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Study Guide in GE 6: Science, Technology, and Society Module No. 1

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 1

INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

MODULE OVERVIEW

This section introduces Science, Technology, and Society (STS) as a field of study. After defining
science and technology, the section traces the historical roots of STS as an academic field. It also
enumerates emerging ethical dilemmas that reinforce the importance of the study of STS in an age of
scientific progress and technological development.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

1. explain the scope of the study of STS; and
2. demonstrate preparedness and readiness in the study of STS.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Diagnostics

Before continuing on this Module, let us have a short diagnostic test to determine your ideas regarding
science and technology. For the following items, write TRUE if you feel that the statement is correct and
FALSE if the statement is not.
1. Technology is the application of science.
2. Scientific theories are much less valid than scientific laws.
3. Science and technology has potentially negative societal impacts.
4. STS is a multidisciplinary study and draws heavily on the social sciences.
5. Science mainly concerns on the acquisition and production of knowledge from the natural world.
6. Though the knowledge generated by STS is important, it has little bearing on government policy-
making.
7. The study of STS is important for both the natural science community and the social science
community.
8. The domain of science requires skills such as critical thinking and problem-solving but less on
creativity and imagination.
9. When we try to look into how various social factors affect the development of science and how
developments in science affect human society, we are delving into the STS territory.
10. STS deals mostly with historical developments of science and technology and its impact to society
and less with the philosophical implications of these developments.

Once you finish this Module, revisit this activity and answer it again. Did any of your ideas regarding
science, technology, and society change?

GENERAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

Science and technology innovations are prevalent in our society. It permeates our everyday activities,
as well as the tools that we use, from the most simple to the most complex. In order for you to completely
grasp the impact of science and technology to our society, it is necessary to study some concepts related to
science and technology.

What is Science?

You have taken up science subjects since primary school years, and the definition of science has
been repeatedly discussed since then. To give you a recall, Science comes from the Latin word scientia,
meaning ‘knowledge’. It refers to a systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge
about how the universe behaves through observation, experimentation or both. Let’s discuss the nature of
science below for you to understand it better.

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The Nature of Science

It is important to understand the nature of science because it is a critical component of scientific

literacy. It enhances your understanding of science concepts and enables you to make informed decisions
about scientifically-based personal and societal issues. The following sums up the nature of science:

The World is Understandable

Science presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent patterns that are
comprehensible through careful, systematic study. Scientists believe that through the use of the intellect, and
with the aid of instruments that extend the senses, people can discover patterns in all of nature.

Science Explains and Predicts

Scientists strive to make sense of observations of phenomena by constructing explanations that are
consistent with currently accepted scientific principles. Such explanations or theories may be either broad or
restricted, but they must be logically sound and incorporate a significant body of scientifically valid
observations. The credibility of scientific theories often comes from their ability to show relationships among
phenomena that previously seemed unrelated. For example, the theory of moving continents, has grown in
credibility as it has shown relationships among diverse phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanoes, the
match between types of fossils on different continents, the shapes of continents, and the contours of the
ocean floors.

Science Demands Evidence

The validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of phenomena. Hence, scientists
concentrate on getting accurate data. Such evidence is obtained by observations and measurements taken in
situations that range from natural settings (such as a forest) to completely contrived ones (such as the
laboratory). To make their observations, scientists use their own senses, instruments (such as microscopes)
that enhance those senses, and instruments that tap characteristics quite different from what humans can
sense (such as magnetic fields). Scientists observe passively (earthquakes, bird migrations), make collections
(rocks, shells), and actively probe the world (as by boring into the earth's crust or administering experimental
medicines).

Scientific Ideas are Open to Change

Science is more of a process than a set body of knowledge. Scientists are always testing and revising
their ideas, and as new observations are made, existing ideas may be challenged. Ideas may be replaced
with new ideas that better fit the facts, but more often existing ideas are simply revised. For example, when
scientists discovered how genes control genetic traits, they didn't throw out Mendel's laws of inheritance. The
new discoveries helped to explain why Mendel's laws apply to certain traits but not others. They showed that
Mendel's laws are part of a bigger picture. Through many new discoveries over time, scientists gradually build
an increasingly accurate and detailed understanding of the natural world.

Science is a Complex Social Activity

Scientific work involves many individuals doing many different kinds of work and goes on to some
degree in all nations of the world. Men and women of all ethnic and national backgrounds participate in
science and its applications. These people --- scientists and engineers, mathematicians, physicians,
technicians, computer programmers, librarians, and others --- may focus on scientific knowledge either for its
own sake or for a particular practical purpose, and they may be concerned with data gathering, theory
building, instrument building, or communicating.

Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions

There are many matters that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific way. There are, for instance,
beliefs that --- by their very nature --- cannot be proved or disproved (such as the existence of supernatural
powers and beings, or the true purposes of life). In other cases, a scientific approach that may be valid is
likely to be rejected as irrelevant by people who hold to certain beliefs (such as in miracles, fortune-telling,

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astrology, and superstition). Nor do scientists have the means to settle issues concerning good and evil,
although they can sometimes contribute to the discussion of such issues by identifying the likely
consequences of particular actions, which may be helpful in weighing alternatives.

Extension Activity
You can watch this YouTube video from Bozeman Science to further understand the Nature of Science:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TkvjDZseD4k&feature=emb_rel_pause

What is Technology?

Technology, the word often attached side by side with science comes from the Greek word techne,
meaning ‘art, skill or cunning of hand’. Technology involves the development and use of materials, tools, and
approaches for solving human problems and helping to fulfill human needs and desires. Many of the products
of technology help humans accomplish tasks that would otherwise be very difficult or impossible to carry out.
Although technology provides many benefits, it also produces associated costs and risks. Technology is also
a way of knowing, and is also a process of exploration and experimentation. Technology is both a form of
knowledge that uses concepts and skills from other disciplines and the application of this knowledge to meet
an identified need or to solve a specific problem using materials, energy, and tools.

Relationship between Science, Technology, and Society

Science, technology and society are closely linked, especially through scientific inquiry, technological
problem solving, and communication. Science frequently utilizes and requires tools and processes developed
by technology, and conversely, technology often employs principles, laws, theories, and processes developed
by means of science. The society as we know it today has been affected in many ways by science and
technology.

For example, society demands for an easy-access, extensive and frequent communication. This leads
to the research and development of an ever widening array of mobile phone capabilities. Access to these
capabilities, in turn, influenced the way humans live. As the society relies more and more on mobile phones,
additional features were continuously requested to improve like increasing speed of phone processors, the
use of touch-enabled screens, or the implementation of mobile internet access, and the cycle continues.

HISTORICAL ROOTS OF STS AS AN ACADEMIC FIELD

As problems in science and technology continue to rise and become more observable, the need to pay
attention to their interactions with various aspects of human life, e.g. social, political, and economic, becomes
ever more necessary. How the different aspects of society shape and influence the progression and further
development of science and technology is the area of concern of a relatively new academic discipline called
Science, Technology and Society.

Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a relatively young field that combines previously
independent and older disciplines, such as the history of science, philosophy of science, and sociology of
science. As an academic field, STS, according to Harvard University’s Kennedy School (2018), traces its roots
from the interwar period and the start of the Cold War. It was during this period when historians and scientists
found interest in the interconnections of scientific knowledge, technological systems, and society. The rise of
STS as an academic field resulted from the recognition that many schools today do not really prepare
students to respond critically, reflectively, and proactively to the challenges posed by science and technology
in the modern world.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF STS

STS seeks to bridge the gap between two traditionally exclusive cultures --- humanities (interpretive)
and natural sciences (rational) --- so that humans will be able to better confront the moral, ethical, and
existential dilemmas brought by the continued developments in science and technology.

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STS also calls for educating you (our students) so that you will be able to apply science and technology
(tools, knowledge, process and products) to solve problems in your environment. STS is an important
academic discipline to help you do science so as to be functional and not just graduates who are alien to your
own society. For example, graduates should be able to apply science and technology while at school, say to
be productive, to grow your own food, to carry-out diseases preventive measures and to become self-reliant
or employed. STS aims to help students to develop adaptability, equipped with not only academic skills but
with a range of practical skills which will make you a functional citizen.

ETHICAL DILEMMAS THAT REINFORCE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF STS

Human beings are by no means perfect – we struggle with ethical dilemmas on a daily basis and fail in
doing what we think or believe to be the right thing more often than we would like to admit. Unfortunately,
these failings are also articulated in our technology.

To warn us of these failings, the John J. Reilly Center for Science, Technology, and Values at the
University of Notre Dame compiles an annual list of what it determines to be that year’s top 10 ethical
dilemmas in science and technology. The list points to the challenges, questions, and issues that need to be
addressed and resolved when science, and technology and humanity intertwine.

The top 10 ethical dilemmas of science and technology as identified by the John J. Reilly Center for
Science, Technology, and Values at the University of Notre Dame for 2020 can be viewed at this link:

www.laboratoryequipment.com/558920-Top-10-Ethical-Dilemmas-in-Science-for-2020/. You may

also view the dilemmas from previous years as listed by the said organization.

Even if several items in the list may sound unfamiliar to you, it can be a useful springboard in the study of
science and technology.

SUMMARY

The following learning points summarize what you have learned in this section:

 Science is a systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about how the
universe behaves through observation, experimentation or both.
 Scientists assume that nature can be understood through systematic study, scientific ideas are open
to revision, sound scientific ideas withstand the test of time, and science cannot provide answers to all
questions.
 Technology involves the development and use of materials, tools, and approaches for solving human
problems and helping to fulfill human needs and desires.
 STS as an academic discipline is primarily concerned with how the different aspects of society shape
and influence the progression and further development of science and technology.
 STS seeks to bridge the gap between humanities and natural sciences.

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 2

HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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MODULE OVERVIEW

This module will introduce you the major roles of science and technology in the everyday life in a
historical perspective. As you proceed with the learning activities, you should be able to discover how different
social, cultural, economic, and political conditions affected science and technology and how science and
technology affected society as a whole. This module will focus on three historical periods: Ancient, Middle,
and Modern Period.
We will not only be looking at the history of science and technology in a global context. We will also
discuss important Philippine inventions and innovations. This way we could appreciate the different
contributions to the science and technology field of our own countrymen.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

3. discuss the interactions between science, technology, and society throughout history;
4. discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society and the environment; and
5. explain how Philippine scientific and technological inventions shaped and were shaped by various
social context.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Reflection

Before continuing on this Module, watch an 18- minute TEDxTalk by Hannu Rajaniemi entitled The Big
History of Modern Science using the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZcWsjlGPPFQ. Afterward,
reflect on the following question: “Why is it important to study the history of Science and Technology?”

ANTECEDENT DEFINED

Though it is important to study scientific and technological innovations that had important societal
impacts, there would not be enough time to study them all. What we would focus on are the historical
antecedents, which, according to Quinto, et al (2019), are “factors that paved the way for the presence of
advanced and sophisticated scientific and ethnological innovations today.” The study of these historical
antecedents is important because they help us better understand how to develop new scientific and
technological innovations and help us make better decisions based from our experiences.
In our study of these historical antecedents, we will be dividing them into three distinct but interrelated
periods. This relationship of different historical antecedents of science and technology across time can be
seen in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Historical antecedents of S&T across Time

DRIVING CONCERNS FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

Transportation

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One of the greatest needs that people need to address is how to move ourselves and our goods from
one place to another. With motivations such as traveling to new places, discovering new horizons, search for
basic human needs such as food and shelter, seeking security, and doing business such as trading, the need
for the advancements in transportation is of utmost importance, both in the past and present. Thankfully, we
have progressed from our reliance on human and animal muscle for transportation to such technological
advancements such as automobiles, rockets, and Global Positioning System.

