Ahmad et al.

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68

DOI 10.1186/s13002-017-0196-1

RESEARCH Open Access

Ethnopharmacological studies of
indigenous plants in Kel village, Neelum
Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan
Khawaja Shafique Ahmad1*, Abdul Hamid2, Fahim Nawaz3, Mansoor Hameed4, Farooq Ahmad4, Jiabin Deng5,
Noreen Akhtar6, Ambreen Wazarat1 and Sehrish Mahroof1

Abstract
Background: This explorative study was undertaken for the first time in Kel village located in the Upper Neelum
Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. The purpose was to document the indigenous knowledge of the native people used
in the preparation of herbal medicines.
Methods: To get the data on traditional uses of medicinal plants, 20 informants were interviewed. Quantitative
ethnobotanical indices, i.e., use value (UV), relative frequencies of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor (Fic),
fidelity level (FL), data matrix ranking (DMR), preference ranking (PR), and jaccard index (JI), were calculated for the
recorded medicinal plants.
Results: A total of 50 medicinal plants belonging to 33 families used in 13 disease categories were documented.
Leaves were the frequently used plant parts, and decoction was the commonly used method for herbal medicine.
Plants with high use value were Berberis lycium (2.05), Impatiens glandulifera (1.95), Artemisia scoparia (1.75), Ageratum
conozoides (1.75), and Achillea millefolium (1.7). The highest RFC value was calculated for Berberis lycium (0.75), Cynoglossum
lanceolatum (0.65), and Impatiens glandulifera and Achillea millefolium (0.60 each). The maximum informant consensus
factor was for urinary system, cardiac diseases, baldness, and abortion and miscarriage (1.00). Berberis lyceum (95%) used in
jaundice, hepatitis, typhoid, fever, and tuberculosis disorders. Plants with maximum fidelity level (FL) were Berberis lycium
(95%) followed by Dioscorea bulbifera, Impatiens glandulifera, and Artemisia vulgaris (90%). Olea ferruginea was the most
multipurpose plant and exports (21.2%) was the leading threat in the area. The pearson correlation coefficient (0.500)
showed a positive correlation between the use value and relative frequency of citation.
Conclusion: The present study provides useful information about traditional uses of medicinal plants used by local
communities in different ailments. The plants with the highest use values could be employed in pharmacological
research and biotechnological approaches in order to achieve adequate revenue. Some of the plants in the study area
are facing high threats of becoming rare, and conservation initiatives are needed to conserve them for sustainable
management in the region.
Keywords: Ethnobotany, Use value, Informant consensus factor, Jaccard index, Neelum Valley, Western Himalaya

* Correspondence: [email protected]
1
Department of Botany, University of Poonch Rawalakot, Azad Kashmir
12350, Pakistan
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 2 of 16

Background its conductive environment but this area remained unex-

Since the origin of human civilization, medicinal plants plored due to its remoteness, difficult geographic condi-
are considered important natural resources [1]. Utilization tions, and poor access through roads. This is the first
of local plants by traditional healers has always been a effort in this region to provide quantitative ethnobotanical
low-priced and reachable source of the poor communities data employed by indigenous people. The present study
[2]. The indigenous knowledge of traditional drugs based was commenced with the objectives of (i) enlisting native
on the use of plants by the local communities has been in- medicinal flora and (ii) recording the aboriginal medicinal
volved in scientific discipline for centuries and travels information of these flora along with their mode of prep-
through generations from older to younger ones [3]. Rapid aration; additionally, we also commenced different mea-
urbanization and dependence of mankind on modern sureable tools (iii) to find out the correlation between
health care systems has resulted in a decline in the tradi- plants and ethnomedicinal use and (iv) to provide baseline
tional knowledge on the one hand, but on the other hand, data for forthcoming phytochemical and pharmacological
utilization of plants in modern medicine has significantly research by the application of quantitative indices.
increased, but this folk system still prevails in the rural
communities [4]. Methods
Investigations on the ethnomedicinal uses of plants by Study area
the indigenous people are often noteworthy; as a result, Neelum valley is located in the north-east part of
they provide a gateway for the study of the new drugs Muzaffarabad at 900–6325 m elevation above sea level.
source from the herbal origin [2, 4, 5]. The usage of me- It lies between 73°–75° E longitude and 32°–35° N lati-
dicinal plants to battle with various ailments is as old as tude, covering an area of 3737 km2 [4]. The Kel is a
human civilization [6]. Plant services to mankind are not lush green village, has a hill station, and a tourist
limited to food, clothing, and shelter but their use of spot in the upper part of the Neelum Valley, and lies
health care, decoration, and spiritual ceremonies is also between 34.8063° N 74.3460° E at an altitude of
well known [7]. About 20% of the entire plants found in 2554 m. The climate of the study area is of temperate
this world are utilized for medicinal purposes to treat type where the winter is very cold (average
ailments in human beings [8]. temperature − 2.0 °C) and the summer is pleasant
The study of medicinal plants through a qualitative (average temperature 37.0 °C), and the average rainfall
survey method has a very old history but the interest in is 165 cm annually [18].
numerical ethnobotany has established progressively in The region is characterized by its remoteness, long
the last couple of decades [9]. For this, earlier authors distance from urban centers, difficult mountainous ter-
have developed various indices that measure cultural and rain, and a lack of government services, including mod-
medicinal importance of plants quantitatively [10, 11]. ern health care facilities. The area has poorly developed
These indices were utilized to measure uses of plants for road and other infrastructure. The people of the area
different purposes such as food, veterinary medicine and, rely on sustainable agriculture. Main crops include
particularly, to cure human diseases [12, 13]. More or less, corn (Zea mays L.), turnip (Brasica rapa L.), and bean
one common purpose of these quantitative ethnobotanical (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in an integrated system. A high
indices was to determine the importance of plants for eth- proportion of local people are associated with live-
nic and indigenous people [9]. stock. A number of the main occupations are associated
More than 75% of Pakistani people depend on tradi- with summer tourism, including rest house managers,
tional medicines for all or most of its medicinal needs tour guides, shop keepers, restaurant workers, and jeep
[14], and about 600 plant species are being used medi- drivers. In light of these demographic changes, it is vital to
cinally or traditionally in Pakistan [15]. However, the document the local knowledge of medicinal plant usage in
majority of the medicinal plants are confined to the this area before such information declines or is lost
north and west regions of Pakistan due to the presence completely.
of the Himalaya, which is considered a hub for a wide
range of medicinal plants [16], harboring about 8000 Data collection
species of flowering plants [17]. Ethnobotanical fieldwork of this quantitative study was
Ethnopharmacological-based studies conducted in the conducted during April 2016 to October 2016 following
upper parts of the Neelum Valley are missing. This may the method of [19]. Standard ethnobotanical methods
be because of the topographical challenges of the area such as participant observation and open and semi-
that comprises of high mountains that limit the access structured interviews were used to gather the informa-
of researchers to explore the area. Kel village lies in the tion [20, 21]. All the participants were native of the
upper parts of the Neelum Valley in the western Himalaya. study area. The purpose, method, and nature of the re-
The area has a rich wealth in medicinal plants because of search were explained before the informants and prior

