
Pwh = wellhead pressure in psia (absolute pressure)
H = true vertical depth of the well
Sg = specific gravity of gas
R = 53.36 ft-lb/lb-R (gas constant for API standard condition air)
Tav = average temperature in Rankin (Rankin = Fahrenheit + 460)
Example: The dry gas well is shut in and the well head pressure is 2,000 psig (gauge pressure). The average wellbore temperature is 160
F. Gas specific gravity is 0.75. The well is 9,000’ TVD and the wellhead is on land. Determine the bottom hole pressure and compare the
result if you use a normal relationship from hydrostatic pressure calculation.
Pwh = 2,000 + 14.7 = 2,014.7 psia
H = 9,000 TVD
Sg = 0.75
Tav = 160 + 460 = 620 °R

Pbh = 2,471 psia

Pbh = 2,471 – 14.7 = 2,456 psig
If you use hydrostatic pressure calculation, the bottom hole pressure is calculated by the following equation.
Pbh = Pwh + (0.052 x average gas density (ppg) x TVD of the well, ft)
Average air density at 160 F is 6.404 x 10 (lb/ft ) = 8.56 x 10 ppg
-2 3 -3

Average gas density at 160 F = gas specific gravity x Average air density at 160 F
Average gas density at 160 F = 0.75 x 8.56 x 10 ppg = 6.42 x 10 ppg
-3 -3

Pbh = 2000 + (0.052x6.42 x 10 x9,000)= 2003 psia

-3
Volume Gain from Slug
Slug mud is typically pumped into the drill string in order to push the mud inside the drill pipe down so the
drill pipe will be clean and ready for pulling out of hole. Since slug is heavier, it will push the lighter mud
out of the well. Figure 1 demonstrates how slug displaces current mud out of hole

The volume of mud pushed out of the well, typically called “volume gain from slug” can be determined by the equation below;
Volume Gain from Slug = Slug Volume × (Slug Weight – Current Mud Weight) ÷ Current Mud Weight
Calculation Oilfield Unit
Units used in oilfield are listed below;
 Volume Gain from Slug in bbl
 Slug Volume in bbl
 Slug Weight in ppg
 Current Mud Weight in ppg
Example: Determine volume gain from slug with the following parameters.
Volume slug = 30 bbl
Current mud weight = 12 ppg
Slug weight = 15 ppg
Volume Gain from Slug = 30 × (15- 12) ÷ 12
Volume Gain from Slug = 7.5 bbl
Calculation Metric Unit
Units used in metric are listed below;
 Volume Gain from Slug in m³
 Slug Volume in m³
 Slug Weight in kg/m³
 Current Mud Weight in kg/m³
Example: Determine volume gain from slug with the following parameters.
Volume slug = 5 m³
Current mud weight = 1,440 kg/m³
Slug weight = 1,800 kg/m³
Volume Gain from Slug = 5 × (1,800 – 1,440) ÷ 1,440
Volume Gain from Slug = 1.3 m³
What is slug mud? How much volume and weight of slug mud should be?
Slug Mud: It is heavy mud which is used to push lighter mud weight down before pulling drill pipe out of hole. Slug is used when pipe became wet
while pulling out of hole.
Normally, 1.5 to 2 PPG over current mud weight is a rule of thumb to decide how much weight of slug should be. For example, current mud weight is 10
PPG. Slug weight should be about 11.5 to 12 PPG.
Normally, slug is pumped to push mud down approximate 200 ft (+/2 stands) and slug volume can be calculated by applying a concept of U-tube (see a
figure below)
Volume of slug can be calculated by this following equation:

This equation expresses that the higher slug volume, the deeper of dry in drill pipe is met. As per the above equation, length of dry pipe
can be substituted by 200 ft.
In normal practice, slug volume pumped to clean drill pipe is around 15-25 bbl depending on drillpipe size. Moreover, it also depends on
situations because sometime mud in annulus side may be heavier than measured MW due to cutting, drilling solid contaminated in mud,
hence more slug volume is needed.