Examples: wheel, wheeled chariot, sailboat, sailing ship, road, compass, steamboat, railroad, bicycle,
automobile, airplane, space launcher, jetliner, GPS

Communication
Aiming to create understanding, prevent conflicts, facilitate business transactions, provide
entertainment, expand our knowledge, and broaden our vision, science and technology has made great leaps
in the area of communication. Thankfully, the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver, much
like transportation, has also greatly advanced.

Examples: cuneiform, ink, papyrus, paper, hieroglyphics, newspaper, bound book or codex, numbers,
Greek and Latin alphabet, parchment and vellum, printing press, photography, telegraph, telephone,
phonograph, motion picture, radio, television, transistor, communications satellite, personal computer

Food production, agriculture and industry

Food is a basic need for the human race to survive, and innovations and inventions that advance its
production and processing is a great step towards the continued survival of human societies. Growing and
taking care of living thing, as well as processing these living things as products that could be stored for a long
time and be safe for human consumption, are important driving motivations for science and technological
advancement.

Examples: plowshare, silk, tea, bronze, iron, petroleum refinery, power loom, canning, refrigeration,
steel, aluminum, sheet and plate glass, rayon, Bakelite, combine harvester, industrial robots,
fullerenes

Military and Defense

Even the smallest living organism has its own way of protecting itself against anything that might harm it.
Naturally, humans also see the need for defending itself. As such, science and technology has made efforts
in improving military and defense efforts. Initially for the discovery of new places, establishment of alliances,
taking of needed resources, conflicts, security, and protection, science and technology have contributed the
deliberate and organized application of force, sometimes with bloody results.

Examples: spear, bow and arrow, gunpowder, rifled muzzle-loaders, submarine, machine gun, assault
rifle, tank, ballistic missile, nuclear weapons

Conservation of life, medicine, and health

By creating medicines to fight off or prevent illnesses, developing processes that prevent us from
acquiring diseases, discovering knowledge of the human body, and inventing new ways to maintain good
health, science and technology helped humans to extend human life. In contrast with previous motivations of
science and technology advancement, history tells us that medical and health-related breakthroughs are
usually lead by specific individuals, and not by groups of people.

Examples: smallpox vaccine, general anesthesia, pasteurization, X-ray imaging, insulin, antibiotics,
blood transfusion, polio vaccine, birth control pill, heart transplantation, genetic engineering, cloning

Engineering and architecture

Advances on engineering and architecture has not only filled the need of society, it also showed how
inventive and organized humans are. Through the creation and design of controlled environments for varying
purposes, science and technology helped in molding human identity, as shown in amazing engineering feats
and architectural design.

Examples: city, ziggurat, irrigation, dike, Wonders of the World, aqueduct, arch, brick, dam, Roman
dome, plumbing, paved road, reinforced concrete, suspension bridge, dynamite, skyscraper, elevator,
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

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Power and energy

Without power and energy, all other human efforts in improving task efficiency will be in vain. It is a
fundamental driving force that advances in power harnessing and energy processing has also shaped other
areas discussed in this lesson. Science and technology have helped society to use its environment in
gathering energy and using it in a more purposeful and useful way.

Example: waterwheel, controlled fire, windmill, steam engine, electric battery, electric generator and
motor, incandescent lightbulb, steam turbine, gasoline engine, jet engine, nuclear reactor laser, wind
turbine, solar cell, fuel cell

Observation and measurement

It has been extremely difficult for humans to imagine magnitude, especially in terms of time and space.
However, this did not stop science and technology in trying to comprehend it. This led to different innovations
that tried to make sense of the observable universe – a driving force that led to clocks and calendars, as well
as microscopes and telescopes. Through science and technology, we have attempted to quantify and
understand something that we cannot move, manipulate, or change.

Examples: water clock or clepsydra, alarm clock, Gregorian calendar, clock, watch, telescope,
microscope, radar, atomic clock, calculator

Aesthetics
Humans also saw the need to make itself more visually appealing and presentable. This may be for
diverse reasons, may it be cultural, biological, psychological, or religious. Science and technology helped
humans in this endeavor and made sure that improving human aesthetics does not only serve the purpose
that it wants to achieve, but also made it safe and economical.

Examples: wig, cosmetics

ANCIENT PERIOD

In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and navigation, communication and
record keeping, mass production, power and energy, security and protection, as well as health, observation,
and measurement, aesthetics, engineering, and architecture. A primary challenge they faced was the
conservation of life. The early people might have been successful in harnessing the rich resources that the
world could provide but their survival posed a great problem. Different illnesses and diseases, both natural
and man-made, hampered the full potential of a human being. Given this predicament, science and
technology played a major role in the discovery of cures, if not the prevention of illness. Moreover, in order to
integrate their needs for better transportation, establishment of structures for protection from human attacks
and natural disasters, and construction of bigger and stronger infrastructure. Furthermore, the people were
not contented on beautifying their infrastructures and surrounding but more on being able to prolong life with
the mass production of food and advancement of medical technology, as well as raising the quality of life.

The rise of ancient civilizations such as Sumerians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and
Chinese paved the way for advances in science and technology. Their contributions not only allowed these
ancient civilizations to flourish, but also paved the way for the developments of many other science and
technology innovations.

Some of the important historical antecedents of much more modern science and technology innovations
which were discovered in the ancient times include the ancient wheel, paper, shadoof, Antikythera
mechanism, and aeolipile. However, it should be noted that many more scientific and technological
innovations were developed during ancient times.

Sumerian Civilization

Sumeria is located on the southernmost tip of ancient Mesopotamia and is considered the oldest
civilization in the world. The ancient civilization of the Sumerians were the people of southern “Mesopotamia”
whose civilization flourished between c. 4100-1750 BCE.

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The Sumerians lived in “Sumer” which was not a political entity but rather a region of city-states each
with its own king. Sumer was in the southern counterpart to the northern region of “Akkad” whose people gave
the Sumer the same meaning “Land of the civilized kings”. Which the Sumerians gave them a name too which
was “The land of the black-headed people” Their contributions include the following:

1. CUNEIFORM. The first writing system that utilizes word pictures and triangular symbols which are
carved on clay using wedge instruments and then left to dry. This allowed the Sumerians to keep
records of things with great historical value or their everyday life.

2. FIRST TRUE CITY. Uruk City is first true city on the world. The Sumerians were able to build the city
using only mud or clay from the river which they mixed with reeds, producing sun-baked bricks. They
used bricks to make houses that protected them from the harsh weather and to build a wall around
the city that prevented wild animals and neighboring raiders from entering.

3. THE GREAT ZIGGURAT OF UR. Also called the mountain of God, it served as the scared place of
their chief god where only their priest were allowed to enter.

4. IRRIGATION and DIKES. Sumerians created dikes and irrigation canals to bring water to farmlands
and at the same time control of flooding of the rivers. Through the dikes and canals, the Sumerians
were able to enjoy year-long farming and harvesting, which increased their food production.

5. SAILBOATS. These were used to carry large quantities of products and were able to cover large
distances.

6. WHEEL. The first wheels were not made for transportation but farm work and food processes.
Farmers were able to mill grains with less effort in less time.

7. PLOW. It is used to dig the ground where seeds would be planted. Farmers could cultivate larger
parcels of land faster, enabling them to mass produce food without taking so much effort and time

8. ROADS. It made the flow of traffic become faster and more organized. They made the roads with
the same technology they used in making the sun-baked bricks that they laid down on the ground

9. JEWELRY. They are ones who made their own jewelries using gold, silver and gems.

10. BRONZE TOOLS. Sumerians tools are made by bronze to make weapons much stronger.

Babylonian Civilization

The Babylonian civilization emerged near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Babylonia was a state in
ancient Mesopotamia. The city of Babylon, whose ruins are located in present-day Iraq, was founded more
than 4,000 years ago. Known for their engineering and architecture, one of their major contributions is the
Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, made by King
Nebuchadnezzar II for Queen Amytis. Among their contributions include:

1. FIRST MAP. An ancient Babylonian cartographer created the world’s first map on a clay tablet in
2300 BC. The map covers a small region of Babylonia during the Akkadian Empire. The Babylonian
Map of the World is circular and depicts mountains, rivers, canals, and swamps. The seven small
circles on the map represent the seven Babylonian cities. It can now be found in the British Museum.

2. ASTROLOGY AND HOROSCOPY. In ancient Babylon, it was thought that the celestial bodies had
divine powers which directed people’s lives. Constellations were used to determine the weather,
climate, and the seasons, and to help people decide which crops should be sown when. Ancient
Babylonian astronomists closely studied the sun and the moon cycles in order to predict this. The
concept of the horoscope was introduced by the Babylonians as they believed in the divinity of the
celestial bodies. They mapped the position of astronomical bodies so that they could foretell their
daily lives and those of their kings.

Egyptian Civilization

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The Egyptian civilization is located in North Africa. It was the preeminent civilization in the
Mediterranean world. It occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability
known as Intermediate Period.
The ancient Egyptians excelled at the sciences and had knowledge in various fields, from astronomy
to medicine to mathematics. Many of their most famous inventions were based upon the scientific principles
they discovered. They had a variety of medicines and cures for both humans and animals, along with much
knowledge of anatomy. During the Stone Age, early doctors used very primitive forms of herbal medicine.
Math and numbers were used to record business transactions, and the ancient Egyptians even
developed a decimal system.
The ancient Egyptians are known for their massive constructions and outstanding architecture. The
ones that are remain marvels of architecture, such as the Great Pyramid of Giza, which is one of the Seven
Wonders of the World. The first truly triangular shaped pyramids are counted among the many ancient
Egyptian inventions, although it took them several tries in order to achieve an ideal model. The great
pyramids that the ancient Egyptians built required some knowledge of mathematics, especially of geometry.

Among their many contributions include the following:

1. PAPYRUS. Papyrus is the precursor of paper. It is made from the papyrus plant (Cyperus papyrus)
that grew abundantly along Nile River in Egypt. They were able to process the plants in order to
produce thin sheets on which one could write down things. They are thinner and lighter and less
breakable than clay tablets, allowing record - keeping and communications advantages such as
sending letters or correspondences anywhere in the world and easier safekeeping from raiders who
often destroyed records of the nations they invaded.

2. INK. By combining soot with different chemicals to produce inks of different colors, it was used to
record history, culture, and codified laws.

3. HIEROGLYPHICS. It is a system of writing using symbols (logographic system), believed by

Egyptians to be provided to them by gods.

4. CALENDAR. The ancient Egyptian calendar was originally invented based on the 12-month lunar
cycle. The Egyptians devised the solar calendar by recording the yearly reappearance of Sirius (the
Dog Star) in the eastern sky.

5. COSMETICS. These were used for both health and aesthetic reasons. Egyptians wore Kohl, eye
cosmetic created by mixing soot or malachite with mineral galena to cure diseases. Egyptians
believed that a person wearing make-up was protected from evil and that beauty was a sign of
holiness.

6. WIGS. They were worn for health and wellness rather than for aesthetic purposes. They were used
to protect the shaved heads of the wealthy Egyptians from the harmful rays from the sun.

7. SIMPLE MACHINES. The ramp and the lever were a couple of the most famous construction
inventions that the ancient Egyptians developed, and the principles that guide them are still widely
used in construction today.

8. CLOCK. Ancient Egyptians were also one of the first groups of people to divide days into equal parts
through the use of timekeeping devices. In order to tell the time, Egyptians invented two types of
clocks, obelisks and water clocks or clepsydra (utilizes gravity that affects the flow of water from one
vessel to the other. The amount of water remaining in the device determines how much time has
elapsed since it is full.)

