DNS (Domain Name System)

•The Domain Name System (DNS) converts human-readable domain names

(for example, www.amazon.com) into computer-understandable IP addresses
(for instance, 192.0. 2.44).
•DNS is An application layer protocol that specifies how messages are passed
between application processes that are executing on various systems.
The domain name system is known as DNS.
A directory service called DNS establishes a connection between a host’s
name and address on a network.
The functionality of the internet depends on DNS.
Every node in a tree contains a domain name, which is a string of symbols
separated by dots.
A service called DNS converts domain names into IP addresses. This enables
network users to locate other hosts by using friendly names rather than their
memory of IP addresses.
For instance, if the IP address of the FTP site at EduSoft was
132.147.165.50, most users would navigate to it by entering
ftp.EduSoft.com. As a result, domain names are more trustworthy than IP
addresses.
TCP/IP protocol DNS is used on several platforms. Country domains, generic
domains, and inverse domains are the three divisions of the domain name
space.
Generic Domains
It characterises the registered hosts based on their typical activity.
The domain name, which serves as an index to the DNS database, is defined
by each node of a given tree.
It employs three-character designations that specify the sort of organisation.

Description Label Educational edu

institutions
Airlines and aero
aerospace Government gov
companies institutions
Businesses or biz Information info
firms service
providers
Commercial com
organisations International int
organisations
Country Domains
The format of a country domain is the same as a generic domain, but
two-character country abbreviations are used in place of three-character
organisational abbreviations (for example, us for the United States).
Inverse Domains
An address is mapped to a name using the inverse domain when a client
requests the server and only approved clients’ files are present on the
server. The DNS server receives a request from the client asking for the
mapping of an address to a name in order to identify whether the client is on
the approved list or not.
Working of DNS
It is a network communication protocol of the client/server type in which the
client sends requests to the DNS server. On the other hand, the server sends
responses to these clients.
The client requests consist of a name that gets converted into IP addresses
called a forward DNS lookup. The requests that contain an IP address get
converted into a name called the reverse DNS lookups.
In order to keep the names of all hosts that are accessible via the internet,
DNS creates a distributed database.
When a client, such as a web browser, submits a request with a hostname, a
piece of software, such as a DNS resolver, submits a request to the DNS
server to acquire the IP address of the hostname. The request is forwarded
to another DNS server if the DNS server does not have the IP address linked
to a hostname. If the resolver receives an IP address, it completes the
request over the internet protocol.

What is Telnet?
Telnet is a network protocol used to virtually access a computer and provide
a two-way, collaborative and text-based communication channel between
two machines.
It follows a user command TCP/IP networking protocol that creates remote
sessions. On the web, HTTP and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) enable users
to request specific files from remote computers. With Telnet, users can log
on as a regular user with privileges that allow them to access the specific
applications and data on that computer.

Program developers and anyone who needs to use specific applications or

data located at a remote machines are more likely to use Telnet.

How Telnet works

Telnet is a type of client-server protocol that opens a command line on a remote computer,
typically a server. Users can use this tool to ping a port and find out if it's open.
Telnet works with a virtual terminal connection emulator, which is an abstract instance of a
connection to a computer, and uses standard protocols to act like a physical terminal connected
to a machine. Telnet also sometimes uses FTP to help users send data files.
Users connect remotely to a machine with Telnet. This is sometimes referred to as Telnetting
into the system. Telnet prompts users to enter their usernames and passwords to access the
remote computer, which enables command lines to run as if users are logged in to the
computers in person. A user's IP address matches the computer they're logged in to rather than
the one physically used to connect.
 Uses of Telnet
•Users employ Telnet for a variety of activities on a server, such as to edit
files, run various programs and check email.
•Some servers use Telnet to enable remote connections to access public data
and play games or look up weather reports. These features exist for nostalgic
fun or because they have compatibility with older systems that need access
to specific data.
•Users are also able to connect to any software that uses text-based,
unencrypted protocols via Telnet, from web servers to ports.
• Users can open a command prompt on the remote machine, type the
command telnet and the remote machine's name or IP address, and the
•Telnet connection pings the port to see if it's open. An open port shows a
blank screen, while an error message that says the port is connecting means
the port is closed

Pulse code modulation (PCM)

In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a discrete
signal.
Digital modulation is of the following types:
1)Pulse Amplitude modulation (PAM)
2)Pulse width modulation (PWM)
3)Pulse code modulation (PCM)

When a digital signal undergoes Pulse Code Modulation, it converts the

analog information into a binary sequence (1 and 0). Through the
demodulation process, we can obtain the original analog signal. The figure
below represents the output of the PCM signal with respect to the sine wave.
 Pulse Code Modulation techniques are used to produce a series of numbers or
digits in binary form. Hence this process is called digital modulation. The
amplitude at that particular time of the signal sample is indicated by the
binary codes.
In the PCM process, a sequence of coded pulses indicates the message
signal. This message signal represents amplitude and time.
Pulse code modulations are of two types:
Differential pulse code modulation (DPCM)
Adaptive differential pulse code modulation (ADPCM)
Differential pulse-code modulation is a signal encoding process which adds
functionalities based on the prediction of the samples of the signal.
Adaptive differential pulse-code modulation is a technique in which the size
of the quantization step is varied, to allow the further reduction of the
required data bandwidth to a given signal-to-noise ratio.
The Pulse Code Modulation process is done through the following steps:
1. Sampling
2. Quantisation
3. Coding
In the PCM process, it is possible to digitise all forms of analog data, including music, telemetry,
voice, full-motion video. To obtain a pulse code modulated waveform from an analog waveform
at the transmitter end and to convert the message signal into the binary form, a process known
as quantisation is used.
At the receiver end of the pulse code circuit, demodulation takes place, and the signal is
converted into pulses with the same quantum levels.

Sampler
Sampler helps to collect the sample data at any time of the message signal,
in order to reform the original signal. As per the sampling theorem, the
sampling rate is greater than the highest frequency component of the
message signal.
Quantizer
Quantizer helps to minimise the error through the process known as
quantizing. The sampled output when passed through a quantizer, reduces
the unnecessary bits and also helps in compressing the obtained values.
Encoder
The encoder is used for digitising the analog signal. Encoder helps to allot
each quantised level through a binary code. The sample-and-hold process is
adopted in this. Low pass filter, sampler, and quantiser aids to convert
analog to digital forms. Encoding also aids in minimising the usage of
bandwidth.
Advantages
Pulse Code Modulation is used in long-distance communication.
The efficiency of the transmitter in PCM is high.
Higher noise immunity is seen.
Efficient method.
Disadvantages
The bandwidth requirement is high.
PCM is a complex process, since it involves encoding, decoding and
quantisation of the circuit.
Applications of Pulse Code Modulation
It is used in telephony and compact discs.
Pulse Code Modulation is used in satellite transmission systems and space communications.