Fracture Gradient Reduction Due to Water Depth

Fracture gradient is one of the critical information which drilling engineers need to know in order to design drilling programs. For the
well control stand point, the fracture gradient directly affects on how much influx volume can be successfully contained in the wellbore.
If the wellbore pressure is over the fracture pressure, formations would be broken down and this situation will result in loss of drilling
fluid into formations. Additionally, it might lead to well control situation because of loss of hydrostatic pressure. Fracture gradient is quite
straight forward for land operation because it will not be reduce due to water column. However, the fracture gradient will be reduced in
deepwater environment. In this article, we will discuss why water depth can cause the reduction in fracture gradient.
Basically, the fracture gradient is related to fluids occupying in pore spaces of rock and weight of rock which are called overburden
pressure. Generally, the overburden of a typical sedimentary is about 1.0 psi/ft (19.2 ppg). Rocks will be fractured when the wellbore
pressure exceeds the confining stresses acting on it. If we make a general assumption that the overburden pressure causes the minimum
confining stress of the rock. Then the formation fracture gradient will not be 1.0 psi/ft if the location is offshore.
Note: this assumption is made in order to help you get more understanding on how and why water depth can decrease the formation
fracture gradient.
Why does the water depth reduce fracture gradient?
Water has less density than rock and when it is calculated into overburden pressure, it will reduce overall overburden
pressure. For the calculations in this article, we will use 1.0 psi/ft as the overburden of the rock.
Let’s take a look at the examples below;
1st Example – Comparison between land and offshore location at 4,000’ TVD.
Land operation at 4,000’ TVD (Figure 1):

Overburden at 4,000’ TVD = 4,000 x 1 = 4,000 psi

Convert 4,000 psi at 4,000’ TVD in to ppg = 4,000 ÷ (0.052 x 4,000) = 19.23 ppg
Offshore operation at 4,000’ TVD with a water depth of 2,000 ft (Figure 2)
Water density is 0.45 psi/ft.
Overburden pressure = (0.45 x 2,000) + (1.0 x 2,000) = 2,900 psi
From the first example, you will see that at 4,000’ TVD, water depth will reduce the overburden from 19.23 ppg to 13.94 ppg.
2 Example – Comparison between land and offshore location at 15,000’ TVD.
nd

Land operation at 15,000’ TVD (Figure 3)

Overburden at 15,000’ TVD = 15,000 x 1 = 15,000 psi
Convert 15,000 psi at 15,000’ TVD in to ppg = 15,000 ÷ (0.052 x 15,000) = 19.23 ppg
Offshore operation at 15,000’ TVD with a water depth of 2,000 ft (Figure 4)
We will use the same water depth of 2,000 ft but the well depth is at 15,000’ TVD for offshore operation
Overburden pressure = (0.45 x 2,000) + (1.0 x 13,000) = 13,900 psi
Convert 2,900 psi at 4000’ TVD in to ppg = 13,900 ÷ (0.052 x 15,000) = 17.82 ppg
As you can see in the second example, the overburden of the formation still decreases due to water depth. However, it has less effect than
the shallow well.

Conclusion
Water depth will reduce the formation fracture pressure and offshore wells will have smaller margin between mud weight and fracture
pressure than land wells because of water depth effect. At the same water depth, the fracture pressure at the shallower section will be
decreased more than the deeper depth. What’s more, particularly at a shallow depth where the average overburden is greatly reduced by
water column, more casing strings are required to reach the plan casing depth.

Volume of Cutting Generated While Drilling

While drilling, cuttings are generated every footage drilled and this topic will demonstrate how to determine volume of cutting entering
into the wellbore.

