Classical Mechanics

Lecture 2
Syllabus
 Mechanics of A System Of Particles
• We shall generalize the results of mechanics of a single particle to the case of
a system of particles by considering taking care of mutual interactions.
• Now, if a mechanical system consists of two or more particles, then the force
on the ith particle is given by

…………. (1)

• where Fi(e) ≡ Total external force, acting on the ith particle due to sources
outside the system.
• Fji = the internal force on the ith particle due to the jth particle and
• ∑j(≠i) Fji ≡ Total internal force on the i th particle due to interactions with all
other particles (j) in the system (j =1to N), where N is the number of particles
in the system and
• Fii = the force of ith particle on itself = 0
• According to Newton's second law

……. (2)
 Mechanics of A System of Particles contd…
• Taking the sum over all the particles of the system

…………. (3)

• The first sum on the right of eqn (3) is simply the total external force Fe,
while the second term vanishes, since according to Newton's third law, every
action has an equal and opposite reaction.
• In other words, any two particles of the system exert equal and opposite
forces on each other,
• i.e: = 0 or = “Weak” Law of Action
and Reaction
(Original form of the 3rd Law,
but is not satisfied by all forces!)
• Since the second sum in eqn (3) represents the internal forces in pairs and
for each pair the resultant force is zero, Consequently this sum vanishes.
• So eqn (3) becomes
• F(e ) = …………. (4)
 Mechanics of A System of Particles contd…
Centre of Mass
• To reduce the left-hand side of eqn (3), we define the center of mass of the
system as
…………. (5)

• where

• C.M. is a point defined by the vector

R as the average of the radii vectors
of the particles, weighted in
proportion to their mass

• With the definition of C.M. , eqn (4)

reduces to

…………. (6)
 Mechanics of A System of Particles contd…
• Eqn (5) ⇒ Newton’s 2nd Law for a many
particle system:
• i.e. the center of mass moves as if the total
external force were acting on the entire mass
of the system concentrated at the center of
mass.

• Thus the acceleration of the center of mass is

due to only the external forces.
• Corollary: Purely internal forces (assuming
they obey Newton’s 3rd Law) have no effect Fig. Centre of mass of a
on the motion of the Center of Mass (CM). system of two particles
•
• Example 1 the motion of an exploding shell—
• the center of mass of the fragments traveling as if the shell were still in a
single piece (neglecting air resistance).
• Example 2 jet and rocket propulsion.
• In order that the motion of the center of mass be unaffected, the ejection of
the exhaust gases at high velocity must be counterbalanced by the forward
motion of the vehicle at a slower velocity.
 Mechanics of A System of Particles contd…

• Conservation of Linear Momentum

• Differentiating eqn (4 ) w.r.t. t , we get
…………. (7)

• or

…………. (8)
= Total linear momentum of the system

= Total mass of the system x velocity of centre of mass

• Differentiating eqn (8 ) w.r.t. t , we get

…………. (9)
 Mechanics of A System of Particles contd…

• Conservation of Linear Momentum

• From eqns (5 ) and (8), we have

• If =0 ⇒ =0
•
• ⇒ P = a constant (conserved)

• Thus we have Conservation Theorem for the Linear Momentum of a System of

Particles:
• If the total external force, F(e), is zero, the total linear momentum, P, is
conserved.
 Mechanics of A System of Particles contd…
• Conservation of Angular Momentum
• Angular momentum L of a many particle system (sum of angular
momenta of each particle):
• L ≡ ∑i[ri × pi] …………. (10)

• Time derivative of angular momentum:

= ∑i[(dri/dt) × pi] + ∑i[ri × (dpi/dt)]

…………. (11)

[since (dri/dt) × pi = vi × (mivi) = 0]

