AW

DC
 UNIT - I
Baking Technology I

Bakery industry in India. Wheat composition, structure and types of wheat. Milling of wheat
in to flour- composition, types and grades of flour. Quality evaluation of flour. Wheat flour
proteins and importance of gluten in manufacture of bakery products. HACCP in bakery
industry. Machineries used in bakery industry.

UNIT - II
Baking Technology II

Bakery industry, raw materials and quality parameters. Dough development; methods of dough
mixing; dough chemistry; rheological testing of dough-Farinograph, Mixograph,
Extensograph, Amylograph / Alveo consistograph, Rapid Visco Analyzer, Falling number,
DC
stickiness tester. Additives used in bakery products – flour improvers and bleaching agents.

UNIT - III
Bread

Ingredients used and role of ingredients in manufacture of bread. Manufacture process of

AW
bread, bread spoilage and staling, packaging of bread.
Biscuits
Classification of biscuits, Ingredients used and role of ingredients in manufacture of biscuits
-Methods of mixing dough. Processing technology of soft dough and hard dough biscuits.
Packaging of biscuits.

UNIT - IV

Cakes
Classification of cakes, Ingredients used and role of ingredients in manufacture of cakes,
formula balance in cakes, Processing of cakes , cake faults and remedies.

Wafers
Ingredients used and role of ingredients in manufacture of wafers. Processing of wafer.
Frozen dough products.
Bakery Industry in India
Bakery products, due to high nutrient value and affordability, are an item of huge consumption.
Due to the rapid population rise, the rising foreign influence, the emergence of a female
working population and the fluctuating eating habits of people, they have gained popularity
among people, contributing significantly to the growth trajectory of the bakery industry.
India’s organised bakery sector produces about 1.3millions tonne of bakery products (out of
three million tonnes) while the balance is produced by unorganised, small-scale local
manufacturers.
One of the largest segments of the food processing industry in India is Bakery. With more
than 2,000 industrial bakeries producing around 1.4 million tons of the bakery products and
1,000,000 small-scale bakeries producing 1.8 million tons of bakery products. Surprisingly
India is the second largest producer of biscuits (cookies) in the world after the USA.

The baking industry in India can be categorized into three broad sectors.

DC Categories of Bakery Industry in India

Some of the popular Indian bakery brands are: Britannia, Parle, ITC and Cadbury and they
compromise about 75% of the Indian market.
There are many automatic and semi-automatic bread and biscuit manufacturing units in India,
AW
many people still prefer fresh bread and other products from the local bakery.
Bakery Products
According to the industry estimates the market size of bread, biscuit and other wheat based
products are asMarket size for various sub-segments.

Value(INR billion) Volume(milliontones)

Bread 38.9 3.75
Biscuits 68.6 1.95
Based Snacks 29.0 0.29
Branded Atta 13.5 0.90
Pasta Products 8.4 0.14

According to the estimates over 65 per cent of the total wheat produced in the country is
utilized for atta production which in turn is consumed for the preparation of Chapatis.
The total bread production in the country is estimated to be 3.75 million tonnes annually
growing at a rate of about 6 per cent although the organized sector is said to be growing a
little higher rate of 8 per cent. In 1977 government had reserved bread industry for the small
scale. However, Britannia Industries Ltd ( BIL) in private sector as well as Modern Food
Industries Ltd., a Public Sector Undertaking were permitted to produce bread as per the
installed capacity existed at that point of time.

Bakery industry is registering a growth rate of about 10- 12 per cent in volume terms for many
years. But the industry structure has not changed in these years. The challenges, competition,
technology, market environment have remained almost same all these years with the result that
there are no new products in the market, no big innovation. Cost of production has gone up
which has forced the players particularly Parle and Britannia to close down some plants and
move to low cost production centres where tax relief is also available. The only thing that has
changed is packaging quality and availability of many global and overseas brands of bakery
products. To that extent we have many choices. Otherwise, the industry appears to me as same
as old.
The present day consumer looks for new bakery products, better appeal, taste and convenience
from bakery foods. With a population of 1 billion plus.

Biscuits and bread which are considered to be the major bakery product and they account for
82% of all bakery production. The unorganized sector accounts for about half of the total
biscuit production estimated at 1.5 million tonnes. It also accounts for 85% of the total bread
DC
production and around 90% of the other bakery products estimated at 0.6 million tonnes. The
last includes pastries, cakes, buns, rusks and others.

 Wheat Composition

The chemical composition of the wheat kernel varies widely, being influenced by environment,
soil and variety. The values reported for Indian wheat are:
AW
Moisture 8.0-17.0 %; starch 63.0-71.0 %; sugars 2.0-3.0 %; protein 8.0-15.0 %; crude
fibre 2.0-2.5 %; fat 1.5-2.0 %; and ash 1.5-2.0 %. The protein content of improved Indian
wheat varieties have been reported to vary from 9.1 to 14.2 per cent.

Minerals
Wheat is a good source of mineral nutrients. It contains a significant amount of iron,
phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, copper and zinc. The mineral constituents present in Indian
wheats are (mg/100 g): calcium, 41.0; magnesium, 138.0; phosphorus, 306.0 (phytin 238.0);
iron, 4.9. The mineral constituents are distributed mainly in the outer layers and embryo of the
kernel, and when wheat is milled for white flour the minerals for the most part pass on to the
by-products of milling.

Vitamins
Whole wheat is a good source of thiamine and nicotinic acid, but is relatively poor in riboflavin.
Other members of B-vitamins are present in small quantities. The level of B-vitamins appears
to be directly related to the protein content of wheat. The vitamins are not uniformly
distributed in the grain.
Carbohydrates
Amongst carbohydrates of wheat, practically all of the starch is in the endosperm, while the
soluble sugars are mostly found in the germ. The carbohydrates of bran are largely cellulose
and hemicelluloses.

Protein
The proteins of wheat may be divided into two major groups—the non-gluten protein albumins
and globulins, and gluten proteins (mainly gliadins, glutenins and insoluble residual proteins).
The two groups of proteins differ in their solubility, chemical composition and role in dough
formation and baking.

Lipids
The total lipid content of Indian wheat varies from about 0.97 to. 2.28 per cent. The lipid
content of endosperm (1-2 per cent) is less than that of bran (5-6 per cent) or germ (8-15 per
cent) but the proportion of compound lipids in the endosperm is much higher. Wheat germ oil is
produced commercially and it is used in vitamin E. The oil is also rich in essential fatty acids.

Distribution of B-vitamins in the structural parts of wheat

DC
Aleurone
Structural part
Pericarp, testa and hyaline

Endosperm
Scutellum
Embryo
Thiamine
1
31
3
62.5
2
Vitamins (percent of total)
Niacin
4
84
11.5
1
1
Riboflavin Pantothenic acid

37
32
5

14
12
8
39
41
4
3.5
AW
Wheat grain structure
Wheat is a single-seeded, 4 to 10-mm long, consisting of a germ and endosperm
enclosed by an epidermis and a seed coat. The fruit coat or pericarp (45- to 50 micro meter
thick) surrounds the seed and adheres closely to the seed coat. The wheat color, depending on
the species and other factors, is red to white, and is due to material present in the seed
coat. Wheat also is classified based on physical characteristics such as red, white, soft,
hard, spring, or winter.