The following formula is used to calculate cutting volume generated while drilling;

Where;
Vc is volume of cutting in bbl/hr.
Ø is formation porosity (%).
D is wellbore diameter in inch.
ROP is rate of penetration in feet per hour.
Vc can be presented in several unit as follows;
Vc in gallon per hour is shown below;

Vc in gallon per minute is shown below;

Example: Determine volume of cutting in gallon per hour entering into the well bases on the following information.
Well depth 9,500’ MD/8,000’ TVD.
Average ROP = 80 fph
Average formation porosity = 20 %
Bit size = 8-1/2”
Assume gauge hole
Vc in gallon per hour is shown below;

Vc = 188.8 gallon/hr
This figure tells you that with the drilling parameter, you must be able to remove the cutting faster than what you generate in order to
eliminate operation issues as stuck pipe.
Amount of cuttings produced per foot of hole and total solid generated
After learning about capacity calculation, we can apply the capacity calculation to determine how much barrels of
cutting produced per foot of hole drilled and total solid generated in pounds.
Please read and understand the following formulas:
Use formula#1 and #2 for calculating amount of cutting generated per feet drilled.
Formula#1 for BARRELS of cuttings drilled per foot of hole drilled:
Barrels of cutting per foot drilled = Dh x (1 – % porosity) ÷1029.4
2

Where: Dh is hole diameter in inch.

Example: Determine barrels of cuttings drilled for one foot of 6-1/8 inch hole with 25% (0.25) porosity:
Barrels/footage drilled = 6.125 x (1 – 0.25) ÷1029.4
2

Barrels/footage drilled = 0.02733 bbl/footage drilled

Formula#2 for CUBIC FEET of cuttings drilled per foot of hole drilled:
Cubic feet of cutting per foot drilled = Dh2 x 0.7854 x (1 – % porosity) ÷144
Where: Dh is hole diameter in inch.
Example: Determine barrels of cuttings drilled for one foot of 6-1/8 inch hole with 25% (0.25) porosity
Cubic feet/footage drilled = 6.1252 x 0.7854 x (1 – 0.25) ÷144
Cubic feet/footage drilled = 0.153462 cu ft/footage drilled
Moreover, you also apply sample density and volume relationship to determine total solids generated. Use the following formula to
calculate total solid generated.
Wcg = 350 x Ch x L x (l – porosity) x Cutting density
Where;
Wcg = solids generated in pounds
Ch = capacity of hole in bbl/ft
L = footage drilled in ft
Cutting density = cutting density in gm/cc
Example: Determine the total pounds of solids generated in drilling 100 ft of 6-1/8 inch hole (0.03644 bbl/ft).
Density of cuttings = 2.20 gm/cc.
Porosity = 25%:
Wcg = 350 x 0.03644 x 100 x (1 – 0.25) x 2.2
Wcg = 2104.41 pounds
Increase In Mud Weight Due To Cutting
Cutting generated while drilling will increase drilling fluid density and it will finally affect equivalent circulating density while drilling.
In this topic, we will talk about how to determine mud weight increase due to cutting.

Effective mud density due to cuttings in the hole can be determined by the empirical equation below;

Where;
ρeff is effective mud density in ppg.
ρm is mud density in ppg.
Q is flow rate in gpm.
ROP is rate of penetration in fph.
db is wellbore diameter or bit diameter in inch.
The effective mud density is the combination of drilling mud density and cutting density. We can write in term of equation below.
ρeff = ρm + ρc — Equation 2
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) consists of three components given by the equation below;
ECD = ρm + ρc + ρa — Equation 3
Where;
ρeff is effective mud density in ppg.
ρm is mud density in ppg.
ρc is cutting density in ppg.
ρa is annular pressure loss in ppg.
As you can see from the equation 1 and 3, the more the well is drilled, the more effective mud density which will increase ECD of the
well.
Example: The well was drilled with 12-1/4” bit and the average ROP is 150 fph. Flow rate while drilling is 900 gpm and the rig was
using 9.2 ppg mud (Figure 2). Determine the effective mud density from the information.
The parameters given are listed below;
ρm = 9.2 ppg
Q = 900 gpm
ROP = 150 pfh
db = 12.25 inch
Using the equation#1, we will get the effective mud density.