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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 3 of 16

informed consent (PIC) were strictly followed during the region of Chail valley, District Swat, Pakistan, and [23] in
field survey. A sum of 20 key informants, comprising of 14 Batan Island, Philippines, who additionally found that the
men and 6 women, were selected after the initial survey ladies assume an imperative part in the arrangement of
and many discussions. Demographic information is pre- customary medications utilizing restorative plants. Infor-
sented in Table 1 which showed that 20 key informants mation was gathered from the informants by using the
were selected for the interviews, and out of these, four standard method of [24].
were between the ages of 30–45, six were ranging 46–60, Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the
eight were between the age of 61–75, and two were above headmen of the studied areas. All respondents were
76. Educational status of the informant revealed that there asked to sign a Prior Informed Consent (PIC) form after
were illiterate (40%), primary and middle (20% each), and the objectives and possible consequences of the study
secondary and graduate (10% each). Occupation wise, there had been explained. The PIC form was translated into
were housewives (20%), shopkeepers and farmers (15%), the Urdu language; however, participants were not sub-
labors and teachers (10% each), and local healers (30%). jected to any clinical treatment.
Selection of the informants was made based on their popu-
larity in the study area. They were well known in the area Data preservation
due to their expertise to perform as a medicinal practi- Plant specimens for each species were collected, pressed,
tioner and had sound information on medicinal plants. In dried. Before mounted on the herbarium sheets they
addition to this, information obtained from female infor- were sprayed with the help of a preservative 1% HgCl2
mants about the use of indigenous plant in different ail- solution. For identification of the plant specimens, au-
ments was compared with the information obtained from thentication of data, botanical names and families of
the male informants. It was observed that female infor- each plant specimen were confirmed with the help of
mants have more knowledge about the utilization of local herbaria comparison, taxonomic literature, manuals and
plants in the preparation and administration of local drugs, Flora of Pakistan [25]. Whereas the International Plant
which mirror their part in household administration and Name Index (IPNI), Scopus, Web of Science and Google
infection treatment with a specific end goal to keep the Scholar, Catalog of vascular plants of West Pakistan and
family healthy. Meanwhile, their role as a plant collector Kashmir [26] were also consulted to obtain correct bo-
particularly in rough and steep mountainous tracts of the tanical names. Jain and Rao [27] was followed to assign
area was found to be less as compared to men and trad- voucher specimens number to each plant and mounting
itional healers. The same findings were made during the of plants on herbarium sheet was done by standard
ethnobotanical survey by [22] in the high mountainous herbarium techniques [28]. Plants were then deposited
at the Herbarium Department of Botany, University of
Table 1 Demographic information of the respondents Poonch Rawalakot with voucher numbers.
Variables Demographic Total Percentages (%)
categories Quantitative ethnobotanical data analysis
Gender Men 14 70 Ethnobotanical data was collected using various quanti-
Women 6 30 tative indices including use value (UV), relative fre-
Age groups 30–45 4 20 quency of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor
46–60 6 30
(Fic), fidelity level (FL), data matrix ranking (DMR), pri-
ority ranking (PR), and Jaccard index (JI). Association
61–75 8 40
between indices was tested using correlation analysis.
76 and above 2 10
Educational attainment Illiterate 8 40 UVs
Primary 4 20 The use value is a quantitative measure of the relative
Middle 4 20 importance of the species. It is used to record the most
Secondary 2 10
important plant species in the study area based upon the
number of uses cited by the number of people. It was
graduate 2 10
calculated following the standard protocol of [29].
Occupation Housewives 4 20
Shopkeepers 3 15 ðΣUiÞ
UV ¼
Farmers 3 15 N
Labors 2 10
Primary teachers 2 10
where Ui is the number of use reports cited by each in-
formant for a given species and N is the total number of
Local healers 6 30
informants.