9. SHADOOF. It is a hand-operated device used for lifting water for the purpose of irrigating land.

Greek Civilization

Greece is an archipelago in the southern part of Europe. It is known as the birthplace of western
philosophy. The Greeks made major contributions in mathematics like ideas about basic geometry and the
concept of mathematical proof from ancient Greek mathematicians.
In science they made some of the first astronomical models trying to describe the planetary

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movement- the earth axis, and the heliocentric system- a model that places the sun at the center of the solar
system.
In our modern society, geometry plays a vital role in the construction process itself. It helps us decide
what material and design to use. Also, geometry wore in mapping, and mapping is an essential element in the
profession such as surveying, navigation, and astronomy. Their heliocentric model helps us understand the
world outside our planet, furthermore their discoveries many scientists have discovered more than one galaxy.
Among their contributions are the following:

1. ALARM CLOCK. They made used of water or small stones or sand that dropped into drums which
sounded the alarm. Plato was believed to have utilized an alarm to signal the start of his lecture.

2. WATER MILL. It was commonly used in agricultural processes like milling of grains which was
necessary form of food processing. Because milling was made possible by the use of watermills, the
mass production of rice, cereals, flours became common. They were better than mills powered by
farm animals because they required less effort and time to operate since the farmer did not have time
to raise the animals.

3. ANTIKYTHERA MECHANISM. Retrieved from Antikythera, Greece, it is similar to mantel clock, with
a round face and rotating hands. The movement of knobs allowed it to display celestial time. It was
believed that it was used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses. It is believed to be the
antecedent of the modern clockwork.

4. AEOLIPILE. Also known as the Hero's engine, named after Hero of Alexandria who demonstrated it.
It is the precursor of the steam engine. It is steam-powered turbine which spun when the water
container it has is heated.

Roman Civilization

The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest political and social entity in the west and was
considered to be the cradle of politics and governance. It was large and other civilizations looked up to it as
their model in terms of legislation and codified laws. Among their contributions were the following:

1. NEWSPAPER. First called gazettes, they were made before the invention of paper. They were
engraved in metal or stone tablets and then publicly displayed.

2. BOUND BOOKS OR CODEX. According to sources, Julius Cesar started the tradition of stacking up
papyrus to form pages of a book. Later on, they were able to provide covers to protect the papyrus.
Earlier covers was made of wax but were later on replaced by animal skin, which made them stronger
and long-lasting.

3. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. This was considered a continuation of Greek architecture. Probably the
biggest innovation that Roman architecture brought with it was the widespread use of concrete.
Roman architects realized that concrete was not only stronger than commonly-used marble, but it
could also be decorated easily and could have various shapes sculpted onto it, as opposed to having
to be carved out of it. They were able to implement major projects such as large churches (basilicas,
aqueducts, cathedrals, coliseums, amphitheaters etc.)

4. ROMAN NUMERALS. Romans devised their own number system specifically to address the need
for standard counting method.

5. SURGICAL TOOLS. Romans pioneered in precision instruments that gave birth to many modern-day
surgical tools. They were intrigued to know that such tools could also become helpful to soldiers who
have been injured in battles there and then. Hence, Roman armies had medics who were in use for
any complications in the battlefield. Their prowess in the medical field doesn’t just end there, as they
had also devised procedures that can considerably reduce blood loss and even aesthetical
administrations.

6. WAR WEAPONS. They had weapons like the ballista (catapult) and the scorpion (long range
crossbow), which were brilliantly engineered to bring down the toughest of enemies. They re-

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engineered the ballista and made a cost-effective version of it called the Onager. It was cheaper to
make but deadly as its predecessor.

Mayan Civilization

A Mesoamerican civilization, this civilization lasted for about 2 000 years. The Mayan civilization
included southeastern Mexico and northern Central America. This area included the entire Yucatán Peninsula
and all of the territory now incorporated into the modern countries of Guatemala and Belize, as well as the
western portions of Honduras and El Salvador. They were known for the following:

1. understanding of astronomy (predicting eclipses, using astronomy in agriculture, calendar systems)

2. engineering and architecture (building of cities, hydraulic systems, religious structures, such as
Chichen Itza in Mexico)
3. agriculture
4. arts (looms for weaving, paints made from mica, Mayan hieroglyphics)
5. mathematics (number system based on the number 20, and concept of zero and positional value)

Inca Civilization

A Mesoamerican civilization, it included modern-day Peru, followed by a large portion of western

South America. They were known for the following:

1. stone-paved roads
2. stone buildings strong against disasters
3. irrigation system
4. 12-month calendar for religious and agricultural purposes
5. first suspension bridge
6. quipu, system of knotted ropes to keep records
7. textiles

Aztec Civilization

A Mesoamerican civilization located in central Mexico, the Aztec civilization has the following
contributions:

1. mandatory education
2. chocolates (which was used as currency)
3. antispasmodic medication
4. chinampa, a form of agricultural farming in which the land was divided into rectangular areas and
surrounded by canals
5. calendar system
6. canoe

Chinese Civilization

Considered the oldest civilization in Asia, it was known as the Middle Kingdom and located on the far
east of Asia. Among its contributions are as follows:

1. PAPER AND PAPER MONEY. Paper was invented by the Chinese as well as many interesting uses
for paper like paper money and playing cards. The first paper was invented in the 2nd century BC and
the manufacture later perfected around 105 AD. Paper money was an offshoot of the invention of
block printing, this replaced the use of jewels and precious stones as currency.

2. PRINTING. Wood block printing was invented in AD 868 and then moveable type around 200 years
later. This was actually hundreds of years before the invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in
Europe.

3. SILK. Naturally produced by silk worms, the Chinese were the ones who developed the technology
to harvest the silk and process it to produce paper and clothing. Silk was a soft and light material
much desired by the wealthy throughout the world. It became such a valuable export that the trade

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route running from Europe to China became known as the Silk Road. The silk trade opened China to
the outside world making way for cultural, economic and scientific exchanges bridging the gap
between the western world and the middle kingdom.

4. WHEELBARROW. The wheelbarrow is taken for granted today, but in the time of the Han Dynasty,
the wheelbarrow was an amazing invention that changed the lives of many farmers. It looks simple;
one wheel and a piece of iron, but could save farmers more work. Han Dynasty farmers could now
push their heavy loads in the wheelbarrow instead of having to carry them on their backs, or in
buckets attached to a pole on their shoulders. The main purpose of this amazing yet simple invention
was to transport farmers' goods from one place to another easier. The harvest of crops potentially
could speed up because farmers' could carry more supplies faster and easier than they used to.

5. TEA PRODUCTION. Tea is a beverage produced by pouring hot or boiling water over crushed or
shredded dried tea leaves. It was believed that the first tea was drunk by a Chinese Emperor. Tea
production was developed when an unknown Chinese inventor created a machine that was ablw
shred tea leaves into strips.

6. COMPASS. The Chinese invented the magnetic compass to help determine the correct direction.
They used this in city planning at first, but it became very important to map makers and for the
navigation of ships.

7. GREAT WALL OF CHINA. The largest and most extensive infrastructure that the nation built, it was
constructed to keep out foreign invaders and control the borders of China. It was made with stone,
brick, wood, earth and other materials.

8. GUNPOWDER. Known as huoyao ("fire potion"), it was developed originally by Chinese alchemists
who aimed to achieve immortality. They mixed charcoal, sulfur and potassium nitrate but instead of
creating an elixir of life they accidentally invented a black powder that could actually generate large
amounts of heat and gas in an instant. Gun powder is widely used to propel bullets from guns and
cannons which cause countless deaths. Gun powder is also used in fireworks during important
celebrations in China.

9. OTHER TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS. These include traditional medicine, iron plow,

wheelbarrow, propeller, bridges, seismological detector, dry dock facility, and advances in astronomy,
mathematics, logic, and philosophy.

Indian Civilization

The ancient Indian civilization were known for the following:

1. metallurgical works, especially iron

2. medicine (exemplified by Ayurveda, who developed a system of traditional medicine still practiced
today, and the text Susruta Samhita, which described medical procedures)
3. astronomy (theories on the configuration of the universe, spherical Earth, 360-day year with 12
months, and the text SIddhanta Shiromani, which contained astronomical topics)
4. mathematics (development of the Mohenjodaro ruler, and mathematicians such as Aryabhata, (who
introduced trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, and algebra algorithms), Brahmagupta
(who explained the use of zero and a system of numbers), and Madhava (considered the founder of
mathematical analysis))

Middle East Civilizations

Middle Eastern countries are predominantly occupied by Muslims. In contrast with the Greeks, they
focused on science experiments rather than though experiments. Among their contributions are:

1. beginnings of the scientific method

2. concept of algorithm and algebra (from Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi)
3. refinement of the numeral system of Indians and introduction of decimal point notation
4. founding of chemistry (where some consider Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the Father of Chemistry)

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5. experimental medicine and clinical trials, contagious ature of infectious disease, and clinical
pharmacology (from Ibn Sina)

African Civilizations

Some contributions of African civilizations include the following:

1. calendars (solar, lunar, stellar, and combinations of these)
2. metallurgy
3. mathematics (proof of which is the Lebombo Bone which may be a mathematical tool)

MEDIEVAL / MIDDLE AGES

The Middle Ages, which occurred between the collapse of the Roman Empire in 5th century AD and the
colonial expansion of Western Europe in late 15th century AD, was an age of which started with wars,
migrations, and population rise and fall. These events led to new technologies needed in the fields of
weaponry, transportation and navigation, mass food and farm production, and health. This is also the period
of the emergence of scientific thinking and scientific method. Because of this, many of our technologies can
actually be traced back in this time period.

According to Quinto (2019), the heavy plough, gunpowder, paper money, mechanical clock and
spinning wheel were the important technologies which emerged in this time period. Just like in the ancient
period, be mindful of their impacts to society and that they are not the only technologies that are developed
during this time.

1. HEAVY PLOW. This allowed tilling of clay soil, which was more fertile but very heavy.

2. MECHANICAL CLOCK. The development of mechanical clock is the antecedent of modern

clockwork, and changed the way on work patterns.

3. SPINNING WHEEL. This machine was used for transforming fiber into yarn or thread and eventually
woven into a cloth on a loom. This ushered the breakthrough in linen technology.

4. PRINTING PRESS. Invented by Johann Gutenberg, it was a more reliable way of printing using a
cast type. It utilized a wooden machine that extracted from juices. Attached to them a metal
impression of the letters and pressed firmly the cast metal into a piece of paper which then made an
exact impression on paper. It was the precursor of the mechanical printing press which was
eventually used all over the world. It was used to address the need for publishing books that would
spread information to many people at faster rate. It also made works accessible to individuals who
could not even write

5. WAR WEAPONS. For open area battles, people developed cross bows and long bows so that they
could attack the enemies at long ranges, keeping themselves safe with the protection of walls and
fortresses. In close-range hand-to-hand combat, soldiers should wear something to protect
themselves, a need addressed by the creation of iron body armors.

MODERN AGES

According to Quinto, et al (2019), the Modern Ages was marked with a steady increase in population
that emphasizes the “importance of increasing the efficiency of transportation, communication, and
production”. During the Modern ages, more complicated problems were created that needed more solutions
and greater risks for many aspects of human life were needed to be addressed.

Quinto (2019) gave a brief background on important historical antecedents of science and technology
that started in the Modern Ages. These include, but are not limited to, compound microscope, telescope,
Jacquard loom, engine-powered airplane, and television.

1. TELESCOPE. Invented by Galileo Galilei, it is an optical instrument that helps in the observation of
remote objects.

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2. MICROSCOPE. Invented by Zacharias Janssen, it is the key in discovering new means in preventing
and curing various illness

3. PASTEURIZATION. Invented by Louis Pasteur, it is the process of heating dairy products to kill
harmful bacteria that fast spoilage. It is a better means of production to meet the needs for
population, food preservation and food safety. Because of this, milk could be stored and consumed
for a longer period and it prevents illnesses caused by harmful bacteria.

4. PETROLEUM REFINERY. Modern times demanded better means of powering homes and
transportation. Samuel M. Kier, by refining petroleum, invented kerosene, which was used at first to
provide lightning at homes (which led to it being named illuminating oil) and then was used for heating
purposes.