ρeff = 9.39 ppg

The effective mud density is 9.39 ppg. It means that you will have 2% increase in mud weight due to cutting with these drilling
parameters.
Maximum ROP Before Fracture Formation
In this topic, we will apply the effective mud density formula to determine maximum ROP before fracturing formation.

These two equations that will be used to determine the maximum ROP are listed below;
Effective mud density due to cuttings in the hole can be determined by the empirical equation below;

Where;
ρeff is effective mud density in ppg.
ρm is mud density in ppg.
Q is flow rate in gpm.
ROP is rate of penetration in fph.
db is wellbore diameter or bit diameter in inch.
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) consists of three components given by the equation below;
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) = ρm + ρc + ρa — Equation 2
Where;
ρm is mud density in ppg.
ρc is cutting density in ppg.
ρa is annular pressure loss in ppg.
How To Apply These Two Concepts
Formation will be fractured if the ECD while drilling is more than fracture gradient. Additionally, besides mud weight (ρm), cutting
density and annular pressure loss due to hydraulic contributes to ECD.
The ECD can be described in term of effective density and annular pressure as listed below;
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) = ρm + ρc + ρa — Equation 2
ρeff = ρm + ρc — Equation 3
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) = ρeff + ρa — Equation 4
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) = Fracture Gradient (FG) — Equation 5
With those relationships above, we can derive the maximum ROP into the following formulas.

Example – Determine the maximum ROP for this well.

Leak off test at shoe is 12.5 ppg.
The well was drilled to 9,500’MD/9,500’TVD
Mud weight is 10.5 ppg.
Annular pressure loss is 600 psi.
Flow rate is 800 gpm.
Hole size is 12.25”.
Solution
ECD should not exceed the leak off test value; therefore ECD is equal to 12.5 ppg.
Annular pressure loss (ρa) = 600 ÷ (0.052 x 9,500) = 1.21 ppg

Max ROP = 647.2 fph

Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) in both Oilfield and Metric Unit

Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) is the effective density that combines current mud density and annular pressure drop. ECD is
vital for drilling engineering since it limits how depth of each section to be drilled and leads to losses.
Oilfield Unit
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) = (Annular Pressure Loss ÷ 0.052 ÷ True Vertical Depth (TVD)) + (Current Mud Weight)
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) in ppg
Annular Pressure Loss in psi
True Vertical Depth (TVD) in ft
Current Mud Weight in pppg
Example:
Annular pressure loss = 400 psi
True Vertical Depth = 8,000 ft
Current mud weight in ppg = 10 ppg
ECD in ppg = (400 psi ÷ 0.052 ÷ 8,000 ft) +10.0 ppg
ECD = 11.0 ppg
Metric Unit
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) = (Annular Pressure Loss × 1000 ÷ 9.81÷ True Vertical Depth (TVD) ) + (Current Mud
Weight)
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) in kg/m3
Annular Pressure Loss in KPa
True Vertical Depth (TVD) in m
Current Mud Weight in kg/m3
Example:
Annular pressure loss = 2760 KPa
True Vertical Depth = 2,440 m
Current mud weight in ppg = 1200 kg/m3
ECD in ppg = (2,760 Kpa × 1000 ÷ 9.81÷ 2,440 m ) + 1,200 kg/m3
ECD = 1,315 kg/m3

Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) Using Yield Point for MW More than 13 ppg
Another equation to determine equivalent circulating density is to use yield point.