• Using eqn (2) ,

• ⇒

…………. (12)
 Mechanics of A System of Particles contd…

• Consider the 2nd sum of eqn (11) & look at each particle pair (i,j). Each
term ri × Fji has a corresponding term rj × Fij.
• Take together & use Newton’s 3rd Law:
• ⇒ [ri×Fji + rj×Fij] = [ri ×Fji + rj × (-Fji)] = [(ri - rj) × Fji]
•
• But (ri - rj) ≡ rij = vector from particle j to particle i. (Figure)

• So = (½)∑i,j(≠i)[ri×Fji + rj×Fij]

(Writing sum over pairs)

• Hence

= (dL/dt) = ∑i[ri × Fi(e)] + (½)∑i,j(≠i)[rij × Fji]

↑
To Prevent Double Counting!
…………. (13)
 Mechanics of A System of Particles contd…

• If the internal forces between two particles, in addition to being equal and
opposite, also lie along the line joining the particles. i.e. we make the
• Assumption: Internal forces are Central Forces: Directed the along lines
joining the particle pairs
• (≡ The “Strong” Law of Action and Reaction)

(i.e. all of these cross

⇒ rij || Fji for each (i,j) & [rij × Fji] = 0 for each (i,j)! products vanish)

⇒ 2nd term in (12) is (½)∑i,j(≠i) [rij × Fji] = 0 (i.e. The sum over
pairs is zero under
this assumption )
(e) …………. (14)
⇒ (dL/dt) = ∑i[ri × Fi ]

Total external torque on particle i: Ni(e) ≡ ri × Fi(e)

…………. (15)
So eqn (14) becomes:

Where N(e) ≡ ∑ [r × F (e)] = ∑ N (e) = Total external torque on the system

 Mechanics of A System of Particles contd…

we have

⇒ Newton’s 2nd Law (rotational motion) for a many particle system: The
time derivative of the total angular momentum is equal to the total
external torque.
• Suppose N(e) = 0: ⇒ (dL/dt) = L = 0
⇒ L = constant (conserved)

• Thus we have
Conservation Theorem for the Total Angular Momentum of a Many
Particle System:
If the total external torque, N(e), is zero, then (dL/dt) = 0 and the total
angular momentum, L, is conserved.
Or L is constant in time if the applied (external) torque is zero.
• so . A vector equation! Holds component by component.

• ⇒ Angular momentum conservation holds component by component.

• For example, if Nz(e) = 0, Lz is conserved, even if Nx(e) and Ny(e) are not zero

• Linear & Angular Momentum Conservation Laws:

– Conservation of Linear Momentum holds if internal forces obey the
“Weak” Law of Action and Reaction: Only Newton’s 3rd Law Fji = - Fij is
required to hold!

– Conservation of Angular Momentum holds if internal forces obey the

“Strong” Law of Action and Reaction: Newton’s 3rd Law Fji = - Fij holds,
PLUS the forces must be Central Forces, so that rij || Fji for each (i,j)!
Valid for many common forces (gravity, electrostatic). Not valid for some
(magnetic forces, etc.). See text discussion.
• But it is possible to find forces for which action and reaction are
equal even though the forces are not central (read Goldstein etal.).
• In a system involving moving charges, the forces between the
charges predicted by the Biot-Savart law may indeed violate both
forms of the action and reaction law
• If two charges are moving uniformly with parallel velocity vectors
that are not perpendicular to the line joining the charges, then the
net mutual forces are equal and opposite but do not lie along the
vector between the charges.
• Consider, further, two charges moving (instantaneously) so as to
“cross the T,” i.e., one charge moving directly at the other, which in
turn is moving at right angles to the first.
• Then the second charge exerts a nonvanishing magnetic force on
the first, without experiencing any magnetic reaction force at that
instant.
• More on angular momentum.
• We shall search for an analogous relation to what
we had for linear momentum:
P = M(dR/dt) = Mv
(CM)
we Want: Total momentum = Momentum of CM
= Same as if entire mass of system were at CM.

• Let us start with total the angular momentum:

…………. (16)

• Let R ≡ radius vector of the CM coordinate from O (origin O).