5. TELEPHONE. Invented by Alexander Graham Bell, it allowed a way to easily maintain connections
and communicate with each other in real time/.

6. CALCULATOR. It was invented to make easier way for arithmetic calculations. It resulted in the
development of more complex processing machine like computer.

7. JACQUARD LOOM. Invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard, it was used to simplify textile
manufacturing (which, prior to this invention, required the use of a drawloom which needed two
people, a weaver and a drawboy). It used punch cards, which is an antecedent to modern computer
technology.

8. ENGINE-POWERED AIRPLANE. Invented by Orville and Wilbur Wright, they demonstrated an

aircraft can be used to fly without airfoil-shaped wings. This paved the way to modern aircraft
technology.

9. TELEVISION. Mostly associated with John Logie Baird, the television televised outlines of objects
(1924), recognizable human faces (1925), moving objects (1926), and colored images (1928).

INVENTIONS BY FILIPINO SCIENTISTS

The Philippines, despite being considered a developing country, have their own contributions to science
and technology and have a culture of developing scientific and technological innovations. Known for original,
clever, and inventive ideas, Filipino scientists and inventors have used the needs and necessities of our
nation in their innovations using resources that are indigenous to the country. Areas where Filipinos focus
include adaptation to natural disasters, navigation, textiles, food, and culture.

Quinto (2019), lists some of our many Filipino scientists, inventors, and innovators, along with their
contributions to society. These include:

1.Manuel Guerrero. Studied beriberi in infants in the Philippines during Spanish era.

2.Leon Ma Guerrero. First licensed pharmacist in the Philippines, and one of the most eminent
botanists in the country in his time.

3.Anaclento del Rosario. Leading chemist in the Philippines during the Spanish era, regarded as the
"Father of Philippine Science and Laboratory", and invented the formula for producing a pure kind of alcohol
from tuba in a nipa palm.

4.Abelardo Aguilar. Invented Erythromycin, an antibiotic from Streptomyces erythreus.

5.Aisa Mijeno. Invention of Sustainable Alternative Lighting Lamp (SALt lamp), an environment friendly
light source that runs on saltwater. It is safer as it poses no risk of fire and emit no toxic gases and it benefits
those from far-flung barrios.

6.Rolando dela Cruz. Invented a local mole remover from extracts of cashew nuts.

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7.Maria Orosa. Invented the banana ketchup.

8.Fe del Mundo. Invention of medical incubator from indigenous and cheap materials which did not run
on electricity by placing a native laundry basket inside a bigger one abd inserting hot water bottles between
the baskets to provide warmth and makeshift hood to allow oxygen circulation. She was the first Asian
woman who admitted into Harvard Medical School. Other breakthroughs in Philippine medicine attributed to
Del Mundo include her works on the immunization and treatment of jaundice and the BRAT diet (includes
banana and rice) for curing diarrhea.

9.Dominic Chung, Lamberto Andrada, and Antonio Llave. Invention of the Salamander, an amphibious
tricycle that can cross not only flooded streets but also rivers and lakes.

10. Enrique Ostrea, Jr. Invention of the meconium drug testing

11. Angel Alcala. Outstanding contributions to marine science

12. Caesar Saloma. Outstanding contributions to physics

13. Edgardo Gomez. Outstanding contributions to marine science

14. Fabian Dayrit. Outstanding contributions to herbal medicine

15. Gregory Tangonan. Outstanding contributions to communications technology

16. Jose Cruz, Jr. Outstanding contributions to electrical engineering

17. Josefino Comiso. Outstanding contributions to Antarctica satellite imaging

18. Lilian Patena. Outstanding contributions to plant biotechnology

19. Lourdes Cruz. Outstanding contributions to sea snail venom

20. Mari-Jo Ruiz. Outstanding contributions to education and graph theory in mathematics

21. Rafael Guerrero III. Outstanding contributions to tilapia culture

22. Ramon Barba. Outstanding contributions to tissue culture in Philippine mangoes

23. William Padolina. Outstanding contributions to chemistry

Their impacts will be discussed in much greater detail in Module 4.

2.

SUMMARY

The following learning points summarize what you have learned in this section:

 The development of science and technology is affected by social contexts and social contexts affect
the developments in science and technology. By looking at the conditions present in a certain
historical period, we can discern the needs of humankind and these needs drive the development of
science and technology.
 Certain scientific and technological innovations are considered as historical antecedents; that is, they
are precursors of other scientific innovations. They provide solutions to existing problems and are
important foundations for the development of future products and processes.
 The Ancient Period, Middle Ages, and Modern Ages are three historical periods marked with differing
contexts and thus developed different types of technologies.

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 Filipino scientists and inventors contributed to the development of science and technology. They
focused on the needs of the nation as the main motivators of their inventions.


STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 3

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS AND SOCIETY

MODULE OVERVIEW

This Module presents the intellectual revolutions which had a significant effect on how people view
the influence of science on society. It includes three of the most significant intellectual revolutions in the past:
the Copernican, Darwinian and the Freudian Revolution. Discussion will focus on the major contribution of
these great thinkers in the context of science, technology and society and the significant contributions in the
development of modern science. This module also encourages students to apply the great works of the
intellectual thinkers in transforming the society to a more conducive place to live.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

6. identify the paradigm shifts in history; and
7. articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology.

WHAT IS AN INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION?

Intellectual revolution refers to series of events that led to the emergence of modern science and
more current scientific thinking across critical periods in history. It reveals how society was transformed by
science and technology for it has a lot of improvements in astronomy, chemistry, mathematics and physics.

It is also the period where paradigm shifts occurred. It is where the scientific beliefs that have been
widely embraced and accepted by the people were challenged and opposed. It is the time period when
advancements of science and technology changed people’s perception and beliefs.

Scientific Revolution
Scientific Revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of science
and mathematics transformed the views of society about nature. Scientific revolution explained the
emergence of modern science.

However, some view scientific revolution as radical changes in worldview and the associated
technical practices. According to Nickles, scientific revolutions have many characteristics. This includes a
major, unpredictable, unique, rapid, radical, innovative, large-scale, progressive change or creation in
scientific viewpoint through important discoveries and ideas. These viewpoints diverge from current
viewpoints, and they change the landscape of the field of science. It is social in nature; that is, because of the
reconceptualization of known practices and beliefs, habits, standards, goals, and methods of both scientists
and members of society also change. Because of this, scientific revolutions are met with resistance because

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of the cognitive dissonance it creates. However, there is no such thing as failed scientific revolutions: all of
them changed our understanding of the universe. In a Kuhnian sense, scientific revolutions are paradigm
shifts.

A paradigm is a framework which contains the accepted views about a certain field, including the
subject of observation and measurement, the questions asked about these subjects, how they are
investigated, how the results are interpreted, and which instruments can be used in the measurement. The
philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested that a paradigm includes “the practices that define a scientific discipline
at a certain point in time.” Paradigms allow us to determine whether a result belongs to a field or not.

When scientific work is done using the concepts and practices of the current paradigm, normal
science is being performed. There are times, however, that anomalies in a field and revolutionary science
questions the said paradigm. According to Thomas Kuhn, a paradigm shift occurs when a new framework
was used instead of the old paradigm, and that the new framework was formed to explain the anomalies that
the original paradigm cannot accommodate. This paradigm shift creates a better framework for understanding
and investigating the world.

There are several examples of paradigm shifts in the history of science. These include shift from
phlogiston theory to Lavoisier’s theory of chemical reactions, transition from Aristotelian physics to classical
mechanics to quantum mechanics, and the acceptance of the big bang theory over the steady state theory in
cosmology. However, for our purposes, we will focus only on three: Copernican Revolution, Darwinian
Revolution, and Freudian Revolution. When reading about these intellectual revolutions, keep in mind the
prevailing thoughts before these revolutions occurred and how each thinker changed these prevailing
thoughts.

To learn more about the characteristics of paradigm shifts, please read the following article:
Shuttleworth, M. and Wilson, L. (2008, October 24). What Is A Paradigm?. retrieved from
https://explorable.com/what-is-a-paradigm

COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

In the early times, people were fascinated with the heavenly bodies. They became interested with the
stars, sun, moons and planets. Their curiosity is focused on the components of the universe and wanted to
know the movement of the heavenly bodies and the effects in the world where they live.

In the 6th century, Claudius Ptolemy introduced the geocentric model which described the absolute
perception of the universe with the Earth as its center which was thought to be true by most of the people and
was widely accepted at that time.

Copernican Revolution marks the shift from the belief that the Earth was the center of the universe to
the heliocentric model of the universe where the sun is the center of the solar system, as articulated by the
Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century. In his heliocentric model, Copernicus repositioned
the Earth from the center of the Solar System and introduced the idea that the Earth rotates on its own axis
causing day and night. The Earth along with other heavenly bodies rotates around the sun.

Figure 3.1. Nichoaus Copernicus: Proponent of Heliocentrism. (https://prezi.com/ew7js5aftabe/copernican-

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revolution/)

Figure 3.2. Comparison of the Geocentric and Heliocentric Theories

(https://prezi.com/ew7js5aftabe/copernican-revolution/)

The heliocentric model was hardly accepted by the people, primarily by the church accusing Copernicus
of heresy. He even faced persecution because of this. They held their stance on their beliefs and refused to
accept the heliocentric model of the universe as the truth.

The shift from geocentric to heliocentric slowly happened through the contributions of the following
intellectual persons.

 Tycho Brahe’s careful observation of the star, Cassiopeia. He developed a compromise between the
heliocentric and geocentric models of the universe.
 Johannes Kepler’s said that all planets move in elliptical orbits and the sun at the center
 Galileo Galilie’s developed his own telescope and observed Venus
 Sir Isaac Newton’s law of gravitation

Heliocentrism was eventually accepted by people and marks the birth of modern astronomy which
resulted in the transformation of society’s thoughts and beliefs. The Copernican Revolution marked a turning
point in the study of cosmology and astronomy making it a truly significant intellectual revolution.

To learn more about the details of this revolution, especially the resistance for the acceptance of
Copernicus’ ideas, please read Chapter 5 of Kuhn’s The Copernican revolution: planetary astronomy in the
development of western thought through this link: https://fpa2014.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/kuhn-thomas-
s-the-copernican-revolution.pdf.

DARWINIAN REVOLUTION

This Darwinian Revolution started when Charles Darwin Darwin (1809-1882) (Figure 3.3) published
his book “On the Origin of Species” which emphasizes that organisms are the result of an evolution, a change
in the heritable characteristics of biological population over successive generations. He theorized that species
of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small inherited variations that increase
individual’s ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Natural selection is often described as survival of the
fittest, where fitness refers to the ability to survive and reproduce. This theory of evolution has two main
points: (1) all life on Earth is connected and related to each other and (2) this diversity of life came about
because of the modifications in populations that were driven by natural selection. An commonly cited
example of the evolutionary process can be seen in the beaks of Galapagos finches. (Figure 3.4)

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Figure 3.3. Charles Darwin: the Father of Evolution. (https://prezi.com/p/ped420lwyuyj/darwinian-revolution/)

Figure 3.4. Adaptation of the beak of Darwin’s Finches (https://prezi.com/p/ped420lwyuyj/darwinian-

revolution/)
Just like Copernicus, Darwin’s theory of evolution also met resistance from the society. Critics see the
theory of evolution to be contradictory to the church’s teachings that the source of life is a powerful creator.
The theory emerged at a time when most of the population believed and accepted the biblical version of the
Earth’s creation. This caused conflict among people. Some believed that the theory explained the origin of life,
while the religious and faithful contradicts it. This caused a debate between science and religion.