The cultivation of wheat was started some 10,000 years ago with its origin begin traced back
to south-east Turkey. It is most widely cultivated cereal crop in the world.
Many different types of wheat grains exist with two main as bread wheat, durum wheat.
Bread wheat is typically white and does not have red colour. Durum types are used in the
making of Pasta other used for the wheat based foods.
Bread Wheat is described as hard or soft.
- Wheat is the third cereal grain after maize & rice as a staple food.
- India ranks 2nd in wheat production during 2018 – 19.
- China is the 1st world’s largest producer of wheat.
- There are more than 30,000 species & varieties.
- It was cultivated from prehistoric times (5000 B.C.).
- It is ovoid in shape with the germ or embryo at one end & a bundle of hair at another end,
along one side there is a furrow like part.
- Wheat grain has either a dark orange brown appearance or a light yellowish color.

Morphology of Wheat grain

Wheat grains or kernel is divided into different morphological parts
1) Bran
2) Endosperm
3) Germ

1) Bran
It surrounds endosperm; it forms loose covering over germ and endosperm.
It is rich in crude fiber, minerals, and vitamins.
It contains no starch but fewer amounts of protein and fat.
On top of this layer hair like manners will presents. It protects the grain from floods, storms.
DC
It will contains these layers

a.Nucellar tissue
b. Seed coat (Testa)
c.Tube cells
d. Cross cells
e.Hypodermis
f. Epidermis
Pericarp layers
AW
a. Nucellar tissue:
It is the first layer wheat grain. It will posses colors to grain.
It is consists of single layer of thick walled cubical cells.
b.Seed coat (Testa) :
It may be single or double layered consisting of cells. Its thin outermost layer of seed coat.
It is inner layer of seed coat. It consists of pigments which are responsible for colour of wheat
grain.
Pericarp layers
It contains 3 layers
c) Tube cells:
These cells are like tubes and inner most part of pericarp. Pericarp is thin and papery. In
mature grains outer layer is easily split off during cleaning, conditioning and milling.
d) Cross cells:
It consists of cross cells, its middle layer of pericarp
e) Hypodermis & f) Epidermis:
It is outermost layer of pericarp & contains 3 walled long rectangular cells.

2) Endosperm
It is adjusant to aleurone layer.
It consists of cubical and elongated cells.
It contains starch and proteins.
Endosperm contains low level of fibers and minerals.
Endosperm cell wall contains pentosans.
3) Germ

Its rich in fat consists of scutellum, plumule and radical.

scutellum mobiles and stores food material in the endosperm, it transfer to
embryo when grain germinate.
Its rich in fat and low in protein, minerals, fibers.

Proportions
1) Bran - 9.5 - 15 %
2) Endosperm - 81 to 84 %
3) Germ - 2.5 to 3 %

DC Structure of Wheat grain

AW
Wheat Types
The cultivation of wheat was started some 10,000 years ago with its origin begin traced back
to south-east Turkey. It is most widely cultivated cereal crop in the world.
Many different types of wheat grains exist with two main as bread wheat, durum wheat.
Bread wheat is typically white and does not have red colour. Durum types are used in the
making of Pasta other used for the wheat based foods.
Bread Wheat is described as hard or soft. According to its protein hard wheat has more
protein means more gluten used to bake bread, while soft wheat has much lower protein content
used for sweet biscuits and cakes.

i. Other types of ancient grains used for wheat based food products.

A. Spelt
Is higher in protein than common wheat they does not contain gluten and should not be consumed
by people who need to avoid gluten.
B. Emmer
Used as a quality in ingredient with good amount of antioxidants.
C. Einkorn
Having a high protein content and highest level of gluten among wheat species.
D. Kamut
Is an heirloom grain originating from Egypt which is higher in protein and contains more
vitamin E.

DC
ii. Wheat is primarily classified according to its growing season.

A. Winter wheat
Planted in the fall, harvested in the spring. Comprises approximately 75% of wheat grown in
US.
B. Spring Wheat
Planted in the spring harvested in late summer or early fall.
AW
iii. Wheat is further characterised according to its colour and shape of kernel

A. Hard white winter wheat:

Contain the highest percentage of protein are more of the used in goods requiring size like a
bread and Rolls.

B. Hard red spring wheat:

Red wheat is darker than white wheat. Red wheat also has a strong more bitter flavour than
white.

Milling of Wheat in to flour

The process of separation of bran & germ from the endosperm & reduction of endosperm into
fine flour called as Milling of wheat.
Wheat is consumed mostly in the form of flour obtained by milling the grain while a small
quantity is converted into breakfast foods such as wheat flakes and puffed wheat. Indian
wheat is hard and the moisture content is usually 8-10%.
Wheat grain contains 85% endosperm, 3% germ & 12% bran.
The traditional procedure for milling wheat in India has been stone grinding (Chakki) to obtain
whole mill flour (Atta).
This method results 90 to 95 % extraction.
Various steps are involved in making the flour. The traditional procedure for milling wheat in
India has been stone grinding to obtain whole wheat flour. In modem milling the wheat is
subjected to cleaning to remove various types of impurities together with damaged kernels.

Vibrating screen:
This removes bits of straw and other coarse materials and second screen removes foreign
materials like seeds.

Aspirator
It lifts off lighter impurities in the wheat. The stream of grain is directed across screen
while air sucks off the dust and lighter particles.

Disc separator
After the aspirator it moves into a disc separator consisting of discs revolving on a horizontal
axis. The surface of the discs indented to catch individual grains of wheat but reject larger or
DC
smaller material.

Scourer
The wheat then moves into the scourer, a machine in which beater attached to a central shaft
throw the wheat violently against the surrounding drum, buffing each kernel and breaking off
the kernel hairs.

Magnetic separation
AW
The stream of wheat next passes over a magnetic separator that pulls out iron and steel
particles contaminated during harvesting.

Washer stoner
High speed rotators spin the wheat in the water bath. Excess water is thrown out by
centrifugal force. Stones drop to the bottom and are removed. Lighter material float off
leaving only the clean wheat.

Tempering
Wheat is tempered, before the start of grinding, the process in which moisture is added.
Tempering aids in separation of the bran from the endosperm and helps to provide constant
controlled amount of moisture and temperature throughout milling. The percentage of moisture,
length of soaking, time and temperature are three important factors in tempering with
different requirement in soft, medium and hard wheat. Dampened wheat is held in a bin for 8-
24 hours. The outer layers of wheat tend to be brittle and tempering toughens the bran coat to
permit more complete separation of endosperm. Within the kernel tempering also mellows or
conditions the endosperm so that floury particles break more freely in milling.