This formula below is used to calculate the ECD and it is good for mud weight more than to 13.0 ppg

Where:
ECD is equivalent circulating density in ppg.
MW is mud weight in ppg.
Hold ID is inside diameter of hole in inch.
Pipe OD is outside diameter of pipe in inch.
YP is mud yield point.
YP can be calculated by these following equations.
YP = Reading at 300 rpm – PV
PV = Reading at 600 rpm – Reading at 300 rpm
AV is annular velocity in ft/min
AV can be determined by the following equation.
AV in ft/min = (24.5 x Q) ÷ (Dh2 – Dp2)
where
Q = flow rate in gpm
Dh = inside diameter of casing or hole size in inch
Dp = outside diameter of drill pipe, drill collars, or tubing in inch
Determine the ECD with the following information
MW = 13.5 ppg
Reading at 300 = 25
Reading at 600 = 40
Hole diameter = 6.2
Pipe diameter = 4
Flow rate = 200 gpm
AV in ft/min = (24.5 x 200) ÷ (6.22 – 42) = 218.4 ft/min
PV = 40 – 25 = 15
YP = 25- 15 = 10

ECD = 14.2 ppg

Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) Using Yield Point for MW less than 13 ppg
Another way to determine equivalent circulating density (ECD) is to use yield point.

This formula below is used to calculate the ECD and it is good for mud weight less than or equal to 13.0 ppg.

Where:
ECD is equivalent circulating density in ppg
MW is mud weight in ppg
Hold ID is inside diameter of hole in inch
Pipe OD is outside diameter of pipe in inch
YP is mud yield point
YP can be calculated by these following equations
YP = Reading at 300 rpm – PV
PV = Reading at 600 rpm – Reading at 300 rpm
Determine the ECD with the following information
MW = 9.2 ppg
Reading at 300 = 25
Reading at 600 = 40
Hole diameter = 6.2
Pipe diameter = 4
PV = 40 – 25 = 15
YP = 25- 15 = 10
ECD = 9.7 ppg
Coring Cost Per Footage Drilled
Coring is a special process to recover wellbore rock in the well.

This article will demonstrate how to calculate coring cost per footage recovered.
Coring cost per footage recovered is expressed below;

Where;
Cc = coring cost per foot
Cb = cost of core bit
Cs = cost of coring service from a service company
Cr = rig day rate
tt = trip time, hour
tc = core recovering time, hour
trc = core barrel handling time, hour
L = length of core recovered, ft
Rc = percentage of core recover, %
Example – Geologist plans to do coring from 14,000 – 14,500 ft. The information for this operation is listed below;
Coring bit = 20,000 $
Coring service price = 120,000 $
Rig day rate = 100,000 $
Expected trip in and out time = 24hours
Core recovery time = 12 hours
Core and tool handling time = 4 hours
Expected core recovery = 90 %
Determine the expected coring cost per foot.

Solution
Cb = 20,000 $
Cs = 120,000 $
Cr = 100,000 $/day ( 4166.67 $/hr)
tt = 24 hrs
tc = 12 hrs
trc = 4 hrs
L = 500 (14,500 – 14,000)
Rc = 90 %
Cc =681.5 $/ft
Coring cost per footage drilled is 681.5 dollars.