To learn more about Darwinian Revolution and its importance to society, please refer Berra’s Charles
Darwin’s paradigm shift through this link
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f860/c47299fcda9ed474aac197a0c001565975c3.pdf?
_ga=2.249329735.175019503.1598341990-1376162135.1593765976.

FREUDIAN REVOLUTION

According to MacNamara, et al. (2018), the field of psychology was considered more of an art rather
than science and was classified under the area of philosophy. However, because of Sigmund Freud (Figure
3.5), the perception of society to psychology changed. In the 19 th century, Freud developed his theory of
psychoanalysis. According to Quinto, et al. (2019), psychoanalysis is “a scientific method of understanding
inner and unconscious conflicts embedded within one’s personality, springing from free associations, dreams
and fantasies of the individual.” Among his ideas include the importance of the unconscious (Figure 3.6.), and
the concept of id, ego, and superego (Figure 3.7). Freud emphasized the understanding of unconscious
because of its importance in human behavior.

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Figure 3.5. Sigmund Freud: Father of Psychoanalysis

(https://prezi.com/6lnwzo7tp3dc/the-freudian-revolution/)

Figure 3.6. Freud compared the mind to an iceberg. (https://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html)

Figure 3.7. The Three Parts Psyche.

(https://prezi.com/6lnwzo7tp3dc/the-freudian-revolution/)

To learn more about the ideas of Freud and his psychoanalytic theory, please read the article What
are the most interesting ideas of Sigmund Freud? by Saul McLeod by visiting the link:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html#:~:text=The%20id%20comprises%20two
%20kinds,instincts%20is%20known%20as%20libido, and Makari’s Revolution in Mind: The Creation of
Psychoanalysis through the link http://wsi.org/publications/images/Revolution-in-Mind-the-Creation-of-
Psychoanalysis.pdf.

These three revolutionizing theories are just some of the many scientific ideas that transformed and
molded societies and beliefs. The changes they brought to the perspectives and perceptions of the scientific
community and the public are evidences of science and technology’s link to humanity. Through scientific
research and experimentations, people will continue to deepen their understanding of the world and the
universe.

SUMMARY

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The following learning points summarize what you have learned in this section:

 The Copernican Revolution refers to the paradigm shift of how the Earth and Sun were placed in the
universe. This idea rejected Ptolemaic Model or geocentric model (earth is the center of the solar
system) proposed by Claudius Ptolemy and proved the heliocentric model (Sun is the center of the
Solar System having the Earth revolving around it) proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus
 The Theory of Evolution by Charles Darwin states that all species of an organism arise and develop
through the natural selection of small inherited variations that increase the individual’s ability to
compete, survive and reproduce. His work entitled “On The Origin of Species” changed how people
approach biology forever, and has fundamental impacts on modern science, religion, and other
aspects of the society.
 Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who is perhaps most known as the founder of
psychoanalysis which, defined as a set of psychological theories and therapeutic methods with the
belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. According to
his theory, personalities arise because of attempts to resolve conflicts between unconscious sexual
and aggressive impulses and societal demands to restrain these impulses.


STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 4

SCIENCE, TENCHNOLOGY, AND NATION-BUILDING

MODULE OVERVIEW

This module will discuss the influence of science and technology in the development of the Philippine
society. It identifies government programs, projects, and policies geared toward boasting the science and
technological capacity of the country. This will also include discussions on Philippine indigenous science and
technology.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

8. Identify the contributions of Filipino scientists in science and technology;
9. Discuss the role of science and technology in Philippine nation building
10. Evaluate government policies pertaining to science and technology in terms of their contributions to
nation building
11. Identify actual science and technology policies of the government and appraise their impact on the
development of the Filipino nation

BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES:

PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD

Even before the Spaniards came to the Philippine islands, the natives of the archipelago already had
practices linked to science and technology. Modern men came to mainland Asia around 50 000 years and up
until about 40 000 years ago used stone tools and weapons. They also later developed shell ornaments and
pottery. Remnants of these are still present today as many people are still using clay pots in cooking.

Eventually, Filipinos gained the skill to extract metals such as gold, copper, bronze, and iron and use
these metals for many purposes. Other activities such as weaving, making glass ornaments, and tools
development were done by our ancestors.

Before arrival of the Spaniards, Filipino communities are already thriving and interacting with other
cultures such as the Chinese, Indonesians, and Japanese. There is trade between other countries for
porcelain, glass beads, and metal products with materials such as beeswax, cotton, pearl, tortoise shells and
nuts. Early Filipinos were also involved in coastal trade, and seamanship became highly developed. These
trades also influenced technology development in the Philippines.

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Early Filipinos also have their own system of writing, though literary tradition is still mainly oral. Also,
systems of weighing, measuring, and time were also present in early Filipino society.

Filipino technology in agriculture was also present and highly developed. There exist systems of
farming and animal-raising both for food production and helping in daily tasks. Early Filipinos were also
engaged in various agricultural practices such as developing irrigation systems, predicting weather conditions
and seasons through animal behavior and celestial bodies, classifying plants and animals based on their
properties, preparing seeds for planting, classifying soils according to their properties, and growing plants in
yards. In terms of health and medicine, early Filipinos have been using certain plants for their medical
properties in treating ailments and healing injuries.

By Agricmarketing at en.wikipedia - I created this work entirely by myself., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17010616

The Banaue Rice Terraces are among the sophisticated products of engineering by pre-Spanish era
Filipinos. Through these terraces, the people were able to cultivate crops on the mountainsides in cold
temperatures. They incorporated an irrigation system that uses water from the forests and mountain tops to
achieve an elaborate farming system. These terraces, which are still functional, show the innovative and
ingenious way of the natives to survive in an otherwise unfriendly environment.

Pre-colonial Filipino science and technology is basically folk science and indigenous knowledge.
There was also no pressure for a large science and technology development because of the relatively small
population, simple needs, and abundant natural resources.

Indigenous Science

According to Pawilen (2005) and Sibisi (2004), indigenous science includes complex arrays of
knowledge, expertise, practices, and representations derived from traditional knowledge and practices that
guide human societies in their numerable interactions with the natural milieu, such as astronomy, metallurgy,
agriculture, medicine, food technology, naming and explaining natural phenomena, and strategies for coping
with changing environments. It has developed diverse structures and contents through the interplay between
the society and the environment. Pawilen (2005) also developed a simple framework for understanding
indigenous science.

THE CONCEPT OF INDIGENOUS SCIENCE

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Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing, classifying, measuring,
problem-solving, inferring, communicating and predicting. Indigenous science is guided by culture and
community values such as the following:

 The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator.

 The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth”. It is the origin of their identity as people.
 All living and non-living things are interconnected and interdependent with each other.
 Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural resources.
 Nature is a friend to human beings – it needs respect and proper care.

According to Johnston (2000), indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or
consistent to scientific attitudes, such as motivating, cooperating, practical, and reflective attitudes.

An indigenous knowledge system is embedded in the daily life experiences of young children as they
grow up. They live in a society where the members of the community prominently practice indigenous
knowledge. Parents and other older folks served as first teacher and their methods of teaching are very
effective in transmitting cultural knowledge. Lessons learned (good values, life stories from daily struggles)
are intimately interwoven with their culture and the environment. Views about nature and their reflections on
their experiences in daily life are evident in their stories, poems and songs.

BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES:

COLONIAL PERIOD
The colonization of the Philippines contributed to the growth of science and technology in the
archipelago.

Spanish Colonial Period

The Spanish colonial period is regarded as the time when modern science and technology in the
Philippines began. During this era, the Spanish colonizers changed the way that the Filipino society works.
They used of reduccion in consolidating scattered communities into larger and fewer communities within
hearing distance of church bells and adopted how Filipinos rule. They created towns, which made tax
collection, forced labor, and economic activities much easier to implement.

Science Education

Schools were established which were primarily managed by priests and missionaries. Thus, religious
education was given focus. The establishment of schools introduced concepts in science and technology,
which began formal science and technology education. Early science education focused on the human body,
plants, animals, and heavenly bodies. Early technology education focused on the use and development of
tools for everyday life.

Higher education was centered in cities such as Manila. However, only a select few have access to
these institutions, such as Spaniards, mestizos, and a few select Filipinos. Medicine and advanced sciences
were introduced in formal colleges and universities established by Catholic orders, though training were
generally poor. Biology, medicine, and pharmacy were given focus. For Bachiller en Artes degrees, science
subjects include physics, chemistry, natural history, and mathematics.

Other schools were also established. Vocational education was introduced by the latter part of 19 th
century. However, there is a lack of engineering schools and nautical schools and agricultural schools were
few.

Also, by 1863, the government initiated reforms in education where basic education and higher
education will be supervised by the government. However, this was not fully implemented. Overall, public
education was not very progressive.

Agriculture, Trade, and Industry

The opening of the Suez Canal allowed the penetration of liberal ideas to the Philippines from Europe
and eased communication and transportation. This also allowed select Filipinos were able to go to Europe

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and study science and technology. Prominent ones include Jose Rizal and Antonio Luna.

By Boxer Codex (1590) - Unknown Spanish Author/Compiler with Likely Chinese Artist from Spanish Colonial
Manila, Philippines, circa 1590 AD. - http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/metsnav/common/navigate.do?
oid=VAB8326&pn=8&size=large, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid=82198314

Galleon trade allowed both goods and ideas from the West to reach the country, though this benefited
the colonizers and the Chinese merchants more than the Filipinos. Trade was given more focus by the
Spaniard colonial authorities due to the prospect of big profits. These trades allowed other ideas, crops, tools,
cultural practices, technology and Western practices to reach the country. Because of the Galleon trade, the
shipbuilding industry progressed.

Initially, agriculture and industry were neglected and its progress was slow. However, the founding of
the Real Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del Paris de Filipinas encouraged its eventual development.
Many crops were cultivated and some industries were developed. When the Philippines became open for
foreign trade, industries such as embroidery, tobacco, and weaving flourished. Trade and commerce also led
to the establishment of public amenities, such as transportation, lighting, banking, and information services,
especially in Manila.

Other Aspects

Colonization by the Spaniards provided the Philippines with modern means of construction. In terms
of engineering, Spaniards introduced town planning and building with materials such as bricks and tiles.
Because of this, churches, hospitals, and other public buildings were built.

Hospitals became centers for research work, especially in terms of the causes and treatments of
infectious diseases, such as malaria, cholera, and leprosy. Herbal medicines were researched and
catalogued. Sanitation was also given importance for public health purposes. Laboratorio Municipal Ciudad
de Manila was created in 1887 for public health concerns and medical analysis.

Meteorological studies were promoted by the Jesuits, who founded the Manila Observatory. These
studies became important and frequent that public typhoon warnings were able to be issued. The
Observatory also led to seismological and astronomical studies. Research on Philippine flora, agronomy,
geology, and chemistry was also done during the Spanish era though very little of the results and activities of
these are known.

Some contributors in science and technology during this period are Fr. Ignacio Mercado., Dr. Trinidad
Pardo de Tavera and Dr. Leon Ma Guerrero, chemist Anaclento del Rosario, and medicine scholars Dr.
Manuel Guerrero, Dr, Jose Montes and Dr. Elrodario Mercado.

Though the Spaniards colonized the Philippines for more than 300 years, science and technology did
not fully grow and reached its full potential. This is due to superstitions and Catholic doctrines and poor
administration of the Spanish government, among others.

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American Colonial Period and the Commonwealth Period

The American colonial period saw a rapid growth in science and technology in the Philippines. These
are due to progress in public education and research and science public services.

The Americans established the public education system and created a Department of Public
Instruction in 1901. The public educational system is free, with English as a medium of instruction. They
reorganized school science. Basic education focused on nature studies and science and sanitation. Normal
schools were also established to train teachers, as well as other professional and technical schools. Industrial
and vocational courses were offered but were not preferred by Filipinos at the time, and choosing career
paths that led to what they perceive as more prestigious jobs was preferred.