Entoleter
Discs revolving at high speed in the scourer aspirator hurl the wheat against finger like pins.
The impact cracks down any unsound kernel which is rejected.

Grinding bin
The "first break" rolls of a mill and are corrugated rather than smooth, break into coarse
particles.

Sifter
The broken particles of wheat and bran go into a box like sifter where they are shaken
through a series of cloth or screens to separate larger from the smaller particles. Larger
particles are shaken off from the top by leaving the final flour to shift towards the bottom.

Purifier
The top fractions and particles of endosperm graded by size are carried to separate purifiers.
In a purifier a controlled flow of air lifts off bran particles while cloth or screen separate and
grade coarse fractions by size and qualities.

The down purifier

DC
Four or five additional break rolls with successively final corrugations and each followed by a
sifter are usually used to rework the coarse stock from the sifter and reduce the wheat
particles granular middlings as free from bran as possible. Germ particles being somewhat
plastic will be flattened by a later passage through the smooth reduction rolls and tend to be
easily separated. The process is repeated over and over again. Sifters, purifiers reducing rolls
until the maximum amount of flour is separated consisting of at least 72% of wheat.
AW
 DC
AW

Types of Wheat flours

Among grains, wheat flour is rare because it has the potential to produce gluten, a
protein that imparts strength and elasticity to dough and influences the texture of
baked goods. Hard wheat is higher in protein than soft wheat.
Types of Flours

1. Plain flour / Self rising flour

2. Cake flour
3. Composite flour
4. Multigrain flour
5. Biscuit flour
6. Bread flour
7. Germ enriched Flour
8. Brown flour
9. Organic flour
10. Whole meal flour
DC
11. White flour
12. All purpose flour

1. Plain / Self rising flour

- It is made from soft wheat.
- Protein content should be range into 8.5 to 10.5%
- In this flour baking powder is used, so no need to add during bakery product preparation.
AW
- It is popular because ingredients mixed accurately.
- This flour used for making cake, pastries & puddings.
2. Cake flour
- It should contain less than 10% protein & 0.4% ash & should have water absorption capacity.
- It is made from soft wheat which contains low protein.
- It has low alpha amylase activity.
- It is very fine in texture.
3. Composite wheat flour
- It is blended flour with other flour.
- It is used in various types of product preparation such as leaven & unleavened products, pastas
etc.

4. Multigrain flour
- It is made by adding other cereal grain such as maize, rye, sesame or malted barley to the
wheat flour.
- Used in confectionary & rolls.
5. Biscuit flour
- It is made from soft wheat (low protein).
- Biscuits are short dough biscuits, hard sweet biscuits, hard crackers & wafer.
- Sodium meta bi sulphite added for extensibility.
6. Bread flour
- It is made from hard wheat.
- It contains more protein.
- It gives good strength, stability, extensibility & gas retaining properties.
- It has high water absorption power. Used to make bread.
7. Germ enriched flour
- These are white flour to which cooked wheat germ has been added.
- Flour is enriched by vitamins in the germ.
- The quantity of germ added should not be less than 10%.
8. Brown flour
- It is made by adding selected co products such as bran & germ to the white flour.
DC
9. Organic flour
- Both white & whole wheat flour are produce usually from United Kingdom.
- This is also used to make bread.
10. Whole wheat bread
- It contains the entire products milling of clean wheat.
- Thus whole meal flour contains all the nutrients which are present in all part of grains.
AW
11. White flour
- It is made from starchy endosperm only.
- Germ & bran are removed as co products.
- White flour contains 14.4% moisture.
- 12% protein, o.45 % ash, 1 % fat & 70% starch.

12. All purpose flour

- It is also called as household or family flour.
- It is made from hard wheat & soft wheat flour with high protein content.
- It is suitable for making bread, cookies, cakes & pastries.

Flour Grades

Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many
different foods. Cereal flour is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for most
cultures. Wheat flour is one of the most important ingredients in Oceanic, European, South
American, North American, Middle Eastern, North Indian and North African cultures, and is
the defining ingredient in their styles of breads and pastries. Wheat is the most common base
for flour.

1. Straight Flour

Wheat is milled to remove the bran and germ, leaving the endosperm. The endosperm is the
whitest part of the wheat grain, because it is 3/4 starch. From 100 pounds of wheat, 72
pounds of straight flour can be got still; it isn’t purely endosperm, as it will contain some
particles of the bran and germ which cling so tightly to the endosperm that they weren’t
removed in the milling. French bakers will use straight flour in their bread making; North
Americans and British generally don’t.

Straight flour is separated by sifting in other grades. The straight flour is passed along a
roller over different sieves. Different grades fall through the appropriate sieve along the
roller. In the percentages given below, the lower the percentage of straight flour that falls

DC
through a particular grading sieve, the more desirable the flour.

2.Patent Flour

Patent Flour is made from straight flour. It is the whitest flour class and the highest quality,
as it is the grade of flour that contains mostly endosperm. That is where most of the protein is,
which means good gluten developing properties. Patent Flour is divided into 5 categories:

Extra Short Flour (aka Fancy Patent Flour): made from soft wheat, used for cake flour,
AW
contains 40 to 60 % of straight flour. Highest quality;

First Patent Flour: made from soft wheat, contains 60 to 70% of straight flour;
Short Patent Flour: made from hard wheat. Contains 70 to 80% of straight flour. For bread-
making;
Medium Patent Flour: 80 to 80 % of straight flour, bread making;
Long Patent Flour: 90 to 95% of straight flour, bread making.

3.Clear Flour
Clear Flour is made from what is left over from straight flour after the patent grade sieves
have been passed over. Despite its name, it is actually the “darker” or “dirtier” flour.

There are three grades of Clear Flour: Fancy, First Clear and Second Clear. These flours are
darker in colour than Patent Flours. They have a high ash content, the taste of which is
desirable in rye breads.

Fancy Clear Flour: used for pastry flour;

First Clear: made from hard wheat, blended with lower-gluten flours. Often added to whole
wheat or rye or other dark grain breads, where the darker colour of the clear flour won’t be
noticed;

Second Clear Flour: very dark, generally used for animal feed (e.g. dog and cat kibble, dog
biscuits, etc...)

4. Low-grade Flour

Low-grade Flour is made from straight flour. It is very dark. It is generally used for animal
feed (e.g. dog and cat kibble, dog biscuits, etc..)

Stuffed straight flour is straight flour with some clear flour added.

Tests to Evaluate Flour Quality

The term quality is defined as fitness for purpose or as fulfilling the requirements for a
particular process. The specification of quality varies according to the requirements of

DC
the process and the ultimate end use of the product. A quality test tries to predict the
performance of the flour in later processing during baking.