• ri = radius vector of the ith particle from O
•
• ri´ = radius vector of the ith particle from the center of mass
i.e.
• ri´ ≡ ri - R = relative coordinate vector from CM to particle i (Figure)
• Thus we have r i = r i´ + R

• Time derivative: (dri/dt) = (dri´/dt) + (dR/dt)

• Or vi = vi´ + v ,

• Where = velocity of the center of mass relative to O

•
• = velocity of the ith particle relative to the center of mass of the system

Also: pi ≡ mivi ≡ momentum of ith particle relative to O

• Putting the above expressions into angular momentum:
L = ∑i[ri × pi] = ∑i[(ri´ + R) × mi(vi´ +v)] …………. (17)

• using mivi´= d(miri´)/dt ), eqn (17) becomes

…………. (18)
Note: ∑i(miri´) defines the CM coordinate with respect to the CM & is thus
zero!!
i.e. ∑i(miri´) defines the radius vector of the center of mass in the CM coordinate
system whose origin is the center of mass and is therefore a null vector.

i.e. ∑i(miri´) ≡ 0 !
⇒ The last 2 terms of eqn (18) are zero!
⇒ Eqn (16) becomes
L = R × ∑i(mi)v + ∑i[ri´ × (mivi´)]
• We note that ∑i(mi) ≡ M = total mass & also
mivi´ ≡ pi´ = momentum of particle i relative to the CM

⇒ = R×P + ∑i[ri´×pi´]
…………. (19)
⇒ The total angular = the angular + the angular
momentum about momentum of the momentum of motion
point O motion of the CM about the CM

• Eqn (19) ⇒ In general, L depends on the origin O, through the vector R. Only
if the CM is at rest with respect to O, will the first term in eqn (19) vanish.
Then & only then will L be independent of the point of reference. Then &
only then will L = angular momentum about the CM
 Work & Energy
• we calculate the work done by all forces in moving the system from an
initial configuration 1, to a final configuration 2:

…………. (20)

• We know that:

• ⇒

…………. (21)
• Let us Work with (20) first:
– Newton’s 2nd Law ⇒ Fi = mi(dvi/dt). Also: dsi = vidt
so Fi∙dsi = mi(dvi/dt)∙dsi = mi(dvi/dt)∙vidt
= mividvi = d[(½)mi(vi)2]
• Hence we can write

• ⇒
• …………. (22)
• Or = difference of the final and
initial kinetic energies
• where = Total Kinetic Energy of the System
 • Hence W12 = T2 - T1 = ΔT
⇒ Total Work done = Change in kinetic energy
(Work-Energy Principle or Work-Energy Theorem)

• Total Kinetic Energy: T ≡ (½)∑imi(vi)2

• Another useful form of K.E:
• Use transformation to CM & relative coordinates: vi = v + vi´ ,
• where v ≡ CM velocity relative to O, vi´ ≡ velocity of particle i relative to
CM.

…………. (23)
• The last term is

• From the angular momentum discussion: ∑i mi ri´ = 0

• ⇒ The last term is zero!

• So Total kinetic energy,

The total angular = the kinetic energy the kinetic energy of

• ⇒ kinetic energy of of the CM +
motion about the CM
many particle

…………. (24)
 • We can write two forms of equations for the work done:
❑ W12= ∑i ∫Fi∙dsi = T2 - T1 = ΔT (just showed!) [starting from eqn (20)]
❑ W12 = ∑i ∫Fi(e) ∙dsi + ∑i,j(≠i) ∫Fji ∙dsi [ using eqn (21)]

❑ We shall use eqn(21) with Conservative Force Assumptions:

1. External Forces: external forces are derivable in terms of the gradient of a
potential
⇒ Potential functions Vi(ri) exist such that (for each particle i):
Fi(e) = - ∇iVi(ri)
• Where subscript i on the del operator indicates that the derivatives are with
respect to the components of ri