What are the differences between Formation Integrity Test (FIT) and Leak Off Test
(LOT).?
You may confuse between Formation Integrity Test (FIT) and Leak Off Test (LOT).
Leak Off Test – you pressure test shoe and formation until formation break down.
Let’s I explain more about it: Leak off Test is conducted in order to find the fracture pressure (fracture gradient) of formation and shoe.
When conducting the LOT, you will pump drilling fluid to until you see the fracture trend of formation. Once formation is fractured, the
first pressure that deviated from a trend is typically called Leak Off Pressure. We use the leak off pressure to calculate LOT.
Leak Off Test (Procedures and Calculation)
Leak Off Test is conducted in order to find the fracture gradient of certain formation at casing shoe depth. The results of the leak off test
also dictate the maximum equivalent mud weight that should be applied to the well during drilling operations.
Oilfield Unit
Leak Off Test pressure in mud density
Leak off test in equivalent mud weight = (Leak Off Test pressure ÷ 0.052 ÷ Casing Shoe TVD ) + (Current Mud Weight)
Where;
Leak off test in equivalent mud weight in ppg
Leak Off Test pressure in psi
Casing Shoe TVD in ft
Current Mud Weight in ppg
Note: Always round down for LOT calculation
Example:
Leak off test pressure = 1,600 psi
Casing shoe TVD = 4,000 ft
Mud weight = 9.2 ppg
Leak off test in equivalent mud weight (ppg) = (1,600 psi ÷ 0.052 ÷ 4,000 ft )+ 9.2ppg = 16.8 ppg
Metric Unit
Leak Off Test pressure in mud density
Leak off test in equivalent mud weight = (Leak Off Test pressure ÷ 0.00981 ÷ Casing Shoe TVD ) + (Current Mud Weight)
Where;
Leak off test in equivalent mud weight in kg/m3
Leak Off Test pressure in KPa
Casing Shoe TVD in m
Current Mud Weight in kg/m3
Note: Always round down for LOT calculation
Example:
Leak off test pressure = 1,740 KPa
Casing shoe TVD = 1,300 m
Mud weight = 1,100 Kg/m3
Leak off test in equivalent mud weight (Kg/m3) = (1,740 KPa ÷ 0.00981 ÷ 1,300 m)+ 1,100 Kg/m3 = 1,236 Kg/m3
Leak Off Test (LOT) guide line procedures are as follows (note: this is just only guide line).
You may need to follow your standard procedure in order to perform leak off test):
1. Drill out new formation few feet, circulate bottom up and collect sample to confirm that new formation is drilled to and then pull string
into the casing.
2. Close annular preventer or pipe rams, line up a pump, normally a cement pump, and circulate through an open choke line to ensure that
surface line is fully filled with drilling fluid.
3. Stop the pump and close a choke valve.
4. Gradually pump small amount of drilling fluid into well with constant pump stroke. Record total pump strokes, drill pipe pressure and
casing pressure. Drill pipe pressure and casing pressure will be increased continually while pumping mud in hole. When plot a graph
between strokes pumped and pressure, if formation is not broken, a graph will demonstrate straight line relationship. When pressure
exceeds formation strength, formation will be broken and let drilling fluid permeate into formation, therefore a trend of drill pipe/casing
pressure will deviate from straight line that mean formation is broken and is injected by drilling fluid. We may call pressure when
deviated from straight line as leak off test pressure.
5. Bleed off pressure and open up the well. Then proceed drilling operation.