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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 4 of 16

RFC JI
The relative frequency of citation was calculated to as- To find out the resemblance of indigenous data among
sess the incidence of one particular plant species used various ethnic groups, this study was compared with
for the treatment of particular disease or disease cat- already published work from the surrounding areas by
egory. It was calculated by using following formula as using the Jaccard index [33].
described by [30].
c  100
JI ¼
ða þ bÞ−c
FC
RFC ¼
N In this equation, a is the number of species of our
area, b is the number of species of the neighboring area,
where FC is the number of informants reporting particu- and c is the number of common species in both areas.
lar uses of a species and N is the total number of
informants. Pearson correlation
To find the correlation between RFC and UV values,
Fic Pearson correlation was carried out using SPSS version
Informant consensus factor was used to check the simi- 16.00 Statistical software. The R2 was determined to as-
larity on the informant’s information for each use cat- sess species variation in terms of used value.
egory and also to check the authenticity of the work by
using the following formula: Results and discussion
Documentation of medicinal plants
N ur −N t
Fic ¼ The present study was conducted in Kel village and its
N ur −1
allied areas in the upper parts of Neelum Valley, which
where Nur is the number of use reports in each category, is far and remote area of Azad Jammu and Kashmir
Nt is the number of species used. The factor provides a (Fig. 1). Each species recorded in this study was used in
range of 0 to 1 [31]. curing different diseases by the local people of the area.
Table 1 presents the demographic data of informants
FL while Table 2 provided detailed information of 50 plant
The fidelity level (FL) was determined for the most fre- species belonging to 33 families used against 13 disease
quently used category by calculating the percentage of categories. The present work is an effort to enumerate
informants claiming the use of a certain plant for the the ethnobotanical data based on which extensively used,
same major purpose [28]. high-rated medicinal plant can be selected for searching
bioactive compounds to treat ailments. There are only
Np few studies from the area of Kashmir and adjoining areas
FL ¼  100 [1, 2, 18, 34–37]. A total of 50 species were documented
N
to manage miscellaneous human and livestock ailments
where Np is the number of informants that claim a use in the study area. The exercise to utilize the medicinal
of a plant species for a particular use and N is the num- plants for the welfare of the native people is being used
ber of informants that use the plants. by many rural communities in Pakistan [21, 38].

DMR Demographic data

Data matrix ranking was conducted using eight multi- Demographic data showed that there were 70% male
use plants commonly reported by informants following and 30% female informants. On the basis of age, the in-
protocol as described by [32]. Preferentially selected 10 formants were classified into four major groups, i.e.,
informants were asked to give value to each trait on the informants of 30–45 years (20%), 46–60 years (30%),
basis of benefits obtained from each plant. 61–75 years (40%), and 76 years and above (10%). Dur-
ing the interview, it was observed that indigenous know-
PR ledge regarding the use of medicinal plants was more
Threats to plants of the study area were assessed by prevailing in uneducated individuals, i.e., (40%) and simi-
obtaining the data from six selected key informants lar information was declining with increase in the educa-
following [20, 28]. This information is beneficial to tion level of people with primary and middle level
determine the leading threats to native flora and also education (20%) and secondary level and graduate (10%).
helps to suggest the necessary appropriate conserva- This might be due to the reason that illiterate people
tion measures. have long direct contact with medicinal plants and are

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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 5 of 16

Fig. 1 Map of the studied area with locations within the upper part of District Neelum

well familiar to the usage of these plants. Whereas, and Rosaceae were represented by two species while
highly educated people have little interest in traditional all other families shared one species each (Fig. 2).
medicine due to their high exposure to the modern edu- The high number of species presented by these
cation and hence are not involved in learning and prac- families reflects that the study area has rich biodiver-
ticing ethnobotanical knowledge. Similar results were sity and the inhabitants have sound knowledge of the
recorded by [1] in Pakistan, [39] in Ethopia, and [40] in usage of these plants in locally prepared medicines.
Uganda. These widely distributed families in different parts of
the Kel village and its surrounding areas and their
Family contribution extensive use might be credited to their wide range of
The most dominant family with respect to number of bioactive compounds [40]. Asteraceae is largely de-
species used was Asteraceae (eight species) followed scribed to have high number of bioactive compounds
by Lamiaceae (five species) and Fabaceae (three spe- therefore contributing to the high use for medicinal
cies). Berberidaceae, Dryopteridaceae, Plantaginaceae, purposes [41, 42].

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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 6 of 16