Flour Colour
Whiteness of flour is important quality attribute. Because flour colour affects the
colour of baked products such as breads. It also indicates the amount of bran remaining in
the flour after milling and the whiteness of the endosperm material. Type of wheat,
microbial contamination and milling process employed also influence flour colour.
AW
Ash
It indicates the amount of mineral matter present in the flour and is commonly considered
a quality index for flour. High ash content depicts high bran in flour which has adverse
effects in bread making quality

Starch Damage
Some of the starch granules get damaged during the milling of wheat in to flour.
Amount of damaged starch can be ascertained by subjecting the flour to polarized light
under microscope. Damaged starch absorbs more water than the undamaged starch.
Excess damaged starch results in excessive susceptibility of attack by alpha amylase
resulting in sticky crumb and weak bread structure. Hard wheats generally have more
starch damage than soft wheats, leading to increased water absorption.

Sedimentation Value
Sedimentation test indicates gluten quality and bread making potential of
the flour. Flour is suspended in sodium dodecyl sulphate or SDS to observe the way it
coheres and settles. Hard wheat flours having high glutenin proteins show high
 sedimentation value as compared to soft wheat flours.

Rheological Tests
Rheological tests such as viscosity, elasticity, consistency and extensibility are used to
predict baking performance and behaviours of the dough during processing before
baking. These are measured with special testing instruments such farinogrpah,
mixograph, extensograph, alveograph and amylograph.

Wheat flour proteins

The scientific study of wheat grain proteins extends back for over 250 years, with the
isolation of wheat gluten first being described in 1745. Osborne classified wheat protein
according to the basis of solubility and functionality in 1908. Proteins were divided into three
major types: simple, conjugated and derived. The gluten proteins of wheat classically fall into
two of these groups, with the alcohol-soluble gliadins and the alcoholinsoluble glutenins.
Glutenins are known being the biggest polymers in nature. In 1970 the glutelin fraction was
DC
divided into two fractions according to solubility in dilute acetic acid.

The fraction which was insoluble in dilute acetic acid corresponded to the fifth fraction
according to the Osborne fractions . Grain proteins of wheat can also be divided into
structural/metabolic (non-gluten) and storage proteins (gluten). Structural/metabolic proteins
consist of albumin, globulin and amphiphilic proteins. Non-membrane amphiphilic proteins have
been reported to have large effects on grain hardness and dough rheological properties. Wheat
AW
storage proteins are collectively known as prolamins because of their high content of the amino
acids, proline and glutamine.

Sulphur poor prolamins contain ω-gliadins and D- LMW-GS. The individual polypeptides of
wheat storage proteins are synthesized on ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
and pass via the usual translocation machinery into the lumen, with the loss of an N-terminal
signal peptide. Once within the lumen it is probable that protein folding and disulphide bond
formation occurs with no further post-translational modifications taking place. Each of these
homologous chromosomes consists of several tightly linked genes.

Albumins and globulins

The non-prolamin proteins; albumins and globulins of wheat, comprises 15-20% of total wheat
flour proteins. Albumins are soluble in water and globulins are soluble in salts. The molecular
weights (MW) of albumins and globulins are mostly lower than 25,000, although a significant
proportion of the proteins has MW between 60,000 and 70. Albumins and globulins are
considered to have nutritionally better amino acid compositions because of their higher lysine
and methionine contents as compared to the rest of the proteins in the wheat grain. Alpha-
amylase/trypsin, serpins and purothionins are predominant albumins and globulins. These
predominant albumins and globulins serve as nutrient reserves for the germinating embryo.
Secondly they also help in protecting embryo from insects and pathogens before germination.

Gluten

The rubbery mass that is left when wheat flour is washed with water to remove starch, non-
starchy polysaccharides, and water-soluble constituents, is called gluten. Gluten is comprised
of 80–85% protein and 5% lipids; most of the remainder is starch and non starch carbohydrates.
Wheat storage proteins play a crucial role in forming the strong, cohesive dough that will
retain gas and produce light baked products. These properties make wheat alone suitable for
the preparation of a great diversity of food products- breads, noodles, pasta, cookies, cakes,
pastries and many other foods. Gluten proteins are present in the mature wheat grain
endosperm where they form a continuous matrix around the starch granules. Gluten contains
hundreds of protein.

Glutenins

DC
Glutenins are the polymeric proteins of wheat gluten and they are extractable in dilute acetic
acid. Glutenins and gliadins have very similar amino acid composition, thus glutenin have high
levels of glutamine and proline and low levels of charged amino acids. In wheat flour dough,
baking performance strongly depend on the molecular weight distribution of glutenins.
Glutenins appear to be largely responsible for gluten elasticity. In addition, glutenins have the
ability to form the largest and most complex protein polymers in nature with MWs of more
than 10 millions.
AW
Glutenin polymer

It is nearly impossible to extract the intact glutenin polymer from wheat flour. It is also
difficult to obtain a true estimate of the amount and size of the glutenin polymer. Nonetheless,
the amount of un extractable protein, mainly glutenin polymer, the amount of polymer
extracted by sonication, and the variations in types and amounts of HMW-GS and LMW-GS
contained within the glutenin polymers have all been reported to correlate with bread-making
quality . Several approaches have been combined to give details of the secondary structure of
HMW-GS.

Importance of gluten in manufacture of bakery products

Gluten is one of the most important wheat proteins in the baking industry for very obvious
reasons. Attention has not been paid to the importance of gluten because of unfounded
information about the healthy and highly necessary baking ingredient.

Gluten is a protein present in wheat, rye and barley. The protein is hardly synthesised but
processed from natural wheat flour. Usually, the wheat is soaked in water. This allows the
gluten to be activated. The wheat is then processed to remove everything else aside from the
gluten. It is then dried and ground to what we know as vital wheat gluten. Going through all
the stages of processing vital wheat gluten isn't just for the fun of it, it's for the following
reasons:

1. High elasticity and swelling power

. The swelling of the dough is made possible through as the protein helps trap gases and
moisture within the dough. Without gluten, the baked food appears dry and stale in no time.
The presence of gluten in the baking process adds to the chewiness of the final product.

2. It enhances the quality of the dough

Research has shown that the addition of vital wheat gluten to both white and whole grain flour
significantly increases the quality of the dough produced. Bread and dough that is made with
flour and vital wheat gluten have long spoilage period and can easily be preserved.

3.
DC Viscosity

The use of gluten in baking makes the dough viscose and thick. The use of gluten in low protein
flour easily compensates for the lack of protein.

4. It makes your dough moist

The presence of gluten is responsible for the soft and fluffy feel of bread and cakes. Gluten
helps to absorb moisture and then retains the moisture during the baking process in the
AW
oven. This prevents your bread from drying out from the heat of the oven. The elastic nature
of gluten keeps air and moisture within the dough giving it the soft and fluffy feel.