Formation Integrity Test – you test strength of shoe and formation to designed pressure.
Let’s I explain more about it: Formation Integrity Test is typically used for testing strength of formation and shoe by increasing Bottom
Hole Pressure (BHP) to designed pressure. When you do the FIT test, you will increase surface pressure until it reaches the required
pressure only. There is no intention to break the formation with FIT. You will do FIT to ensure that you will be able to drill to section
target depth and will be able to control the well in case of well control situation without underground blow out.
In term of a calculation, both FIT and LOT have the same formulas. You can read more detailed calculations about Formation Integrity
Test (FIT) and Leak Off Test (LOT).
Note: the way people call leak off test pressure depends on each company standard practices.
Formation Integrity Test (FIT) Procedure and Calculation
Formation Integrity Test is a method to test strength of formation and shoe by increasing Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP) to designed
pressure. FIT is normally conducted to ensure that formation below a casing shoe will not be broken while drilling the next section with
higher BHP or circulating gas influx in a well control situation. Normally, drilling engineers will design how much formation integrity
test pressure required for each hole section.
The formula below demonstrates you how to calculate required FIT pressure.
Oilfield Unit
Pressure required for FIT = (Required FIT – Current Mud Weight) × 0.052 × True Vertical Depth of shoe
Where
Pressure required for FIT in psi
Required FIT in ppg
Current Mud Weight in ppg
True Vertical Depth of shoe in ft
Note: FIT pressure must be rounded down.
Example:
Required FIT (ppg) = 14.5
Current mud weight (ppg) = 9.2
Shoe depth TVD (ft) = 4000 TVD
Pressure required for FIT = (14.5-9.2) × 0.052 × 4000 = 1,102 psi
Metric Unit
Pressure required for FIT = (Required FIT – Current Mud Weight) × 0.00981 × True Vertical Depth of shoe
Where
Pressure required for FIT in KPa
Required FIT in Kg/m3
Current Mud Weight in Kg/m3
True Vertical Depth of shoe in m
Note: FIT pressure must be rounded down.
Example:
Required FIT (Kg/m3) = 1740
Current mud weight (Kg/m3) = 1100
Shoe depth TVD (m) = 1300 m
Pressure required for FIT = (1740-1300) × 0.00981 × 1300 = 8,161 KPa
Formation Integrity Test (FIT) guideline is listed below: (note: this is just only guide line. You may need to follow your standard
procedure in order to perform formation integrity test):
1. Drill out new formation few feet, circulate bottom up and collect sample to confirm that new formation is drilled to and then pull string
into the casing.
2. Close annular preventer or pipe rams, line up a pump, normally a cement pump, and circulate through an open choke line to ensure that
surface line is fully filled with drilling fluid.
3.Stop the pump and close a choke valve.
4. Gradually pump small amount of drilling fluid into well with constant pump stroke. Record total pump strokes, drill pipe pressure and
casing pressure. Pump until casing pressure reaches the pressure required for formatin integrity test. Hold pressure for few minutes to
confirm pressure.
5. Bleed off pressure and open up the well. Then proceed drilling operation.
Please find the Excel sheet – calculate pressure required for formation integrity test.
What is Porosity?
Porosity is one of rock important rock properties and it is a measure of pore space in a rock.

Figure 1 shows the illustration of porosity and it can be seen that grain size and distribution can affect porosity of rock.
Porosity (ɸ) is mathematically expressed as a ratio of total void space with a rock to a total volume of rock.
Porosity (ɸ) = (Vp ÷ Vb) × 100
Where;
Vp = pore volume
Vb = bulk volume of rock
Porosity (ɸ) is shown in percentage form.
How To Measure Porosity
There are several methods to determine porosity as listed below
 Direct methods: measurement from core flush by fluid or air
 Indirect methods: well logging tools (density, neutron, and sonic)
Porosity (ɸ) can be classified into several types based on criteria;
Primary porosity: this is porosity in rock that was formed during sedimentation. Primary porosity depends on several factors, such as
depositional environment, grain size & shape, distribution of sand grain, cementation between sands, etc.
Secondary porosity: This is formed during rock diagenesis. Chemical reaction dissolves rock grains and it results in void spaces in the
rock.
Absolute porosity: It is a ratio of total pore space to a rock bulk volume. This will not account for voids which don’t connect to others.
Effective porosity: It is a ration of interconnected pore spaces to a rock bulk volume. This is a proper figure to use to calculate fluid
volume in a reservoir
Example: A core sample is 5 cm long and 3 cm diameter. In the lab, vacuum, 3.25 cm3, of air is removed from the pore spaces.
1. What is the bulk volume of the core sample?
Bulk volume = (π÷4) × Diameter2 × Core Length
Bulk volume = (π÷4) × 32 × 5
Bulk volume = 35.34 cm3
2. What is the pore volume?
This is the volume of air vacuumed so pore space is 3.52 cm2
3. What is the porosity of the rock?
Porosity (ɸ) = (Vp ÷ Vb) × 100
Porosity (ɸ) = (3.52 ÷ 35.34) × 100
Porosity (ɸ) = 10 %
4. Is it effective or total porosity?
This is effective porosity because it measures volume of air that can be removed from the core.
5 Steps To Heaven in Petroleum Geology
The 5 Steps to Heaven, which are source, migration, reservoir, seal and trap, is one of the most important concepts
of petroleum geology. This tells us how petroleum was formed, migrated and trapped in a reservoir. Please note that the 5 Steps to
Heaven is valid for conventional petroleum resources.