Table 2 Medicinal plants used in Kel, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan
Family Plant species/voucher No. Part(s) used ∑Ui UVs FC RFC Ailments Mode of
administration
Apiaeceae Anethum graveolens L. Fruit 16 0.8 8 0.4 Digestive disorders Extract, powder
(dill)/KNV-221
Araliaceae Hedera nepalensis K.Koch Leaves 22 1.1 9 0.45 Ulcer, dyspepsia, skin Decoction, juice
/KNV − 219 allergies
Asparagaceae Asparagus adsendens Root 25 1.25 10 0.5 Dysentery, diarrhea Powder
Roxb./RT-220
Asteraceae Achillea millefolium Leaves, fruit 34 1.7 12 0.6 Wound healing, digestion, Infusion, juice, eat
L./KNV-242 earache, toothache,
tuberculosis
Ageratum conozoides Whole plant 35 1.75 11 0.55 Leprosy, bone dislocation, Infusion, juice,
L./KNV-243 fever decoction
Artemisia scoparia Leaves 35 1.75 8 0.4 Hepatitis, jaundice, Infusion
Waldst& Kit./KNV-244 stomach disorders
Artemisia vulgaris Leaves and root 33 1.65 8 0.4 Liver pain, stomach Juice, extract
L./KNV-245 disorder
Inula grandiflora Willd. Whole plant 27 1.35 5 0.25 Cancer, skin allergies Extract
/KNV-246
Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. Roots 19 0.95 11 0.55 Tonic, bone fracture Extract
/KNV-247
Saussurea lanceolata Whole plant 13 0.65 6 0.3 Skin allergies, stomach Paste, decoction
Clarke./KNV-248 pain, typhoid
Taraxacum officinale Whole plant 29 1.45 6 0.3 Jaundice, liver disorder, Poultice, juice
Weber./KNV-249 stomach pain
Balsaminaceae Impatiens glandulifera Leaves, aerial parts 39 1.95 12 0.6 Joint pain, anxiety Paste, extract
Royle/KNV-292
Betulaceae Betula utilis D.Don. Bark 9 0.45 10 0.5 Jaundice, wound healing Infusion, extract,
/KNV-286 poultice
Berberidaceae Berberis lyceum Royle Roots, leaves 41 2.05 15 0.75 Jaundice, diarrhea Oil, juice, decoction
/KNV-312
Podophyllum emodi Whole plant 15 0.75 10 0.5 Cancer, jaundice, typhoid Decoction, infusion
Royle/KNV-313 fever
Broginaceae Cynoglossum lanceolatum leaves and roots 24 1.2 13 0.65 Diaphoretic, diuretic, Oil, extract, powder
Forssk./KNV-319 wound healer
Buxaceae Sarcococca saligna(D.Don) Leaves 19 0.95 4 0.2 Blood purifier Extract, infusion
Muell/KNV-322
Caprifoliaceae Viburnum cotinifolium Leaves and fruits 21 1.05 5 0.25 Used for abortion and Powder
D. Don/KNV-330 miscarriage
Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album Whole plant 17 0.85 3 0.15 Rheumatism, dysentery Infusion, poultice,
L./KNV-331 juice
Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea bulbifera Leaves, stem, tuber 23 1.15 7 0.35 Rheumatism Decoction, powder
Decne./KNV-332
Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris ramosa Leaves and stem 7 0.35 8 0.4 Ulcer Infusion, decoction
L./KNV-344
Dryopteris stewartii Whole plant 11 0.55 2 0.1 Tuberculosis Decoction
L./KNV-345
Euphorbiaceae Ricinus comunis Leaves and seeds 14 0.7 7 0.35 Asthma, joint pain Oil, poultice
L./KNV-346
Fabaceae Melilotus indica (L.) Leaves and seeds 10 0.5 6 0.3 Rheumatic pains Paste, poultice
All./KNV-361
Quercus ballota (Desf.) Bark 9 0.45 8 0.4 Hemorrhages, diarrhea Extract, decoction,
A.DC./KNV-362 and dysentery infusion
Quercus incana A. Bark and galls 18 0.9 9 0.45 Diarrhea, dysentery and Decoction
Camus./KNV-363 throat pain

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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 7 of 16

Table 2 Medicinal plants used in Kel, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan (Continued)
Family Plant species/voucher No. Part(s) used ∑Ui UVs FC RFC Ailments Mode of
administration
Fumariaceae Fumaria officinalis L./KNV- Whole plant 12 0.6 7 0.35 Skin allergies, jaundice Decoction, powder
369
Gentianaceae Swertia petiolata D. Don. 12 0.6 11 0.55 Stomach pain and liver Hot infusion, juice,
/KNV-370 disorders extract
Geraniaceae Geranium wallichianum Roots 6 0.3 8 0.4 Wound healing Powder, extract
D. Don./KNV-371
Hippocastanaceae Aesiculus indica wall. Ex. Seeds and fruit 10 0.5 7 0.35 Joint pain Paste, oil
Comb (Hook)/KNV-372
Juglandiaceae Juglans regia L./KNV-373 Bark, leaves and 16 0.8 3 0.15 Asthma, constipation and Decoction, juice
seeds diarrhea
Lamiaceae Ajuga bracteosa Wall. Ex Whole plant 18 0.9 3 0.15 Abdominal pain Paste, powder
Benth./KNV-384
Mentha longifolia (L.) 14 0.7 5 0.25 Digestion Extract
Huds./KNV-385
Plectranthus rugosus (wall) Whole plant 19 0.95 9 0.45 Skin diseases and diarrhea Juice
ex Benth./KNV-386
Prunella vulgaris L./KNV- Whole plant 12 0.6 9 0.45 Heart diseases, cough and Decoction
387 cold
Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. leaves 3 0.15 4 0.2 Stomach pain and skin Powder, poultice
Ex Benth/KNV-388 diseases
Meliaceae Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.ex. Leaves and bark 10 0.5 6 0.3 Fever, tonic Paste, extract
Willd/KNV-229
Oleaceae Olea ferruginea Royle/ Leaves 10 0.5 4 0.2 Ulcer Decoction
KNV-298
Plantaginaceae Plantago major L./KNV-210 Whole plant 6 0.3 4 0.2 Abdominal pain Decoction, Powder,
extract
Plantago ovate Forssk./ Seeds 13 0.65 7 0.35 Stomach disorders Powder, paste
KNV-211
Polygonaceae Bistorta amplexicaulis Roots 13 0.65 8 0.4 Tonic Decoction, powder
(D.Don) Greene./KNV-269
Ranunculaceae Aconitum heterophyllum Roots 7 0.35 5 0.25 Fever, cough, stomach Decoction, extract,
Wall ex. Royle/KNV-389 disorders infusion
Rosaceace Fragaria vesca L./KNV-391 Leaves and fruit 5 0.25 4 0.2 Anemia Juice, infusion, oil
Rubus ellipticus Smith./ Whole plant 5 0.25 9 0.45 Dysentery, jaundice, wound Powder, paste
KNV-392 healing
Rubiaceae Gallium boreole L./KNV-394 Whole plant 4 0.2 7 0.35 Skin diseases juice
Rutaceace Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Bark, seeds and 11 0.55 2 0.1 Carminative, stomachic, Powder, paste, extract
Proer./KNV-397 fruits anthelmintic
Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Whole plant 5 0.25 5 0.25 Asthma, stomach pain Poultice, paste,
Sternb./KNV-398 infusion
Scrophulariaceae Verbascum thapsus Leaves and flowers 8 0.4 7 0.35 Respiratory disorders Powder, infusion
L./KNV-399
Taxaceae Taxus wallichiana Bark 10 0.5 7 0.35 Cancer Decoction
L./KNV-400
Urticaceae Urtica dioica L./KNV-401 Root, aerial parts 6 0.3 6 0.3 Dandruff and baldness Decoction