It was during the American colonization period that the University of the Philippines was established.
The University started with mostly foreign teachers and professors. Filipinos were sent overseas for
education and training and later on, replaced many of the foreign professors of the University of the
Philippines.

The private education sector also flourished. They started out to be ill-equipped and inadequate in
equipment and facilities, but regulations by the American colonial government improved the sector eventually.

Studying overseas was also encouraged by the American government and select students were sent
to be trained as engineers, physicians, teachers, nurses, and other professionals. They were asked to serve
in the Philippines as a return for this privilege.

Science and technology focused on agriculture, food processing, forestry, medicine and pharmacy.
The Americans established the Bureau of Government Laboratories in 1901 to deal with the study of tropical
diseases and laboratory projects. This was replaced with the Bureau of Science in 1905 to nurture the
development of science and technology. In this bureau, serums and prophylactics needed by the Philippine
General Hospital and Bureau of Health were manufactured and diseases were studied.

Reorganization of different offices based on their specializations were also done during this time, such
as the Weather Bureau, Bureau of Health, Mines, Forestry, Agriculture, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Plant
Industry, and Animal Industry.

The American colonial government also improved engineering works and health conditions by
creating more public hospitals than the Spaniards and by doing research to control diseases. They improved
transportation and communication. New technologies were also introduced by American scholars in the
country.

During the Commonwealth period, where a transitional government was established for Philippine’s
eventual independence, the Constitution actually acknowledged the importance of science and technology.
Other government corporations and councils were created, such as the National Economic Council, National
Power Corporation, National Development Company, and National Abaca and Other Fibers Corporation.

The Americans have more influence in the development of science and technology in the Philippines
compared to the Spaniards. American occupation modernized almost all aspects of life in the country.
However, the Philippines remained as agricultural country and industrialization was still slow. This seems to
stem from the focus on agricultural and medical sciences characteristic during this time. Also, mineral
resources in the country were exploited during this time. In addition, the Philippines was not able to become
fully independent due to the economic ties with the Americans. Unfortunately, the Japanese government
occupied the Philippines between 1942 and 1945, which halted science and technology development in the
Philippines.

BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES:

POST-COLONIAL PERIOD

After colonization by Japan, the country focused on building institutions and public facilities such as
schools, hospitals, and transportation systems as well as providing technological training and human resource
development. Human resource development focused on producing engineers, scientists, technology experts,

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doctors, and other professionals.

Though limited in resources, the country focused in improving science and technology. One way is
through the use of Overseas Development Allocations (ODA) to help in scientific productivity and
technological capability.

In the sector of education, private institutions remained the main source of higher education by
Filipinos. Still, the number of students pursuing physical sciences, engineering medicine, and agriculture is
inadequate to meet the needs of the country.

Nevertheless, professional organizations such as the Philippine Medical Association and Philippine
Institute of Chemical Engineers which aimed to review and revise the curriculum for their respective fields to
improve instruction and professional training.

Also, many more government agencies were established such as the Institute of Science, Institute of
Nutrition, Science Foundation of the Philippines, and Commission on Volcanology. However, government
support for science and technology was still inadequate. For example, in 1950, the US Economic Survey
Mission to the Philippines reported that the budget for research as well as compensation for scientists is still
low. Because of this, the Institute of Science was the reorganized to become the Institute of Science and
Technology, with the additional mandate to improve technological development and explore natural resources
for economic growth.

By 1957, the state of science and technology in the Philippines was still declining. Due to this, the
Science Act of 1958 was enacted. This established the National Science Development Board, the Philippine
Atomic Energy Commission, and the National Institute of Science and Technology. By 1960s, the Philippine
Inventor’s Commission and Philippine Coconut Research Institute were also established. Also, by 1964, the
Philippine Science High School started its operation through Republic Act 3661 signed by President
Diosdado Macapagal.

One of the presidents who ushered in advancements in science and technology was former president
and dictator Ferdinand Marcos. During his term, many agencies were established such as the Philippine
Textile Research Institute, National Grains Authority (now the National Food Authorirty), Plant Breeding
Institute, International Rice Research Institute, Philippine Council for Agricultural Research (now the Philippine
Council for Agriculture, Aquatic, and Natural Resources Research and Development), Philippine Atmospheric
Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration, National Committee on Geological Sciences,
Philippine National Oil Company, National Academy of Science and Technology. The current site of the
Department of Science and Technology in Taguig was then proclaimed as the Philippine Science Community.
It was during Marcos’s term that the National Science Development Board and its agencies were reorganized
into a National Science and Technology Authority to provide central direction and coordination of scientific and
technological research and development.

In terms of science education, the Marcos regime encouraged the Department of Education and
Culture to promote science education. The Mindanao and Visayas campuses of the Philippine Science high
schools were established and salaries of both teachers and administrators were increased. Among other
manifestations of his support in science and technology education are listed below:

 SECOND SONA (January 23, 1967): He declared that science was necessary for the development
programs, and thus, directed the Department of Education to revitalize the science courses in public
high schools.

 THIRD SONA (January 22, 1968): He recognized that technology was the leading factor in economic
development, and channeled additional funds to support projects in applied sciences and science
education

 FOURTH SONA (January 27, 1969): He gave a big part of the war damage fund to private
universities to encourage them to create courses in science and technology and to research. The
government also conducted seminars for public and private high school and college science teachers,
training programs and scholarships for graduate and undergraduate science scholars, and workshops
on fisheries and oceanography.

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 FIFTH SONA (January 26, 1970): He emphasized that the upgrading of science curricula and
teaching equipment is crucial to the science development program. He also assisted 107 institutions
in undertaking nuclear energy work by sending scientists to study nuclear science and technology
abroad, and providing basic training to 482 scientists, doctors, engineers, and technicians.

 SEVENTH SONA (January 24, 1972): He spoke about his major development projects in reforming
sectors of education. Such projects included research and development schools, technical institutes,
science education centers, and agricultural colleges and vocational high schools.

The presidency of Corazon Aquino saw the replacement of NSTA to DOST. She also created the
Presidential Task Force for Science and Technology which came up with the first Science and Technology
Master Plan or STMP. The goal of STMP was for the Philippines to achieve newly industrialized country
status by the year 2000. It was during her term that Executive Order No.128 was signed, which reorganized
the National Science and Technology Authority.

During Fidel Ramos’ presidency, the number of science and technology personnel increased, more
Philippine High Schools were established (in Visayas and Mindanao), and health care services were given
importance through programs such as "Doctors to the Barrio Program." His administration also saw the
establishment of the Magna Carta for Science and Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439), Science
and Technology Scholarship Law of 1994 (Republic Act No. 7687), Inventors and Inventions Incentives Act
(Republic Act No. 7459), and The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293), and
the Science and Technology Agenda for National Development (STAND) was established.

The presidency of Joseph Estrada saw the legislation of Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 (Republic
Act No. 8749) and Electronic Commerce Act of 2000 (Republic Act No. 8792). He also has a full-scale
program for cost-effective irrigation technologies and programs for social and social services for those in
need.

During Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo’s term, projects for the environment and science and technology
(like the “Biofuels” act) was given focus to increase economic level. "Filipinnovation" was also coined to help
the Philippines to be an innovation hub in Asia. The STI was developed further by strengthening the schools
and education system such as the Philippine Science High School (PSHS)..

During Benigno Aquino III’s term, he conferred four new National Scientist for their contribution in the
scientific field.

GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs, projects and policies to
boost the area of science and technology. The goal is to prepare the whole country and its people to meet the
demands of a technologically driven world and capacitate the people to live in a world driven by science.

Department of Science and Technology

The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the key government institution for science and
technology. DOST has sought the expertise of the National Research Council of the Philippines (NCRP) to
consult various sectors in the society to study how the country can prepare itself in meeting the ASEAN 2015
Goals. As a result of the consultation, NCRP is expected to recommend policies and programs that will
improve the competitiveness of the Philippines in the ASEAN Region. The following were the policies that
were the results of the consultation.

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1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governance

a. Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to the curriculum
b. Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue
c. Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband
d. Local food security

2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and Mathematics
a. Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment opportunities
b. Outright grants for peer monitoring
c. Review of RA 9184
d. Harnessing science and technology as independent mover of development

3. Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences

a. Ensuring compliance of drug-manufacturing firms with ASEAN-harmonized standards by full
implementation of the Food and Drug Administration
b. Creating an educational council dedicated to standardization of pharmaceutical services and
care
c. Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence-based research as pool of
information
d. Allowing two percent of the GDP to research
e. Legislating a law supporting human genome project

4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry

a. Protecting and conserving biodiversity by full implementation of existing laws
b. Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries
c. Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous people’s conservation
d. Formulation of common food and safety standards

Other programs supported by the Philippine government through DOST include:

1. Providing funds for basic research and patents related to science and technology
2. Providing scholarships for studies of students in science and technology
3. Establishing more branches of Philippine Science High School System
4. Creating and developing science and technology parks
5. Establishment of Balik Scientist Program
6. Establishment of National Science Complex and National Engineering Complex

Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering

The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering identify several capacity building
programs such as:

1. Establishment of national centers of excellence

2. Manpower and institutional development programs
3. Establishment of regional centers to support scientific industries
4. Establishment of science and technology business centers
5. Strengthening of science education at an early age

Philippine Development Plan

The Philippine Development Plan 2017-2022 (PDP) is a massive undertaking in improving the
country’s infrastructure, increasing energy access, lowering costs for citizens, keeping up with economic

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growth, and staying within the bounds of global agreements for climate change and sustainable growth. It was
approved by the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) Board and President Rodrigo Duterte
on February 20th, 2017. The impact will be manifested in the following outcomes:

 The Philippines will be an upper middle-income country by 2022.

 Growth will be more inclusive as manifested by a lower poverty incidence in rural areas –
from 30 percent in 2015 to 20 percent in 2022.
 The Philippines will have a high level of human development by 2022.
 The unemployment rate will decline from 5.5 percent to 3-5 percent in 2022.
 There will be greater trust in government and in society.
 Individuals and communities will be more resilient.
 Filipinos will have greater drive for innovation.

The pillars of the said program are

1. Malasakit: refers to the goal to regain people’s trust in public institutions and each other. These
strategies aim to promote awareness of anti-corruption measures, invigorate the public sector,
increased access to legal aid, and promoting culture sensitive governance.

2. Pagbabago: aimed at reducing inequality by increasing opportunities for growth and

transformation. The popularized term has been ‘inclusive growth’. Universal social protection,
basic education, and other social services will be improved upon while also raising the country’s
status in the global market for more opportunities.

3. Patuloy na Pag-unlad: focuses on economic growth. The Philippines have seen massive growth
in the past decade or so through their change from an agricultural economy to industry and
manufacturing focused powerhouse. The Philippines plan to focus on continued growth of their
technology, R&D, and innovation sectors.

Philippine Congress has also created laws that serve as legal framework for science and technology.
Some other areas that the country is looking forwards related to science and technology include:

1. Use of alternative and safe energy

2. Harnessing mineral resources
3. Finding cure for various diseases and illness
4. Fighting climate change and global warming
5. Increasing food production
6. Preservation of natural resources
7. Coping with natural disasters and calamities
8. Infrastructure development

GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Despite being considered a developing country, the Philippines also contributes to the global
advancement of science and technology. The Philippines is one of the most vulnerable countries in terms of
natural disasters. Many of the discoveries and inventions made by the Filipinos were therefore built from
indigenous materials or created to adapt to the harsh tropical environment. Among these inventions are a
mosquito ovicidal / larvicidal trap system called OL trap by DOST for the dengue problem and e-jeepney,
which evolved from the military jeeps left by the Americans after World War II but utilizes electricity instead of
the more expensive diesel.

Below is a list of scientists and their contributions. This list include all scientists Lee-Chua (2000)
identified in her book Ten Outstanding Filipino Scientists who have made significant contributions in different
science disciplines: agriculture, mathematics, physics, medicine, marine science, chemistry, engineering and
biology.