2. Internal Forces: internal forces are also conservative, then the mutual forces
between the ith and jth particles, Fij and Fji, can be obtained from a potential
function Vij.
⇒ Potential functions Vij exist such that (for each particle pair i,j):
or
2. Internal Forces contd..:
Strong Law of Action-Reaction: ⇒ Potential functions Vij(rij) are functions
only of distance rij = |ri - rj| between i & j & the forces lie along line joining
them (Central Forces!):
i,.e. Vij = Vij(rij)

…………. (25)

Then two forces are automatically equal and opposite

⇒
…………. (26)

and lie along the line joining the two particles,

⇒ Fij = -Fji =
….. (27)
f is a scalar
Note- Here we have used the relation like
←function!
∇|rn| = n|rn-2|r = a scalar x a vector
Thus
• Conservative external forces:
⇒

= - ∑i(Vi)2 + ∑i(Vi)1
= (V(e))1 - (V(e))2
Where: V(e) ≡ ∑iVi = total PE associated with external forces.

• Conservative internal forces: Writing as as a sum over pairs of particles

⇒ =

=
 Note:

(∇ij ≡ grad with respect to rij)

Also:

⇒ =

[The factor 1/2 appears

because in summing over
=
both i and j each member of
a given pair is included
twice, first in the i
summation and then in the
j summation. ]
= - (½)∑i,j(≠i)(Vij)2 + (½)∑i,j(≠i)(Vij)1
Thus
• Conservative internal (Central!) forces:

= - (½)∑i,j(≠i)(Vij)2 + (½)∑i,j(≠i)(Vij)1
= (V(I))1 - (V(I))2

Where: V(I) ≡ (½)∑i,j(≠i)Vij = Total PE associated with internal forces.

• For conservative external forces & conservative, central internal forces, it is

possible to define a potential energy function for the system:

V ≡ V(e) + V(I) = total potential energy

 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
• For conservative external forces & conservative, central internal
forces:
– The total work done in a process is:
W12 = V1 - V2 = - ΔV
with V ≡ V(e) + V(I) ≡ ∑iVi + (½)∑i,j(≠i) Vij
– In general
W12 = T2 - T1 = ΔT
Combining ⇒ V1 - V2 = T2 - T1 or ΔT + ΔV = 0
or T1 + V1 = T 2 + V2
or E = T + V = constant (conserved)
where
E = T + V ≡ Total Mechanical Energy (or just Total Energy)
• If only conservative external forces & conservative, central internal forces are
acting on a system, then the total mechanical energy of the system,
E = T + V, is conserved.

• Consider the potential energy:

V ≡ V(e) + V(I) ≡ ∑iVi + (½)∑i,j(≠i) Vij
• 2nd term V(I) ≡ (½)∑i,j(≠i) Vij ≡ Internal Potential Energy of the System.

• This is generally non-zero & might vary with time.

– Special Case: Rigid Body: System of particles in which distances rij are
fixed (do not vary with time). (Chapters 4 & 5!)
⇒ drij are all ⊥ (perpendicular) to rij & thus to internal forces Fij
⇒ Fij do no work. ⇒ V(I) = constant
⇒ in a rigid body the internal forces do no work, and the internal potential
must remain constant
Since V is arbitrary to within an additive constant, we can ignore V(I) for
rigid bodies only.
• Discussion up to now ⇒ All mechanics is reduced to solving a set of
simultaneous, coupled, 2nd order differential eqns which come from Newton’s
2nd Law applied to each mass individually:

or (dpi/dt) = mi(d2ri/dt2) = Fi(e) + ∑jFji

⇒ Given forces & initial conditions, problem is reduced to pure math!
• Oversimplification!! Many systems have CONSTRAINTS which limit their
motion.
• Examples:
– Rigid Body. Constraints keep rij = constant.
– Particle motion on surface of sphere is subject to the constraint that it can
move only on the surface or in the region exterior to the sphere.
– beads of an abacus are constrained to 1 D motion by the supporting wires.
– Gas molecules within a container are constrained by the walls of the vessel
to move only inside the container.
– A particle placed on the surface of a solid sphere
 Degrees of freedom