Plant part(s) used and mode of administration metabolites [43, 44], and many communities around the
Leaves (30%) and the whole plant (23%) were the most fre- world also utilized leaves for the preparation of different
quently used plant parts as shown in Fig. 3 followed by herbal products [1, 2]. High proportion of leaves and roots
roots (14%), bark (11%), seeds (8%), fruits (6%) aerial parts might due to easy availability, more easily extractable phy-
and stem (3%) and flowers (2%). Leaves are extensively used tochemicals, crude drugs, and other mixtures which have
in herbal medicines due to the presence of active secondary proven as valuable regarding phytotherapy [45].

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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 8 of 16

Fig. 2 Number of species represented by each species

Medicinal plants employed in herbal medicines were practices due to the fact that during extraction, large
into nine classes (Fig. 4). The most common methods of quantities of components are released which can be used
preparation of herbal remedies was decoction (20%), to cure ailment rapidly [46].
extract (17%), infusion (15%), powder and juice (13%
each), paste (11%), poultice (7%), and oil (8%). The same Use values
results were documented by [2] who reported that most A numerical method for data inquiry that measures
plants were utilized in decoctions, followed by juice and types of uses associated with particular species and rela-
powder. Decoctions are frequently reported as the major tive importance of species in a family (Vendruscolo and
forms of preparation in ethnopharmacological studies Mentz 2006). In our study shown in Table 2, the plant
because they are easy to make [2]. The powder is pre- with the highest UVs was Berberis lycium (2.05) followed
pared by crushing plant parts after drying them in shade, by Impatiens glandulifera (1.95), Artemisia scoparia (1.75),
and the paste is prepared by grinding fresh or dried Ageratum conozoides (1.75), and Achillea millefolium (1.7).
plant parts with oil or water [1]. Extraction is also re- Other important species with respect to UVs were Arte-
ported as one of the major forms of ethnobotanical misia vulgaris (1.65), Taraxacum officinale (1.45), Inula

Fig. 3 Plant parts used by traditional healers

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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 9 of 16

Fig. 4 Mode of preparation of medicinal plants

grandiflora (1.35), Asparagus adsendens (1.25), Cynoglos- were Cynoglossum lanceolatum (0.65) and Impatiens glan-
sum lanceolatum (1.2), and Hedera nepalensis (1.1). dulifera and Achillea millefolium (0.60 each), Ageratum
High use values of a species show its consistent use for conozoides, and Swertia petiolate (0.55 each).
the treatment of various diseases, and high usage reported Plants with high RFC value are very famous among
by the number of informants shows that the plant is well the local people of the area. These plants could be used
recognized by the local inhabitants and is well utilized in in research baseline for subsequent assessment of phyto-
ethomedicinal purposes [1]. The five top-ranked medicinal chemical profiling, and in future drug discoveries [49].
plants based on UVs were the mostly used plants for vari- Such type of plants should be exposed to further
ous ailments. Among these, B. lyceum was used for jaun- pharmacological investigations to appraise the growth of
dice and diarrhea prepared in the form of paste and commercial yields [50]. Due to high anthropogenic pres-
poultice whereas, I. glandulifera was commonly used for sure, such plant species should be given priority for sus-
cancer and skin allergies prepared as extract. Infusion of tainable conservation [2].
A. scoparia was used to treat hepatitis, jaundice, and
stomach disorders. Hot infusion of A. conozoides prepared Informant consensus factor
with leaves or whole plant was used to cure leprosy, The Fic value ranged from 0.71 to 1.00, calculated on
fevers, diarrhea, and rheumatism. Leaves of A. millefolium the base of use reports against each disease category as
are masticated to cure toothache and juice prepared from shown in Table 3, inferring a high consensus value
leaves is used in earache. Tea is made from the plant as among participants. The ailments were classified into 13
remedy to cure TB, abdominal pain, and fever. It has been different categories. Disease categories urinary system,
observed that those plant which are used over and again cardiac diseases, baldness, and abortion and miscarriage
are more likely to be biological active [47]. On the other showed maximum (100%) consensus, since the infor-
hand, plant with low UVs and RFC values are not essen- mants approved of using only one plant species for each
tially insignificant. The low value may reflect the unaware- category. The most cited plants under these categories
ness of people of that area and lack of understanding of Cynoglossum lanceolatum, Prunella vulgaris, Urtica
proper use of medicinal flora [48]. dioica and Viburnum cotinifolium. Other important dis-
ease categories were liver disorders and cancerous dis-
Relative frequency of citation eases with Fic values of 0.94 each, and the most cited
Relative frequency citation was calculated to determine plants for these categories were Artemisia vulgaris and
the most common occurring medicinal plants used in Taxus wallichiana.
various disorders as reported by the local informants. In The high ICF values recorded in the Kel village
this study, the RFC value ranges from 0.1 to 0.75 as shown reflected the high dependability of native people on local
in Table 2. The plant with highest RFC was Berberis flora especially for urinary, cardiac, and miscarriage dis-
lycium (0.75). Other significant plants with higher RFC eases, whereas, low Fic values for ear diseases indicate