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ENRIQUE MAPUA OSTREA JR. JOSE BEJAR CRUZ JR. CAESAR A. SALOMA

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He is a neonatologist who has He has made major contributions He is an internationally renowned

significantly impacted science and to the theory and practice of physicist recognized for his
technology in the Philippines for automatic control. His work in the contributions to photonics and
his contributions to the field of 1970s and 1980s on the control of signal processing that were
pediatrics, neonatal leader-follower systems is still accomplished with colleagues
hyperbilirubinemia and neonatal considered one of the major and students at the National
drug addiction, including his contributions of the half-century in Institute of Physics. He led the
pioneering work on the detection the theory of hierarchical control development of a method to
of fetal exposure to drugs, systems. He was also elected as generate high-contrast images of
tobacco, alcohol and officer of the famous Institute of semiconductor sites via one
environmental toxicants, by Electrical and Electronic photon optical beam-induced
analysis of meconium, a Engineering. current imaging and confocal
newborn’s first stools. reflectance microscopy. The
project received a US patent on
June 26, 2007.

LILIAN FORMALEJO PATENA FABIAN MILLAR DAYRIT MARI-JO PANGANIBAN RUIZ

She is known for discovering the He is known for his phytochemical She is known for being an
seedless breed of lime and work for the development of outstanding educator and graph
pomelo, and for doing research lagundi as part of the National theorist.
on plant biotechnology. Integrated Research Program on
Medicinal Plants.

EDGARDO GOMEZ LOURDES JANSUY CRUZ JOSEFINO CACAS COMISO

He is a Professor Emeritus for She is a Filipino biochemist He was instrumental on a global
marine biology at the University of whose research has contributed project observing the planet for
the Philippines Marine Science to the understanding of the rapidly declining perennial sea ice
Institute. He saw the need to biochemistry of toxic peptides cover, and produced a paper on
protect the Philippines from the venom of fish- the subject that has been cited
archipelago’s vast marine hunting Conus marine snails. Her over one thousand times. His
resources in particular that of research shed light on the effects work has revealed the
coral reefs. He also pioneered of conotoxins on the central extraordinary rate at which Arctic
giant clam (Tridacna gigas) nervous system and how it can ice is affected by global warming,
breeding stationed in Bolinao and cause muscular paralysis, at approximately three times the
other protective areas for coastal sleepiness, or drowsiness, intensity of the global average.
communities of the Philippines. involuntary motion and more.

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WILLIAM PADOLINA RAMON CABANOS BARBA ANGEL ALCALA

He was a former president of He is known for his invention of He contributed to the country’s
National Academy of Science and flower induction of mango trees. marine development and
Technology (NAST). He is The impact and importance of his concerns. He is known for his
recognized for his significant discoveries, along with his self- fieldwork to build sanctuaries and
contributions in the field of natural motivation to help others, led him to promote biodiversity in the
products chemistry, coconut to change how mangoes and aquatic ecosystems of the
chemistry, biotechnology and in other crops are grown around the Philippines.
management of research and world, thus improving the
development. livelihood for those who work in
agriculture industry.

GREGORY LIGOT TANGONAN RAFAEL DINEROS GUERRERO

III
He is known for his research in He was recognized because of
the field of communications his scientific and technical
technology. He has been contributions to the growth of Sex
instrumental in developing Reversal and Hatchery
applications of optoelectronics in Techniques that help the
radar, optical networking and commercial fabrication of high
analog systems. yielding market-size tilapia in the
Philippines and other nations.

SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippines is trying its best to improve the state of science education in the country. One of the
strategies is to establish science schools that will encourage students to pursue their career in science and
technology and to nurture their gifted potentials.

Science education focuses on teaching, learning and understanding science. Teaching science
involves exploring pedagogical theories and models in helping teachers teach scientific concepts and
processes effectively. Learning science includes both pedagogy and helping students understand and love
science. Understanding science implies developing and applying science process skills and using science
literacy in understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.

John Dewey argued that “education and learning are social and interactive processes, and thus
school itself is a social institution through which social reform can and should take place. In addition, he
believed that students thrive in an environment where they are allowed to experience and interact with the
curriculum, and all students should have the opportunity to take part in their own learning.” (Talebi, 2015)

Science education in basic science helps students learn important concepts and facts that are related
to everyday life (Carale & Campo, 2003; Meador, 2005; Worth & Grollman, 2003); includes important skills
such as process skills, critical thinking skills, and life skills that are needed in coping up with daily life activities

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(Chaille & Britain, 2002); develops positive attitude such as the love for knowledge, passion for innovative
things, curiosity to study about nature and creativity (Lind, 1997), and develops a strong foundation for
studying science and for considering science-related careers in the future.

On the other hand, science education in tertiary education deals with developing students’
understanding and appreciation of science ideas and scientific works and focuses on the preparation of
science teachers, scientists, engineers, and other professionals in various science-related fields such as
engineering, agriculture, medicine, and health sciences. In addition to major courses, this is also done
through offering basic science courses in the General Education curriculum.

In the field of science education, several science-related programs and projects were created to
develop scientific literacy. These include:

1. Special science classes

2. Special science elementary schools
3. Philippine Science High School System
4. STEM track of the K-12 educational system
5. PICARI project
6. Offering basic science courses in the General Education curriculum

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Science Schools in the Philippines

PHILIPPINE SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEMS (PSHSS)

VISION: We are the leading science high school in the Asia Pacific Region preparing our
scholars to become globally competitive Filipino scientists equipped with 21st century skills
and imbued with the core values of truth, excellence, and service to nation.

MISSION: The Philippine Science High School, operating under one

System of Governance and Management, provides scholarship to students
with high aptitude in science and mathematics.

The PSHS System offers an education that is humanistic in spirit, global in perspective, and in
orientation. It is based on a curriculum that emphasizes science and mathematics and the development of
well-rounded individuals.

The PSHS System prepares its students for careers in Science and Technology and contributes to
nation building by helping the country attain a critical mass of professionals and leaders in Science and
Technology. It is a government program for gifted students in the Philippines. It is the service institute of the
DOST whose mandate is to offer free scholarship basis for secondary course with emphasis on subjects
pertaining to the sciences, with the end-view of preparing its students for a science career (Republic Act No.
3661)

PSHSS students have proven to be a beacon of excellence, courage, and hope for the country. They
have brought honor to the Philippines through their exemplary achievements in various international
competitions and research circles.

Graduates of PSHSS were expected to pursue degrees in science and technology at various colleges
and universities locally or abroad.

SPECIAL SCIENCE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (SSES) PROJECT

MISSION: To provide a learning environment to science inclined children through a special curriculum which
recognizes multiple intelligences and is geared towards the development of God-loving, nationalistic, creative,
ecologically aware, scientifically and technologically oriented and skilled individuals who are empowered
through lifelong learning skills.

It is in pursuance to DepEd Order No. 73 s. 2008, and DepEd Order No. 51 s. 2010. It started in
June, SY 2007-2008: Batch I with 57 identified elementary school. Another 3 schools in Region V were
included since its inception. In SY 2011-2012, the program was again expanded for Batch 3; additional 5
schools in Region V were included

The SSES Project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and technological
knowledge, skills, and values. The SSES utilizes Science curriculum that will provide for the development of
lifelong learning skills and foster the holistic development of the child. The subject Science& Health is taught
starting in Grade1 and provides longer instruction time in Science. In Grades I-III, 70 minutes and for Grades
IV-VI, 80 minutes. The Curriculum also utilizes varied teaching approaches/strategies to address the multiple
intelligences, learning styles and needs of the learners.

QUEZON CITY REGIONAL SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL

Established on September 17, 1967, it was originally named

Quezon City Science High School. It was appointed as the Regional
Science High School for the National Capital Region since 1998. The focus
of the curriculum is on science and technology. The school envisions to
serve as a venue in providing maximum opportunities for science-gifted
1By Source, Fair use,
students to develop spirit of inquiry and creativity. The school is well-
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/ supported by the Local Government Unit and by the Parents and Teachers
index.php?curid=36833659
Association (PTA). The school is under the Department of Education.

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MANILA SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL

MISSION: To provide relevant and quality education through its Special

Science Curriculum, its empowered school manager and staff, its
committed, dedicated and well-trained learning facilitators and support
personnel and its linkages with various publics for the development of
active, productive, morally upright and development-oriented Filipinos.

VISION: A nerve center of excellence that enables healthy life-long

2By Source (WP:NFCC#4), Fair
learners with strong moral, social, cultural and technological foundation
use, to actively participate in the development of a strong republic.
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.p
hp?curid=63587886
It was established on October 1, 1963 as the Manila Science High School (MSHS). It was also the
first science high school in the Philippines. The curriculum of the school puts more emphasis on science and
mathematics. It aims to produce scientists with souls. In order to do this, humanities courses and other
electives are included in their curriculum.

The school administers an entrance exam, the Manila Science High School Admission Test (MSAT),
for students who wish to enroll. The MSAT has five parts: aptitude in science, aptitude test in mathematics,
problem-solving test in science, problem-solving test in mathematics, and proficiency in English.

CENTRAL VISAYAN INSTITUTE FOUNDATION

MISSION: As the educational arm of the Central Visayan Institute Foundation, the High
School Department shall endeavor to equip each student with the necessary skills for future
work and further studies. It shall develop and protect each individual's talents and innate
creativity, and guide each one towards the path of fullest realization of potential and creative
abilities. It shall instill in the youth a spirit of service to country and love of God, above all.

It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as the Dynamic Learning
Program (DLP), which is a synthesis of classical and modern pedagogical theories adapted to foster the
highest level of learning, creativity and productivity.

It takes pride in its Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP) established in 1992, which
organizes small international workshops to foster the informal but intense exchange of ideas and perspectives
on outstanding problems in physics and mathematics.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

1. Describe briefly how science and technology evolved during each period in history.
2. Write your own impression on the current science education in the Philippines.
3. Prepare a listing with brief explanation of government policies in relation to the development and
functions of science and technology.
4. Prepare a personal written report on your own reaction/impression of our life today with the
advancement in science and technology.

SUMMARY

The following learning points summarize what you have learned in this section:

 Even before the time of Spanish colonization in the Philippines, various people and communities
already practiced science. They invented tools and built structures, studied medicinal use of plants
and used indigenous science in agriculture.

 The growth of science and its development as a field in the country is a hybrid of indigenous and
foreign ideas. Spain and the United States, played an important role in building the foundation of

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science in the Philippines. To further strengthen the science program in the country, the government
establishes various science programs, policies and projects

 Through the years, many Filipinos were able to establish themselves as scientists and science
educators in various scientific areas and fields. Invention and innovations were done by these Filipino
scientists. Finally, the demands of globalization prompted the Philippines to invest in science and
technology programs and projects.

 Science education deals with the teaching and learning of science and in helping the public develop
science and literacy. This is important in the promotion and development of science and technology in
the country.

 Science education deals with the development of people in science, which is the heart of science,
technology and society.

 To promote science education, science schools were established to develop gifted students in
science and mathematics. Science programs and projects were organized and developed to nurture
innovation in science in the country, and to encourage individuals to pursue careers and research in
science and technology.

 The communities in the Philippines have maintained vast amounts of indigenous knowledge, cultural
practices, traditions and beliefs.

 The indigenous knowledge system of the people served as the foundation for the development of
indigenous science.

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 6

HUMAN FLOURISHING IN PROGRESS AND DE-

DEVELOPMENT
MODULE OVERVIEW

We have learned from previous modules that science and technology progresses and these
continued developments affects society. Many of these developments contribute to the flourishing of human
lives, while others may have a negative impact to humanity as what we have seen from the previous module.