• The number of degrees of freedom is the number of independent

coordinates that must be specified in order to define uniquely the state
of the system

• For a system of N free particle there are 3N degrees of freedom (3N

coordinates)

N
 Constraints

• We can imposed k constraints on the system

• The number of degrees of freedom is reduced to 3N – k = s

• It is convenient to think of the remaining s independent coordinates as

the coordinates of a single point in an s-dimensional space:
configuration space

N
 Types of Constraints
• In general, constraints are expressed as a mathematical relation or relations
between particle coordinates & possibly the time. They are of following types

❑ Holonomic Constraints.
• the conditions of constraint can be expressed as equations connecting
the coordinates of the particles (and possibly the time) having the form
f(r1,r2,r3,…rN,t) = 0
•
• Example of Holonomic Constraint: Rigid body.
• In rigid body Constraints on coordinates are of the form:
• (ri - rj)2 - (cij)2 = 0
where cij = some constant
• Example of Holonomic Constraint: A particle constrained to move along any
curve or on a given surface with the equations defining the curve or surface
acting as the equations of a constraint
 Types of Constraints

❑ Non-Holonomic Constraints
• Constraints not expressible as f(ri,t) = 0
≡ Non-Holonomic Constraints

• Example of Non-Holonomic Constraint: Particle confined to surface of

rigid sphere, radius a: r2 - a2 ≥ 0

• Thus, in a gravitational field a particle placed on the top of the sphere

will slide down the surface part of the way but will eventually fall off.
 Types of Constraints
Further constarints can be classified according to their time dependence

• Rhenomic or Rhenomous Constraints

• Time dependent constraints: the equations of constraint contain the time as
an explicit variable
• Example- A bead sliding on a rigid curved wire; and if the wire is moving
in some prescribed fashion, the constraint is rheonomous.

• Fixed or Scleronomic or Scleronomous Constraints.

• If constraint equations don’t explicitly contain time:
• Example- A bead sliding on a rigid curved wire fixed in space

• Note that if the wire moves, say, as a reaction to the bead’s motion, then the
time dependence of the constraint enters in the equation of the constraint
only through the coordinates of the curved wire (which are now part of the
system coordinates). The overall constraint is then scleronomous.
• Difficulties constraints introduce in problems:
1. Coordinates ri are no longer all independent. Connected by
constraint equations.
2. To apply Newton’s 2nd Law, need TOTAL force acting on each
particle. Forces of constraint aren’t always known or easily
calculated.
⇒ With constraints, it’s often difficult to directly apply Newton’s
2nd Law.
Put another way: Forces of constraint are often among the
unknowns of the problem!
 Generalized Coordinates

• To handle the 1st difficulty (with holonomic constraints), we shall introduce

Generalized Coordinates.
– Alternatives to usual Cartesian coordinates.

• A System (3-dimensional) of N particles & no constraints.

⇒ 3N degrees of freedom
(3N independent coordinates)

• With k holonomic constraints, each expressed by equation of form:

fm(r1,r2,r3,…rN,t) = 0 (m = 1, 2, … k)
⇒ 3N - k degrees of freedom
(3N - k independent coordinates)

i.e. for Holonomic constraints:

number of degrees of freedom = number of generalized coordinates needed
to describe the system’s configuration
 Generalized Coordinates
• General mechanical system with s = 3N - k degrees of freedom (3N - k
independent coordinates).
• Introduce s = 3N - k independent Generalized Coordinates to describe system:
Notation: q1,q2, … Or: q ( = 1,2,… s)

• In principle, can always find relations between generalized coordinates &

Cartesian (vector) coordinates of form: ri = ri (q1,q2,q3,.,t) (i = 1,2,3,…N)
• i.e. old coordinates r1,r2, . . . ,rN are expressed in terms of independent variables
q1,q2, . . . ,q3N-k by equations