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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 10 of 16

Table 3 Categories of ailments and informant consensus factor (FIC) for each category
Sample Use categories Uses under each category Number Number of Fic FL Most uses species
No. of taxa use report
(Nt) (Nur)
1 Infectious diseases Jaundice, hepatitis, typhoid, fever, 7 75 0.92 95 Berberis lyceum
tuberculosis
2 Disease of the ear Earache 3 8 0.71 35 Achillea millefolium
3 Diseases of the circulatory system Blood purifier, hemorrhage, anemia 3 12 0.82 55 Fragaria vesca
4 Diseases of the respiratory system Asthma, cold and cough 6 74 0.93 45 Juglans regia
5 Diseases of the digestive system Diarrhea, digestion, stomach disorder, 24 233 0.90 35 Mentha longifolia
ulcer, constipation, dysentery,
dyspepsia
6 Injury, poisoning and some other Skin allergies, wound healing, bone 11 134 0.92 60 Fumaria officinalis
consequences of external cause dislocation, bone fracture
7 Diseases of the musculoskeletal Rheumatism, joint pain 6 58 0.91 90 Dioscorea bulbifera,
system Impatiens glandulifera
8 Diseases of the urinary system Diuretic 1 15 1.00 20 Cynoglossum lanceolatum
9 Cardiac diseases Heart diseases 1 18 1.00 65 Prunella vulgaris
10 Liver disorders Liver diseases 2 19 0.94 90 Artemisia vulgaris
11 Cancerous diseases Cancer, tumor 3 32 0.94 35 Taxus wallichiana
12 Dandruff and baldness Dandruff 1 10 1.00 30 Urtica dioica
13 Used for abortion and miscarriage Used for abortion and miscarriage 1 10 1.00 60 Viburnum cotinifolium

less consistency of informer’s knowledge [51]. More that can be employed in further ethnopharmacological re-
often a high value of Fic is linked with few species used search [53].
for one ailment group and has high use value [52],
whereas a low value is linked with high number of spe- Direct matrix ranking
cies presenting high level of disagreement among infor- Direct matrix ranking (DMR) for tree species showed
mants to treat a specific ailment class. that Olea ferruginea had the most multipurpose use
Ailment classification with high Fic values prevailing other than medicinal uses, construction, and cash in-
in the territory may be because of the reason that native come (56), firewood (28), fodder (20), fruit and food
people are utilizing water sources on daily basis without (20), and hedge and fence (12) (Table 4). Other tree spe-
having any hygienic or precautionary measurements. cies with high DMR value were Quercus incana and
Disease of bronchitis, cough, flue, and fever are domin- Jaglan regia. The lowest DMR value was recorded for
ating in the mountainous areas. This is due to the reason Ailanthus excelsa (Table 5). These result indicated that
that this area has cold and temperate type of climate, native, poor people of the area are highly reliant on the
and indigenous people sustain their lives by working in tree species for construction, household furniture, fen-
forest and fields [21]. cing, and roof and wall thatching. Similar outcomes were
reported by [54] in the East Zone and [55] in the North
Fidelity level Zone of Ethopia. The multiple roles of some plants other
Plants were being used alone or as combined for treat dif- than their medicinal significance are used in eastern
ferent diseases. Table 3 showed the fidelity level (FL) values medicine; nevertheless, they play an important role in
for species used for specific ailment as reported by the in- the routine life of the local people [21]. Livestock raring
formants. Plants with higher FL value were more frequently overgrazing were common activities in the study area
used than those with lower Fl value. In our study, the spe- that is posing pressure on the flora of the region. Such
cies having the highest FL value were Berberis lyceum (95%) activities can make the soil more compact resulting in
used in jaundice, hepatitis, typhoid, fever, and tuberculosis the low seed growth and germination [56].
disorders, followed by Dioscorea bulbifera, Impatiens glan- Overuse of plant resources for construction, fuel wood,
dulifera (90%) used in rheumatism, joint pain, and Arte- and agricultural purposes made them vulnerable in the
misia vulgaris (90%) used in liver disorders. Cynoglossum study area; thus, an urgent conservation action is needed
lanceolatum was the plant with the lowest FL value (25%) to save the fast eroding tree flora. Necessary steps
being used to treat urinary disorders. Plants that have should be taken by the forest and other concerned de-
higher number of FL value are considered as model plants partments, and a range land management plan should