5. Nutritional value

Another reason you have to make use of vital wheat gluten in baking is that it is a rich source
of phosphorus. A measure of about 125 mg is present in 55 g of vital wheat gluten. This
means 2-3 teaspoonful of vital Wheat gluten contains the recommended 1,250 mg dietary
requirements for adults and well above the 700mg recommended for children.

6. It improves the quality features of frozen dough goods

Storing dough in very cold temperatures is known to reduce its strength and eventually the
bread quality. But it has been discovered that adding vital wheat gluten while mixing the dough
will considerably reduce the loss of quality from the dough even after it has been stored at
below zero temperatures.

7. It increases the shelf life of bakery products

Bakery products are known to have a very low shelf life as they cannot stay for too long
 without refrigeration. Adding vital wheat gluten increases the length of time they can stay at
room temperature before their quality starts to reduce.

8. It used to fortify low quality flour for the baking process

Vital wheat gluten is added to bakery products to fortify the lower quality flour or even flour
with low protein content. The addition of vital wheat which is very rich in protein increases the
protein content and enhances the low-quality flour.

9. It has low fat and helps keep your weight in check

Vital wheat gluten has a very low-fat nutrient, and this helps to maintain a reasonable
cholesterol level. Fatty products have a high level of cholesterol, and they are not ideal for
consumption when trying to maintain a nutritional diet.

HACCP in bakery industry

DCAn HACCP plan for bakeries is an output document of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control
Points (HACCP) Study. It specifies the strategies to be followed to assure control of physical,
chemical and biological hazards based on the seven principles of HACCP when manufacturing
baked goods.

Implementation
The HACCP Plan for Bakeries is specific to a product (e.g., pan bread, rolls, buns) and the
process involved in its manufacturing, such as the production line or sanitation. It focuses on
AW
the food safety hazards that the established prerequisite hygiene programs and/or good
manufacturing practices can not manage or prevent. Implementation utilize the following steps
listed below.

Product description
Product description contains information regarding the formulation, composition, and
processing technologies applied for manufacturing bakery products:

 Formulation (e.g., allergenic ingredients, plant and/or animal origin of raw materials)
 Compositional elements that affect microbial growth (e.g., Aw, pH, preservatives, acidity,
nutrition labeling and allergens declaring)
 Technologies applied in product manufacturing (e.g., baking, freezing, fermentation,
pasteurization, ambient, sterile, vacuum or modified atmosphere packaging).
 UNIT - II
Baking Technology II

Raw material for production of quality bakery products

Bakery products produced by such small individual units are offered in varieties and come with
differentiation in quality among each variety. The main reason for the same may be lack of
training among workers. During my experiences, I noted that in most of the bakery units,
products are produced according to the knowledge of the workers and these workers learned
the procedure from paternal or other workers. Hence, the products are produced by old
traditional methods. In order to overcome this problem, the workers should be well trained
because they demand specific type of raw material and equipments and prepare quality products
from that. In addition, the bakery owner should also know scientific information. Hence they
emphasise on using better quality raw material and equipments and that way get produced better
quality products.
Quality of raw material is a vast subject. Eventhough we tried to present short, informative
and necessary information in this paper, emphasis is made on practical base. Many raw material
DC
are used for preparation of bakery products. The desired quality of the raw material, effect
of its quality on products and simple scientific experiments to know the quality is discussed
herewith.

1.Flour
It is the principal raw material used in huge amount to produce different bakery products,
hence a small change in flour quality affects products’ quality. Flour contains starch, protein,
fat, minerals, vitamins, moisture, enzymes and so on as constituents. Each of that possesses
AW
specific function and effects. Among them quality and quantity of the protein and minerals are
more important.
(A) Protein: Flour contains Albumin and Globulin water-soluble and Glutenin and Glaidin
water-insoluble protein. When we add water in to flour Glutenin and Gliadin combines together
and produce Gluten. The quantity of gluten required for different bakery products is as below:

End Use Protein(%) Gluten(%)

Bread (Strong flour) 11.00 More than 8.0
Pastry (Medium hard flour) 9-10 7.5 to 8.0
Cake (Soft flour) 9.0 7.5
Biscuit (Soft flour) 9.0 7.5

Estimation of Gluten Quantity: Take 50 gm flour in a bowl (vessel). Fill up the burette with
water up to ‘o’ mark. Allow to flow the water steadily in bowl and prepare a dough with
plastic spatula having consistency similar to the bread dough. Note down the quantity of the
water used, as Burette figure.

Prepare a round-dough (ball) and sink it in water for 30 minutes. Remove all the starch with
the help of finger. (To check the complete removal of starch, take water into transparent
glass vessel and press the dough - if the water droplets do not result into cloudiness, then the
gluten is free from starch). Weigh the gluten. Keep it in oven at 220?C. for 30 minutes to
dry. Allow it to cool and weigh. Calculate the gluten percentage using the following formula:
Water absorbed by the flour x 100
Water Absorption Power (%) = ----------------------------------------------
Wt. of the flour

Wt. of the wet gluten x 100

Wet gluten (%) = -----------------------------------
Wt. of the flour

Wt. of dry gluten x 100

Dry gluten (%) = ------------------------------
Wt. of the flour

Estimation of gluten quality and quantity together: Take 50 ml water in 100 ml glass stopered
DC
measuring cylinder. Add 4 gm accurately weighed flour with care. Mix it thoroughly and allow
to rest for 5 min. Add 25 ml 10% lactic acid solution and mix it thoroughly. Keep it aside for 5
min. and note the observation of the settled part.
Note: Normally sedimentation values vary with 20-55. Lower the value softer the flour and
protein quantity and vice versa.

(B) Minerals: The bran of wheat kernel contains many minerals. It is removed while milling
hence the amount of mineral in the flour is automatically decreased. As the flour becomes much
AW
finer the quantity of bran decreases. The finer the flour better and whiter the products,
which is more preferred by customers.
Qualitative Estimation of Refineness of the Flour: Take two samples of the flour. Take a
glass strip (about 2” width and 6” length) and apply little water on both the end of the strip.
Keep flour (each on one side) and prepare a slick. Sink it in a 0.5% Pyrocatechol solution till
the bubbles coming out of solution are stopped. Compare the intensity of colour of the slick,
lighter the colour lesser the mineral and particle size is smaller.