– These are transformation equations from the set of coordinates (ri ) to the set
(q) . They are parametric representations of (ri )
– In principle, we can combine with k constraint equations to obtain inverse
relations q = q(r1,r2,r3,..t) ( = 1,2,… s)
 Generalized Coordinates

• i.e. independent variables q1,q2, . . . ,q3N-k can be expressed in terms of

old coordinates r1,r2, . . . ,rN by equations
 Generalized Coordinates
• Generalized Coordinates ≡ Any set of s quantities which completely specifies
the state of the system (for a system with s degrees of freedom).
• These s generalized coordinates need not be Cartesian! We Can choose any
set of s coordinates which completely describes state of motion of system.
Depending on problem:
– Could have s curvilinear (spherical, cylindrical, ..) coordinates
– Could choose mixture of rectangular coordinates (m = no. of rectangular
coordinates) & curvilinear (s - m = no. of curvilinear coordinates)
– The s generalized coordinates needn’t have units of length! Could be
dimensionless or have (almost) any units.
– i.e. we can choose some of the parameters with dimensions of energy,
some with dimensions of (length)2, some that are dimensionless, and so
forth.
– Generalized coordinates, q will (often) not divide into groups of 3 that
can be associated with vectors.
 Generalized Coordinates
• Example: Particle on sphere surface:
• A convenient choice of generalized coordinate: q = latitude & longitude.

• Example: Double pendulum moving in a plane:

A convenient choice of
q = θ1 & θ2 (Figure) →

Figure- Double pendulum

Note- a double pendulum moving in a plane (two particles connected by an

inextensible light rod and suspended by a similar rod fastened to one of the
particles),
 Double 2D pendulum

• An example of a holonomic scleronomous constraint

• The trajectories of the system are very complex

• Lagrangian approach produces equation of motion

• We need 2 independent generalized coordinates

• (N = 2, k = 2 + 2, s = 3 N – k = 2)
• Sometimes, it’s convenient & useful to use Generalized Coordinates
(non-Cartesian) even in systems with no constraints.
– Example: Central force field problems: V = V(r),
it is clearly more convenient to use spherical polar coordinates than
Cartesian coordinates

• Generalized coordinates need not be orthogonal coordinates & need not be

position coordinates.
• Non-Holonomic constraint:
⇒ Eqns expressing constraint can’t be used to eliminate dependent
coordinates.
• Example:
• Object rolling without slipping on a rough surface.
• Coordinates needed to describe motion: Angular coords to specify
body orientation + coordinates to describe location of point of
contact of body & surface.
• Constraint of rolling ⇒ Connects 2 coordinates sets: They aren’t
independent.
• BUT, no. of coordinates cannot be reduced by the constraint,
because cannot express rolling condition as eqn between
coordinates!
• Instead, (can show) rolling constraint is condition on the velocities:
a differential eqn which can be integrated only after solution to
problem is known!
 Example: Rolling Constraint

• Consider a disk rolling on the

horizontal x y plane constrained to
move so that the plane of the disk is
always vertical. Figure:

• Generalized coordinates:
• the x, y coordinates of the enter of the Figure Vertical disk rolling on a
disk horizontal plane.
i.e. x, y of point of contact of disk
with plane
• + θ = angle between disk axis &
x-axis
• + ϕ = angle of rotation about disk
axis
 Example: Rolling Constraint contd…
• Constraint: Velocity v of disk center is
related to angular velocity ( =dφ/dt)
of disk rotation:
v= = a(dϕ/dt) ……(i)
Also Cartesian components of v:
vx = (dx/dt) = = v sinθ,
vy = (dy/dt) = = -v cosθ …………(ii)
Combine (i) & (ii) (multiplying through by
dt), we have differential eqns of constraint:
Figure Vertical disk rolling
dx - a sinθ dϕ = 0
on a horizontal plane.
dy + a cosθ dϕ = 0 …………(iii)

Neither of eqn (iii) can be integrated without solving the problem!