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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 11 of 16

Table 4 Direct matrix ranking (DMR) of tree species with different uses other than medicinal value (total score of 10 informants) in
the study area
Uses T. wallichiana Q. ballota A. excelsa O. ferruginea J. regia A. indica Q. incana B. utilis
Construction 40 49 12 56 32 55 55 48
Hedge, Fencing 18 10 20 12 07 15 15 10
Fire wood 14 55 15 28 16 12 49 26
Cash income 43 22 31 56 71 12 22 15
Fodder 9 17 15 24 20 17 34 10
Fruit, Food 08 09 04 20 34 02 08 05
Total 132 162 97 196 180 113 183 114
Rank 5th 4th 8th 1st 3rd 7th 2nd 6th

be chalk out in order to recover the local vegetation in in different surrounding areas of Pakistan, India, Nepal,
the study area. and Kashmir (Table 6). The data showed that across 50
species of plants, similarity index of the data ranges from
PR 30.77 to 1.24 whereas the variation fraction varies from
The priority ranking data based on the degree of threats 25.64 to 0.62. The maximum level of similarity was
to plants was conducted using six key informants (Table found with studies by [4] (95.65), [61] (13.04), [62]
5). In PR, informants ranked timber mafia/exports (10.57), and [7] (8.26).
(21.2%) as a leading threat followed by urbanization The highest degree of similarity index was found in
(19.35%) and construction (18.71%). Other commonly the study of [4], which revealed the same ethnic values
prevailing threats were agriculture extension (13.55%) and the same type of vegetation and geography of both
and fuel and fodder (10.97%). Illegal export of high-rated areas. Furthermore, cultural exchange could have been
species was for illegitimate trading of commercial woods occurred in the past between the indigenous communi-
[57]. Several research have been carried out on the abo- ties resulting in the similarity in the ethnobotanical out-
riginal uses of medicinal plants in Pakistan [15, 34, 58]. comes of both areas [2]. Berginia ciliata, Juglan regia,
Hussain et al. [59] stated that the number of endangered Xanthoxylum armatum, Taxus wallichiana, and Agera-
species is increasing day by day because of overgrazing, tum conozoides from various districts of Central and
habitat destruction, and over exploitation of medicinal Western Nepal [63–65] were reported with similar uses.
plants without any conservation plan. This reflected the similar climatic conditions of the adja-
cent areas [66] and also high adaptability of these plants
Jaccard index to grow in different ecological zones at various eleva-
Ethnobotanical knowledge differs greatly between the tions [67].
indigenous communities because of the difference in The minimum JI value was recorded for the work con-
cultural and social behaviors. Such kind of comparative ducted by [63] (1.49) in Makawanpur District, Central
analysis among communities is very useful in the sense Nepal [68] and in Hangu, North KPK, Pakistan, and [22]
that they can expose the significant wisdom of informa- (1.96) in District Bhimber A.K, Pakistan. This difference
tion among communities resulting in the findings of in ethnobotanical knowledge might be because of the
new drugs [60]. presence of some ecological barrier resulted in geo-
The results described in this our research were associ- graphic isolation of species [1], and the diversities in
ated with the outcomes of 15 previous studies conducted vegetation and habitats [2]. Beside habitat isolation and

Table 5 Priority ranking (PR) of factors perceived as threats to plant biodiversity based on their level of destructive effects in the
study area
Threats Respondent (R1–R6) Total Percentage Rank
(%)
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Construction 6 3 5 4 6 5 29 18.71 3rd
Timber mafia/export 5 6 4 5 7 6 33 21.29 1st
Urbanization 4 5 5 5 6 5 30 19.35 2nd
Agriculture extension 4 4 2 3 4 4 21 13.55 4th
Fuel and Fodder 3 3 2 2 4 3 17 10.97 5th

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 Table 6 Jaccard index comparing the present study with previous reports at the regional, national, and global scales
Area Study Number of Plants with Plants with Total species Species enlisted Species enlisted Percentage of Percentage of JI Citation
year recorded plant similar use dissimilar common in both only in aligned only in study plant with similar dissimilar uses
species use area areas area uses
Toli Peer A.K, Pakistan 2017 121 9 6 15 106 63 7.44 4.96 9.74 [2]
Sharda, Neelum Valley 2012 39 12 10 22 17 28 30.77 25.64 95.65 [4]
Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan 2014 120 2 4 6 114 44 1.67 3.33 3.95 [1]
Senhsa, District Kotli A.K, Pakistan 2012 112 6 7 13 99 37 5.36 6.25 10.57 [62]
Hangu North KPK Pakistan, 2014 67 1 1 2 65 48 1.49 1.49 1.80 [68]
Kashmir Himalayas, Pakistan 2012 71 3 4 7 64 43 4.23 5.63 7.00 [36]
Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68

Central Karakoram national Park, 2011 47 1 1 2 45 48 2.13 2.13 2.20 [70]

Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan
Naran Valley, Pakistan 2013 101 5 5 10 91 40 4.95 4.95 8.26 [7]
Garhwal Himalaya, India 2013 152 2 6 8 144 42 1.32 3.95 4.49 [71]
District Bhimber A.K, Pakistan 2013 58 1 1 2 56 48 1.72 1.72 1.96 [22]
Leepa Valley, Muzaffarabad (AJK), 2012 36 3 1 4 32 46 8.33 2.78 5.41 [21]
Pakistan
Makawanpur District, Central 2014 161 2 1 3 158 47 1.24 0.62 1.49 [63]
Nepal
Terai forest, Western Nepal 2012 66 2 1 3 63 47 3.03 1.52 2.80 [64]
Rasuwa District, Central Nepal 2010 60 3 1 4 56 46 5.00 1.67 4.08 [65]
Jakholi block, Rudraprayag, India 2017 78 8 4 12 66 38 10.26 5.13 13.04 [61]

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Page 12 of 16
Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 13 of 16

Table 7 Correlation between use value and relative frequency (R2 = 0.25) showed 25% of the difference in use value of
of citation species with respect to their citations. This indicated
Correlations UV RFC that this work has significant contribution in the docu-
UV Pearson correlation 1 .500a mentation of ethnobotanical information on traditional
Significance (two-tailed) .000 plant uses [22, 57].
N 50 50
Novelty and future impact
RFC Pearson correlation .500a 1
The present study was compared with the previous stud-
Significance (two-tailed) .000 ies conducted in different parts of the Himalayan terri-
N 50 50 tory and other areas as shown in Table 6, to find the
a
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed) novelty index. Medicinal uses of plant species reported
R2 = 0.25 in neighboring areas showed more resemblance com-
pared to those documented in other areas. The data col-
difference in vegetation type, researchers have also found lected from the study area reveal considerable difference
that ethnobotanical knowledge vary with age, sex, educa- in plant parts used, mode of herbal preparation, and its
tion level, and origin of the informant [69]. It can be utilization as reported from other regions.
concluded from these studies that geographical isolation Some of the newly documented medicinal uses and
among communities has great impact on change in relevant plant species include Hedera nepalensis (ulcer),
vegetation type and transformation of cultural know- Inula grandiflora (liver pain), Jurinea dolomiaea (bone
ledge, and this might be a cause of the loss of ethno- fracture), Saussurea lanceolata (typhoid), Impatiens
botanical knowledge. glandulifera (joint pain), Betula utilis (Jaundice), Podo-
phyllum emodi (cancer), Dryopteris ramosa (ulcer),
Pearson correlation analysis Dryopteris stewartii (tuberculosis), Quercus ballota (dys-
Pearson analysis method was used to measure the entery), Swertia petiolata (liver pain), Fumaria officinalis
strength and direction between UV and RFC variables. (skin allergies), Plectranthus rugosus (skin allergies and
Both UV and RFC variables (0.500) had positive relation- diarrhea), Prunella vulgaris (heart diseases), Ailanthus
ship of species uses by the number of informants excelsa (fever), Bistorta amplexicaulis (tonic), Rubus
(Table 7, Fig. 5). The coefficient of determination value ellipticus (wound healing), and Gallium boreole (skin

Fig. 5 Association between use value and relative frequency of citation

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Ahmad et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:68 Page 14 of 16

problems). The plant species with new medicinal uses Authors’ contributions
and high RPL value could be studied further to screen KSA designed the research project and wrote the manuscript. AW and SM
carried out the research survey and collected the ethnobotanical data. MH
bioactive compounds and their pharmacological activ- identified the plant material. AH and JD provided comments on the draft
ities to introduce novel drugs. manuscript. FN, FA, and NA helped in the data analysis. All authors have
approved the final manuscript.

Conclusion Competing interest

This study demonstrates that many plant species play an The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
important role in local healing practices and that know-
Ethics approval and consent to participate
ledge of traditional medicine is still utilized and plays a sig- Before conducting interviews, prior informed consent was obtained from all
nificant role on Batan Island. The documentation of this participants. No further ethics approval was required.
rich traditional ethnomedicinal knowledge has furnished us
with novel information that will provide recognition of this Consent for publication
This manuscript does not contain any individual person’s data and further
undocumented knowledge. The natives of the region are consent for publication is not required.
very much reliant on the local medicinal plant to encounter
health needs, fuel wood, and fodder. The data show that Publisher’s Note
practicing ethnobotanical knowledge significantly differ Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
within the region and around the globe in terms of prepar- published maps and institutional affiliations.
ation of herbal drugs, thus providing fresh ethnomedicinal Author details
knowledge. Plants with high use report such as Berbaris ly- 1
Department of Botany, University of Poonch Rawalakot, Azad Kashmir
ceum, Impatiens glandulifera, Artemisia scoparia, Agera- 12350, Pakistan. 2Department of Horticulture, University of Poonch Rawalakot,
Azad Kashmir 12350, Pakistan. 3Department of Agronomy, Muhammad
tum conozoides, Achillea millefolium, Artemisia vulgaris, Nawaz Sharif, University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan. 4Department of
Taraxacum officinale, Inula grandiflora, Asparagus adsen- Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan. 5School of Geography
dens, Cynoglossum lanceolatum, and Hedera nepalensis and Tourism, Guizhou Education University, Guiyang, China. 6Department of
Botany, G.C. Women University, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan.
have great potential to be used in further ethnopharmacolo-
gical studies. Most of the plants in the area are endemic Received: 6 July 2017 Accepted: 7 November 2017
facing several threats such as over exploitation, deforest-
ation, and overgrazing need immediate conservation. It is
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