2. Yeast: Next to flour, yeast is the most important raw material for fermented products
like bread, bun, toast, Danish pastry, pitza and so on. Yeast available in wet, dry and instant
form. Out of that, baker prefers wet yeast because it is cheaper and yields better result. No
doubt nowadays few companies have started to develop instant yeast and marketed. The
characteristics of the yeasts are as under:
 The gas production capacity and speed of activity are important for the baker, which can be
known by the following methods :
(A) Dough Rising Capacity of the Yeast: Take 100 gm. flour. Take 60 ml. lukewarm water
and add 2 to 3 gm. sugar and 2 gm. yeast. Add flour when yeast starts to float on the water
and make a paste. Allow it to rest for 5 to 10 min. Make the top surface in level and measure
the height. Allow it to rest for an hour and again measure the height. Calculate the
difference in height.
Difference in height x 100
Yeast dough rising = -----------------------------------
capacity (%) Initial height of the dough

(B) Preparation of Flying Ferment: Take lukewarm water (37?C.) (the quantity of the
water should be at least 4 times to yeast), add little sugar and dilute it. Add all the yeast.
Allow it to stand till all the yeast starts to float on water (it will take about 5 to 10 min). Add
little flour and beat it to make a thick paste. Keep it on warm place (32 to 380C) for 10 to 15
DC
min. During that time, paste will rise if the yeast is suitable for fermentation. The speed of
raising the paste gives rough idea regarding quality of the yeast.

3. Sugar: Sugar is used to prepare most of all the bakery products in much or less quantity.
In fermented products, the range is in between 5 to 10 or at the most 15% and for confectionery
products the range may be 40 to 70% or up to the 100%.
(A) Check the Sugar Quality: The quality sugar granules are clear, bright and clean. The
dull coloured granules may sometime hold glucose or invert syrup. To make that white blue is
AW
added, which is harmful to human health. To check the presence of the same, take water in s
transparent glass vessel and dilate little water and keep it on the white surface for few min. If
blue colour is found at the bottom then there is presence of blue.

4. Fat: It provides smoothness to the bakery products and also makes biscuits and cookies
crispy. The vanaspati (vegetable ghee) mostly is utilised as a fat till today but nowadays
specialised fat for each product is being marketed.

According to norms the vanaspati should have the following standards:

onstituent Quantity
Melting point 1° to 41° C.
eration ess than 1.2%
ree fatty acid ess than 0.25%
esame oil %
Vit.-A 5 I.U.(Min.)
ntioxidant and Emulsifieran be added after permission

5. Mould and Rope Inhibitors: Chemicals used to prevent rope and mould caused in the bread
are known as rope and mould inhibitors. Information on some important inhibitors are given
below:

ame Quantity (on flour bases)

cetic acid to 2%
alcium propionate .1 to 0.4%
odium Propionate .1 to 0.4%
alcium Acid Phosphate .75 to 0.1%
odium Diacetate .1 to 0.4%
otassium Sorbet (for cake).03 to 0.12%(on cake better base)
ropeonic acid .1 to 0.3%

6. Bread Improvers: Normally different emulsifiers and surfactants are used as bread
improvers, which increase the bread volume, gas retention power, bread structure, cell size
and so on. They also strengthen the side-wall, make crumb softer and improve sliceability. The
effect of some emulsifiers is listed below:

DC Mechanical dough development

Mechanical dough development in Australia was first seen as the Brimec process developed by
the then Bread Reseach Institute (BRI) of Australia and launched in 1962. This process
featured dough development in the mixer with some crumb cell structure control by varying the
AW
position of a ram which restricted the free space in the mixing chamber and exerted some
pressure on the dough. The dough could be shaped and placed directly in a pan.
A no-time dough process using extra mixing on low-speed mixers was launched in 1964. In 1965
an extended proof version of mechanical dough development was launched by the BRI with low
yeast level and long proof times (typically 16–18 h).

Today mechanical dough development in Australian bakeries is very similar to the CBP, other
than the tendency to use higher work levels in the dough because of the generally stronger
wheat varieties which are available in Australia and New Zealand.
Dough development is a relatively undefined term that covers a number of complex changes that
begin when the ingredients first become mixed. These changes are associated with the
formation of gluten, which requires both the hydration of the proteins in the flour and the
application of energy through the process of kneading. The role of energy in the formation of
gluten is not always fully appreciated but it is a significant contributor to the bread making
process. There is more to dough development than a simple kneading process.

The process of developing bread dough brings about changes in the physical properties of the
dough and in particular improvement in its ability to retain the carbon dioxide gas which will
later be generated by yeast fermentation. This improvement in gas retention ability is
particularly important when the dough pieces reach the oven. In the early stages of baking
before the dough has set, yeast activity is at its greatest and large quantities of carbon dioxide
gas are being generated and released from solution in the aqueous phase of the dough. If the
dough pieces are to continue to expand at this time then the dough must be able to retain a large
quantity of that gas being generated and it can do this only if we have created a gluten
structure with the appropriate physical properties.

It is important to distinguish between gas production and gas retention in fermented dough. Gas
production refers to the generation of carbon dioxide gas as a natural consequence of yeast
fermentation. Provided the yeast cells in the dough remain viable and there is sufficient
substrate, then gas production will continue, but expansion of the dough can occur only if that
carbon dioxide gas is retained in the dough. Not all of the gas generated during the bread
making process will be retained within the dough before it finally sets in the oven.

The proportion that will be retained depends on the development of a suitable gluten matrix
within which the expanding gas can be held. Gas retention in dough is therefore closely linked

DC
with the degree of dough development and the inputs that affect it. The most commonly
considered factors are those related to the protein component of wheat flour; however, dough
development will be affected by a large number of ingredients and processing parameters,
many of which are not necessarily independent of one another.

Dough Mixing
AW
Dough mixing is an important process in bread making, which directly affects the product
quality. It both homogenizes and hydrates the ingredients in dough.
Most bread uses hard wheat flour, which has dense particles that slow water
penetration. During mixing, the particles rub against each other, exposing the next layer
for hydration.
All the mixing machines available today are designed to incorporate both the mixing and the
kneading processes. Kneading is the development of the dough gluten structure after the
homogenized distribution of the ingredients.

Definition
Bread dough requires a method by which the ingredients are homogeneously mixed and hydrated,
resulting in a well-developed gluten network. The mixing required could be viewed as the
energy necessary to develop the dough. Most bakers use the standard ‘stretch to a window pane’
test to determine proper development. This requires an extensible dough that would stretch to
a thin film, without breaking. Final temperature of dough is recommended not to exceed 80oF
(27oC) when it exits the mixer.
 A baker performing a ‘stretch to a window pane’ test

Function
In bread dough, both the dough gluten network development and dough temperature are
established after mixing. Times are varied depending on the speed of mixer, mixer design,
dough size, dough temperature, water absorption of the flour, etc. Dough mixing need to meet
the following requirements:

1. Disperse the recipe ingredients uniformly.

2. Enable full hydration of these ingredients (especially flour protein).
3. Provide the necessary energy for gluten development.
4. Incorporate air bubbles within the dough to provide gas nuclei for the carbon dioxide generated
DC
from yeast fermentation.
5. Incorporate oxygen for oxidation and yeast activity.
6. Provide well-developed dough in a suitable form for subsequent processing.

Characteristics determined by the mixing stage

If the dough is under or over mixed, the handling properties of the dough will be influenced,
which results in lower volume bread.
If the temperature isn’t right, the fermentation rate will be faster or slower and that will
AW
influence the volume of the bread and the colour of the crust.
If the length of time is not proper, the bread texture and crumb will also be influenced.