That is, a function f(x,y,θ,ϕ) = 0 cannot be found.
i.e., we cannot find an integrating factor f(x,y,θ,ϕ) that will turn either of the
equations into exact differentials. Hence, the constraints cannot be reduced to the
form of Eq. f(r1,r2,r3,…rN,t) = 0 and are therefore nonholonomic.
Physical argument that ϕ must be indep of x,y,θ:
 Example 2: Non-holonomic system (from Taylor, Classical mechanics)
• Consider, a hard rubber ball that is free to roll (but not to slide nor to spin
about a vertical axis) on a horizontal table.
• Starting at any position (x, y) it can move in only two independent directions.
• Therefore, the ball has two degrees of freedom,
• we might imagine that its configuration could be uniquely specified by two
coordinates, x and y, of its center.
• But let us consider the following:
• Let us place the ball at the origin O and make a mark on its top point.
• Now, carry out the following three moves.
•
• Non-Holonomic constraints are not only nonintegrable differential
constraints , these can also involve higher order derivatives or inequalities.
• Holonomic constraints are preferred, since easiest to deal with. No general
method to treat problems with Non-Holonomic constraints. Treat on
case-by-case basis.
• (Note : In classical mechanics, it is almost invariably assumed that any
constraint, if present, is holonomic )

• In special cases of Non-Holonomic constraints, when constraint is expressed

in differential form (as in rolling disk example), we can use method of
Lagrange multipliers along with Lagrange’s equations (will be discussed
later).
• Authors (Goldstein etal) argue, except for some macroscopic physics
textbook examples, most problems of practical interest to physicists are
microscopic & the constraints are holonomic or do not actually enter the
problem.
• The reason is that the entire concept of constraints imposed in the
system through the medium of wires or surfaces or walls is particularly
appropriate only in macroscopic or large-scale problems.
• But today physicists are more interested in atomic and nuclear
problems. On this scale all objects, both in and out of the system,
consist alike of molecules, atoms, or smaller particles, exerting definite
forces, and the notion of constraint becomes artificial and rarely
appears.
• Constraints are then used only as mathematical idealizations to the
actual physical case or as classical approximations to a
quantum-mechanical property, e.g., rigid body rotations for “spin.”
• Such constraints are always holonomic and fit smoothly into the
framework of the theory
• Difficulties constraints introduce:
1. Coordinates ri are no longer all independent. Connected by constraint
eqns.
– Have now thoroughly discussed this problem!
2. To apply Newton’s 2nd Law, need the TOTAL force acting on each
particle. Forces of constraint are not always known or easily calculated.
⇒ With constraints, it’s often difficult to directly apply Newton’s
2nd Law.
Put another way: Forces of constraint are often among the unknowns of the
problem! To address this, long ago, people reformulated mechanics.
Lagrangian & Hamiltonian formulations. No direct reference to forces of
constraint.
• One of the objectives of the Lagrangian approach is to find equations that
do not involve the constraining forces, which we usually don’t want to know
anyway .
• E.g. suppose a particle is constrained to move on a surface.
• This means that it has two degrees of freedom and can be described by two
generalized coordinates q1 and q2 that can vary independently.
• there are two kinds of forces on the particle
• First, there are the forces of constraint (Fcstr): for our particle, constrained
to move on a surface, it is the normal force of the surface.
• Second, there are all the other “nonconstraint” forces (F, say) on the
particle, such as gravity.
• We shall assume that the nonconstraint forces all satisfy at least the second
condition for conservatism, so that they are derivable from a potential
energy, U (r, t), and
• The total force on our particle is Ftot = Fcstr + F.

• Finally, we shall define the Lagrangian, to be L = T — U.

• Since U is the potential energy for the nonconstraint forces only, this
definition of L excludes the constraint forces.

• This correctly reflects that Lagrange’s equations for a constrained

system cleverly eliminate the constraint forces,