In this module, we will look into the concept of progress and flourishing of human lives and society as
a whole, the common notions on how we view progress, and an alternative on how to view human flourishing
in the context of continued scientific and technological development. We will mainly focus on Jason Hickel’s
article entitled Forget ‘developing’ poor countries, it’s time to de-develop rich countries published on
September 23, 2015 in The Guardian to examine an alternative view on the concept of growth and
development.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

12. describe the characteristics of human flourishing in the context of science and technology;
13. explain what de-development means; and differentiate traditional notions of progress and de-
development

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

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Reflection

Before continuing on this Module, let us try to reflect on the following questions to help us get ready for
this Module.
1. What, in your opinion, does it mean for a country or individual to be deemed “developed” or
“flourishing”?
2. What is your measure or standard for you to be able to determine if one is flourishing or developing?
3. Why do you think other countries are developed while others are not?
4. For a long time, many developing countries such as the Philippines made to become more developed.
What hinders these countries in attaining the level of development of other countries? Do you think
we would be able to become a developed country?
5. Is being a developed country really important? Why or why not?

HUMAN FLOURISHING

What is human flourishing? Eastern and western conceptions regarding society and human
flourishing seem to differ: western civilization seemed to be more individualistic (exemplified by the
Aristotelian view of a good life) while eastern civilizations are more centered on the community (such as the
Chinese and Japanese emphasis on learning for the greater good). However, in the context of globalization,
this apparent difference in perspectives seems to disappear. However, it is important to note that human
flourishing is still given focus.

According to Bandarlipe, et al. (2019), the following are some characteristics of human flourishing:
1. All humans aim to flourish.
2. Human flourishing involves putting into action one’s capacities, capabilities, and virtues.
3. Human flourishing depends on free will.
4. Human flourishing is sustained over time.
5. Human flourishing involves doing well in broad domains of human life.

Humans have attained certain progresses that we lack before. Mortality rates are lowered due to less
death due to diseases and childbirth. Life spans have increased because of better medical care and health
conditions. Literacy rates also increased through better access to education and more alternatives or modes
of learning. Productivity has also increased, though differing in levels in many countries, which increased food
supply and income of families.

However, determining the ways on how to attain a flourishing human life is not an easy endeavor,
especially in the context of science and technology. Though, as from previous lessons, we have learned that
science and technology are instrumental in human flourishing, some may say that overdependence to the
point in deifying science may pose a threat to human flourishing.

To learn more about this threat of science to human flourishing, watch the documentary film The
Magician's Twin: C.S. Lewis and the Case against Scientism (https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=FPeyJvXU68k ).

THE CONCEPT OF DE-DEVELOPMENT

After watching the video, one could legitimately question whether humans are really flourishing in the
present time. Jason Hickel, an anthropologist at the London School of Economics, also questioned this in the
context of economics. Recent reports show that the gap between developed and developing countries
continues to widen. There is also an unclear way on how to measure these gaps. Many solutions have been
put forward to attain this and to really determine whether we are flourishing. Jason Hickel proposed a solution
that is different from what is usually thought of. In his article Forget ‘developing’ poor countries, it’s time to
de-develop rich countries, he looked into poverty and how current measures in eradicating this global problem
fails and instead the gap between rich and poor countries are continuing to widen. He questions the need for

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continuing growth and how this growth negatively affects countries. He also introduced the concept of de-
development as a way of bridging the gap between countries of different levels of development.

To learn more about his ideas regarding human flourishing and de-development, read the article using
this link: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/sep/23/developing-
poor-countries-de-develop-rich-countries-sdgs.

SUMMARY

The following learning points summarize what you have learned in this section:

 Different cultures have different views on human flourishing. Nevertheless, human flourishing has
certain characteristics such as the involvement of practice, sustainment across time, and being
involved in different domains of life.
 Science and technology have certain roles to play in human flourishing. However, letting science be
corrupted may lead to negative impacts with respect to human flourishing.
 Jason Hickel claimed more growth or shifting growth from developed to developing nations are
inadequate strategies to finally end the problem of poverty. He asserted we have continually going
past our capacity to generate supply of renewable resources and to absorb surplus. Developed
countries are also over-consuming.
 Hickel said that instead of poor countries catching up to grow as much as rich countries, rich countries
could consider reaching more appropriate levels of development. Living long and happy lives, despite
low incomes, could be the target or goal instead of increasing growth. This means that though
countries might have high incomes, this does not equate to a long lives, literate citizens, and generally
happy lives.
 He asserted that countries may consider de-development, a shift of focus from economic growth to
life expectancy and happiness. The idea is for people to aim for having a better value of life instead
of acquiring and producing more: quality over quantity. Though many believe that material gain is not
overly necessary to achieve over-all happiness and many question the current way of thinking about
progress, it is difficult to “sell” the concept of de-development because of the connotations of the
language used by those who promote it, terms such as de-growth, zero growth, de-development,
which implies a backwards way of living. However, the goal is actually becoming appropriately
developed.
 According to Hickel, solutions to achieving this goal include banning advertising, a shorter working
week, and a basic income. Hickel warned us that if we insist of too much growth, the environment will
stop us from growing, and that we will up on poverty, something that we aimed to escape from.

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 7

THE GOOD LIFE

MODULE OVERVIEW

One of the oldest philosophical questions is, “What is the good life?” It may be stated in different
ways, like: “How should I live?”; “Am I living well?”; and “Do I have a good life?”, but these actually mean the
same question. At any rate, everyone wants to live well, everyone is in pursuit of a good life, and no person
wants a bad life.

These questions are not as simple as they sound. The definition of good life may vary and is
expressed in diverse ways for different people and different circumstances. For this module, we will be
concerned with the philosophy of Aristotle, using his work Nicomachean Ethics, in explaining what a good life
is.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

14. Discuss Aristotle’s concept of a Good Life
15. Examine shared concerns that make up the good life in order to come up with innovative, creative
solutions to contemporary issues guided by ethical standards

ARISTOTLE AND HIS PHILOSOPHY

Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 322 BC, is probably the most important ancient Greek philosopher
and scientist. He was a student of Plato, who was then a student of Socrates. Together, they were considered
the 'Big Three of Greek Philosophy.' Aristotle was the teacher of Alexander the Great.

Aristotle’s background in biological subjects made him more of an empiricist (truth discovered
primarily by the senses) as compared to the mathematician Plato’s rationalism (truth discovered primarily by
reason.) Aristotle attended Plato’s academy but founded his own school, the Lyceum, later in his life.

Aristotle wrote on an amazing range of topics including logic, metaphysics, physics, epistemology,
astronomy, meteorology, biology, psychology, ethics, politics, law, and poetics.

We can say that Aristotle influenced more subjects for a longer period of time than any thinker in the
history. His scientific ideas were orthodoxy for 2000 years, his logic is still used, and his influence in many
areas of philosophy is still felt. His thought in multiple fields was considered definitive for millennia, and his
work in ethics and politics is still widely influential today. He is one of the greatest thinkers in the history of
western philosophy.

To learn more about about Aristotle and his different views, watch this YouTube video through this
link link (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csIW4W_DYX4). This will also introduce you to his philosophy of
what constitutes a good life.

NICOMACHEAN ETHICS AND THE GOOD LIFE

According to Quinto, et al. (2019), to determine whether we are living a good life or not, we should first
reflect on two questions: “what standard could be used to define the good life?” and “how can the standard
serve as a guide toward living the good life in the midst of scientific progress and technological
advancement?” To gain insight for the answers to these questions, you may watch this YouTube video in this
link (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPeyJvXU68k).

In the video, it is said that “science must be guided by some ethical basis that is not dictated by science
itself.” The work of Aristotle entitled Nicomachean Ethics may be one of these ethical bases.

Aristotle’s work contains two works that mainly concern ethics: the Nicomachean Ethics (which may
refer to one of his sons named Nicomachus) and the Eudemian Ethics (which may refer to one of his friends,
Eudemus of Rhodes). Some of the Books in the Eudemian Ethics are identical to that of the Nicomachean
Ethics, and it was thought Eudemian Ethics was written first before Nicomachean Ethics. Nicomachean
Ethics, however, is the more popular of these two Aristotelian works.

The Nichomachean Ethics (abbreviated as NE or sometimes EN), is a work that deals with “the nature
of moral life and human happiness based on the unique essence of human nature”. It is concerned with the
"end of the things we pursue in our actions," what he calls the "best good" for a human being (NE I.2.1094a).

These work containing ten books were originally lecture notes that he taught at the Lyceum. The
outline of the said book is as follows:

NE I.1095a-I.1096a. The best good

NE I.1097b-I.1098a. The argument from function
NE I.1102a-II.1109b. Virtue and the soul
NE III.1109b-1115a. Necessary conditions for virtue

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NE III.1115a-IV.1128b. Virtues of character

NE V.1129a-1138b. Justice
NE VI.1138b-1145a. Virtues of thought
NE VII.1145a-1154b. Continence, pleasure
NE VIII.1155a-IX.1172a. Friendship
NE X.1172a-1181b. Pleasure, happiness, legislation

To read Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, you may open this link:

http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html. In the course of this module, you will be repeatedly
referred to this text.

THE CONCEPT OF EUDAIMONIA

Everyone has their own concept of what characterizes what “good” is. Ancient Greeks believed that
good can be intrinsic (something which is valued for themselves and not for something else) and instrumental
(something which is valued for something else and not for themselves). In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle
discussed his concept of what good is, what a good life is, and how to attain it. This concept of eudaimonia
(from the Greek eu meaning good and daimon meaning spirit), which can be translated as the good life, is the
subject of Book 1 of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics.

To understand the concept of eudaimonia in Aristotle’s work, please read Book 1 of Nicomachean
Ethics. In reading the said book, take note of the following:
a. What good means
b. What happiness means
c. What a good person is
d. What a good life is
e. The difference between humans and other living things
f. The ultimate purpose of human existence

ATTAINING EUDAIMONIA

Now that you have learned the concept of what a good life is, we should now consider how to attain it.
Aristotle argued that the way to bridge the gap between knowledge of the good life and actually living it was
through the development of a good moral character and this entails developing good habits. A good habit
allows us to perform certain actions without effort.

Aristotle calls good habits virtues or excellences. Humans have both excellences of intellect
(theoretical and practical reason), a.k.a. intellectual virtue or virtue of thought, and excellences of character,
a.k.a moral virtue or virtue of character.

To understand the concept of virtues and excellences, please read Book 2 of Nicomachean Ethics. In
reading the said book, take note of the following:
a. What virtue and vice means
b. The types of virtues and their characteristics
c. Whether there are naturally virtuous persons
d. How one can live a life of virtue

SUMMARY

The following learning points summarize what you have learned in this section:

 According to Aristotle, every act is aimed at the good and thus the good may be expressed in different
ways. However, the good life is a different thing. He said that the attainment of the ultimate good is
what constitutes the good life.
 Eudaimonia means the good life, which is marked by happiness and excellence. It is a flourishing life
filled with meaningful endeavors that empower the human person to be the best version of
himself/herself.

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 According to Aristotle, man’s “form” comprises a soul, which has a plant-like part, an animal part, and
a rational part.
 Man can only achieve happiness by using all his abilities and capabilities or living a life of virtue.
 Virtue is the excellence of character that empowers one to do good and be good. Its opposite is
called vice.
 According to Aristotle, there are two types of virtue: intellectual and moral.
 Aristotle held that there are three forms of happiness. The first form of happiness is a life of pleasure
and enjoyment. The second form of happiness is a life as a free and responsible citizen. The third
form of happiness is a life as thinker and philosopher. Aristotle then emphasized that all three criteria
must be present at the same time for man to find happiness and fulfillment.
 Aristotle advocated the “Golden Mean.” The ethics of Aristotle contain echoes of Greek medicine: only
by exercising balance and temperance will I achieve a happy or “harmonious” life. He rejected all
forms of imbalance.

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