Source
Typically, organic matter from animals and plants is oxidized and turned an organic matter into carbon dioxide and water. However, if
organic matter is buried rapidly, it may be preserved and can be turned into petroleum. These following conditions enhance organic
matter preservation.
 High sedimentation rate
 Fine grain size so oxygen will not be able to penetrate and oxidize the organic matter
 Anoxic bottom water
These conditions are mostly found in shale and fine limestone, which are common source rocks.
Types of organic matter can be classified into three types.
Type 1 – Fresh Water Lake
 Fine algae
 H:C ratio about 1.6 – 1.8
 Tends to be more oil with a low amount of gas
Type 2 –Marine Environment
 Single cell plankton, algae and bacteria
 H:C ratio about 1.4
 Tends to be a mixture between oil and gas
Type 3 – Swamp
 Land vegetation , spores, pollen and plant fragments
 H:C < 1.0
 Tends to be mostly gas or coal

Then organic matter will be chemically processed to transform it into source rocks and this process is called the “cooking process.” Three
phases of maturation of organic matter are diagenesis, catagenesis and metagenesis.

Diagenesis
 Formation of kerogen type 1,2,3 depending on the type of organic matter
 Begin during initial deposition at shallow surface
 Non-biogenic reaction and biogenic decay aided by bacteria turns organic matter to methane, CO2, H2O and Kerogen
 Depth < 1,000 m
 Temperature < 60 C
Catagenesis
 Maturation of kerogen
 Temperature increases with depth.
 Around 60 C oil starts to form from kerogen as the molecules are cracked.
 Oil generation is between 60 – 160 C is called the “oil window”
Metagenesis
 Higher temperature cracks liquid hydrocarbon molecule.
 Gas generation is between 160 – 225 C.
 Above 225 C only carbon remains in the form of graphite. No hydrocarbon is formed beyond this temperature.
Migration
Hydrocarbon migration is the second step and it is a movement from petroleum fluid from source rock into reservoir rocks. Two
processes of petroleum migrations are primary and secondary migration.

Primary Migration
 This is happened first when hydrocarbon migrate from source rock goes into reservoir rocks.
 Primary migration is driven by pore pressure and can be both upwards and downwards direction.
Secondary Migration
 This is the movement of hydrocarbon through the carrier and reservoir rock.
 Buoyancy is a driven force for the secondary migration.

Reservoir
A reservoir rock is a place where hydrocarbon migrates and is held underground. Reservoir rocks are sandstone, limestone, chalk,
dolomite, etc. Reservoir size and shape depends on depositional environment.

Major effects on reservoir properties are as follows;

Porosity = % of pore space in a reservoir rock

Permeability = ability of rock to allow reservoir fluid to flow through
 1 – 10 md = fair sand
 10 – 100 md = good sand
 100 – 1000 md = very good
 1000 md up = excellent
Net to gross ration – ratio between effective reservoir to entire reservoir interval
Seal
Seal is an impermeable rock, which prevents hydrocarbon from passing through. Therefore, further migration of oil and gas is stopped.
Typically, they are fine grain sediments such as shale and evaporite (salt). Additionally, deformed shale in a fault zone can be a seal.

Trap
Traps are impermeable structures where hydrocarbon accumulates underneath. Two types of traps are as follows;
Structural Traps
Structural traps are formed as a result of changes in the structure of subsurface. They may be caused by pure tectonic movement (fault
and fold) or salt movement. Examples of structural traps are anticline, fault and salt dome trap.
Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps occur where the reservoir itself is cut off up dip and no other structural control is needed. Changes in lithology may be
caused by variations in original deposition or due to processing after deposition. Examples of stratigraphy traps are pinch out traps, reef
traps and lens traps.