Different stages
1. Pick up: dough is sticky, cold and lumpy
2. Initial development: dough is getting warmer, smoother and drier
3. Clean up: dough is at maximum stiffness and comes together as one mass. The colour will also
change from yellowish to more white
4. Final development: dough is at its correct temperature and handling quality. A gluten film can
be easily obtained by extending a piece of dough
5. Let-down: dough is too warm and sticky. It lacks elasticity and has too much flow
6. Breakdown: dough is beginning to liquefy

Types of mixing machines

There are the following common machines used in bakery industry:
 Spiral mixer: in which a spiral-shaped mixing tool rotates on a vertical axis.
 High speed and twin spiral mixer: where a high level of work can be inputed to the dough in a
short time.
 Horizontal mixer: where the beaters are driven horizontally within the bowl and fixed to one or
two shafts.
 Low speed: where mixing is carried out over an extended period of time and the commonly used
slow mixing system includes twin reciprocating arm mixer and oblique axis fork mixer.
 Continuous mixing: where the ingredients are incorporated at one end of the extruder, and the
dough leaves the mixer at the other end in a continuous flow

Dough development

This is the fun part of bread making. You are starting with a mixture of flour, water, salt
DCand yeast. At the moment it is just those things put together in a bowl. We need to develop
these things into something more, a smooth dough. Fold kneading technique that many of us
now use in some form or another. Finish by rounding and putting tension on the outer skin of
the dough and forming a ball.

Once the dough is well developed, smooth and rounded, lightly oil the now clean mixing bowl
with a few drops of oil on your fingers (or lightly spray regular cooking oil into the bowl) and
places the dough into the bowl, seams down and roll the ball around to coat all the surfaces.
AW
Cover the bowl as before during what is called the Primary Ferment. During the primary
ferment, the dough will expand in volume as the yeast begins to eat the sugars in the flour and
create Carbon Dioxide. Well developed dough will trap those CO2 bubbles and form pockets
that will become the air pockets in the bread, making it lighter.

Rheological testing of dough

Rheology is the study of how liquid, solid or semi-solid materials deform or flow, when a force
or stress is applied to them.
The study of rheology involves stress and strain measurement. Strain is the extent deformation,
while stress is either a:

 Tensile (extension)

 Compression

 Torsion

 Shear force
Rheology was the name given to the discipline of a society, in 1929, that was engaged in the
study of how materials deform in response to forces. Its goal is to provide quantitative
parameters that define how a material will deform as a function of force, time and spatial
orientation.
Measurement of Dough rheological properties
1. Farinograph
2. Alveograph
3. Mixograph
4. Amylograph
5. Extensiograph

Farinograph
- It is the most commonly used flour quality test in the world.
- It is used to estimate the amount of water required to make a dough.
- To evaluate the effects of ingredients on mixing properties.
- To evaluate flour blending requirements.
- To check flour uniformity.
DC
- To predict finished product texture characteristic.

Method
1. A flour sample of 50 or 300 grams on a 14% moisture basis is weighed & placed into the
corresponding farinograph mixing bowl.
2. Water from a burette is added to the flour & mixed to form a dough.
3. As the dough is mixed, the farinograph records a curve on graph paper.
4. The amount of water added (absorption) affects the position of the curve on the graph paper.
AW
Less water increases dough consistency & moves the curve upward.
5. The curve is centered on the 500 BU line ± 20 BU by adding the appropriate amount of
water & is run until the curve leaves the 500 BU line.
A. Strong Gluten Flour
B. Weak Gluten Flour
Extensio graph
- It is useful in determining the gluten strength & bread making characteristics of flour.
- To evaluate on dough performance.
The Extensiograph Test
- Measures & records the resistance of dough to stretching.

Analysis
1. A 150 sample of prepared dough is placed on the extension graph rounded & shaped into a ball.
2. The ball of dough is removed from the rounder & shaped into a cylinder.
3. The dough cylinder is placed into the extension graph dough cradle, secured with pin, &
rested for 45 minutes in a controlled environment.
4. A hook is drawn through the dough, stretching it downwards until it breaks.
5. The extension graph records a curve on graph paper as the test is run.
6. The same dough is shaped & stretched two more times, at 90 minutes & at 135 minutes.
A. Strong gluten flour
B. Weak gluten flour

Alveograph
- It ensures a more consistent process & product.
- Weak gluten flour with low P value (strength of gluten) & long L value (extensibility) is
preferred for cakes & other confectionary products.
- Strong gluten flour will have high P values & preferred for breads.

Method
1. A sample of 250 gms of flour is mixed with a salt solution to form a dough.
2. Five 4.5cm circular dough patties are formed & then rested in the alveograph in a
temperature regulated compartment at 25oC for approximately 20 minutes.
3. Each dough patty is tested individually. The alveograph blows air into a dough patty which
expands into a bubble that eventually breaks.
4. The pressure inside the bubble is recorded as a curve on graph paper.

Mixograph
DC
- It analyzes small quantities of flour for dough gluten strength quickly.
- Flour water absorption measured by the mixograph often serves as bake absorption in bread
baking tests.

Method
1. A sample of 35gms of flour on a 14% moisture basis is weighed & placed in a mixograph bowl.
2. Water is added to the flour from a burette & the bowl is inserted into the mixograph.
3. The flour & water are mixed together to form a dough.
AW
4. As the dough is mixed, the mixograph records a curve on graph paper.
A. Strong Gluten Flour
B. Weak Gluten Flour

Amylograph
- This instrument measures the relative viscosity of a flour water suspension as it is heated at a
constant rate.
- This test measures the change in viscosity as the starch granules gelatinize & swell during
heating.
- A suspension of flour & water is prepared according to standard procedures.
- The mixture is heated from 30oC to 92oC in a rotating bowl at a heating rate of 1.5oC / min.
- A paddle inside the bowl is attached to a force measuring device, which records relative
viscosity as Brabender Amylograph (AU) against time or temperature.
- Good bread making performance is related to a gelatinization maximum between 300 & 700
AU.
- If the flour has very low levels of alpha amylase activity (corresponding to a Falling Number
Value ˂ 300), the bread making quality of the flour is adversely affected, & alpha amylase is
added to the flour as an improver.
- A recent alternative to amylograph is the Rapid Visco-Analyzer.
The following are empirical methods used in the baking and milling industry. These tests
measure rheological properties of dough and batter under test conditions, trying to simulate as
much as possible the processing conditions found in commercial plants:

Testing Predominant
Details
Method Force Evaluated

Principle of operation: measure and record the

resistance over time of a flour/water dough
against mixing blades or pins operating at a
Farino graph specific speed (rpm) and specific temperature(s).
Shear
Mixo graph stress/forces
Property measured: resistance to deformation as
motor torque in dimensionless values (e.g.
Brabender Units).

DC
Extenso
graph
Tensile stress
(uniaxial
extension)
Principle of operation: measures and records the
extensibility and resistance to extension of a fully
mixed, relaxed flour/water dough. Deforming
forces are applied via a hook that moves at a
constant rate until the dough ruptures.

Property measured: stress / strain relationships.

AW
Resistance to deformation (tensile stress) in Pa or
N/m2, or dimensionless values (e.g. Brabender
Units).

Principle of operation: measures and records the

resistance to deformation of a flour/water
Tensile stress
Alveograph dough. Deformation forces responsible for dough
(biaxial extension)
expansion are applied by blowing (inflating) the
dough piece into a bubble until it ruptures.

Principle of operation: measures and records the

resistance to deformation over time of a
Shear
Mixolab flour/water dough while it is subjected to
stress/forces
variable shear forces and heating and cooling
cycles.
 Testing Predominant
Details
Method Force Evaluated

Property measured: resistance to deformation as

motor torque in N x m.

Principle of operation: measures and records the

Viscometer
resistance to deformation over time of a
Rapid Visco flour/water slurry or batter while it is subjected
Analyzer Shear to heating and cooling cycles.
stress/forces
Visco amylo Property measured: resistance to deformation as
graph viscosity in Pa x S, centipoise (cP), or
dimensionless values.

DC Rapid Visco Analyzer

An Rapid Visco Analysis (RVA) is a quick, amylographic physical assessment of cereal-based
products. This test is performed by the Rapid Visco Analyzer, which is a rotational (stirring)
rheometer that measures apparent viscosity of starch-containing suspensions, and flour/water
AW
mixtures under variable and controlled heating (cooking), cooling, and shear stress conditions.

An RVA is used in the baking industry for assessing:

 Sprout (preharvest) damage of wheat kernels

 Quality fingerprinting of cereal flours
 Pasting/gelatinization characterization of starchy ingredients
 Stability of emulsions and foams
 Water absorption/holding capacity
 Assess starch damage (e.g., due to milling)
 Enzymatic activity
 Stability to freezing and thawing

The RVA device has a software that allows recording and plotting of the behavior (curve) of
the product being analyzed as a function of temperature (°C), analysis time (min), and apparent
viscosity (cP-Centipoise).

The obtained curve of the sample as a function of the apparent viscosity, temperature, shear
stress, and time, allow to visualize the points where physical transitions and changes in the
 texture of the sample take place (e.g., gelatinization, retrogradation and re-ordering of
starch molecules, and formation of final viscous gel/paste).

Relevance
An RVA is an important R&D tool. It allows for the physical characterization of flour-based
products. The viscosity changes produced when heating and cooling the starch in water allows
determination of the minimum energy required to cook and process the sample/product being
tested, and the appropriate conditions for desired consistency and thickening effect.

An RVA is also a practical and important baking quality indicator, since there is a tight
relationship between rheological and mixing properties of flour/water mixtures, e.g., dough
strength/torque, water absorption, shear and temperature stability, falling number, and
dough extensibility; all of them correlating with each other.

Application
A Rapid Visco Analyzer consists of a stirring paddle attached to a motor whose shaft rotates at
DC constant speed, and the current (energy) required to drive it is monitored continuously by a
microprocessor. An aluminum sample container is filled with a certain mass of powdered
product and volume of water, and placed to surround the paddle, after which the motor is
started.

A metal conductor at high temperature (>90°C) rapidly heats the mixture until the sample
reaches the gelatinization temperature of the starch. Depending on the product, the test can
take 2–15 minutes to be completed. Finally, the power required by the motor correlates directly
AW
with the apparent viscosity.

In order to draw proper conclusions about the quality and technological properties of foods
being tested with an RVA, intrinsic and extrinsic factors must be taken into account:

 Intrinsic: Water content; amount and nature of total solids (proteins, complex
carbohydrates/hydrocolloids, soluble sugars, fats, and minerals); amylose/amylopectin ratio;
native presence of hydrolytic enzymes (e.g., pectin polygalacturonase, α/β amylases, maltase
-glucoamylase)
 Extrinsic: Processing conditions (e.g., additives, addition of yeasts, temperature, acidity,
pressure)

Steps for an RVA

1. Properly calibrate the equipment.

2. Configure the test parameters (shear, temperature, rpm, time) on the software menu.
3. Prepare/weigh the sample (dry product).
4. Enter relevant data regarding product moisture.
5. The equipment software (based on a mass balance calculation) automatically pours the exact
 amount of water required to process the sample.
6. Place canister inside the testing chamber.
7. Run the RVA.
8. Equipment automatically records and graphs data collected during test.
9. Analyze data.
10.Conclude and report.

Falling number (FN)

The Hagberg Falling Number test, originally developed in Sweden, is used to measure the
enzyme activity in flour. The FN of flour is related to the amount and activity of cereal
enzyme α-amylase, which is present in the wheat after harvesting. Wheat kernels with high
moisture levels usually exhibit high levels of α-amylase.

The FN is used in the baking industry for assessing:







DCSprout damage in wheat kernels
Enzymatic activity in wheat flour
Crop-year changeovers and selection of wheat flour suppliers
Its effect on water absorption (water binding capacity)
Machinability and dough-handling issues of dough during processing
Upgrades/establishment of specifications for flours at receipt (e.g., starch damage,
enzymatic activity)
AW
Work
The FN test details the effect of the α-amylase on the starch granules in the flour undergoing
gelatinization, and progressively broken down (cleaved) by the amylase action.The temperature
set for the test provides maximum enzymatic activity in the flour/water mixture or suspension.

The FN is the time in seconds required for a device to fall a measured distance through a hot
flour/water mixture while heat is applied. If the enzymatic activity is high, the starch is
broken down (liquefied) rapidly during gelatinization. So then, the device falls through the
relatively liquid paste in a short time. A less viscous fluid opposing less resistance to the flow
means the FN is low. On the other hand, if the activity of the enzyme is low, it takes longer
for the device to cover the distance of its fall. This means the falling number is high.

Application
Falling numbers over 250 seconds are most suitable for the bread-baking process. In contrast,
FNs above 350 seconds may indicate that the flour should be supplemented with a form of
amylolytic enzyme or with malted grain flours.
Most large-scale bakeries work with an ideal FN range of 250–280 seconds. Different values
of fall numbers may be specific to unique products and processing conditions inside the plant.

As a rule of thumb for most bakeries, the higher the amylase level, the greater formation of
dextrins during bread making. This results in a sticky dough that is not only difficult to handle,
but has slicing issues as well.

Stickiness tester

Stickiness is a combination of adhesion, the interaction between a material and a surface, and
cohesion, the interactions within the material. It is therefore a result of a combination of
surface and rheological properties.
Dough stickiness is a major problem in the industry, particularly in large mechanised
bakeries, as sticky dough cannot be processed, leading to process disruption and product loss.
In less severe cases the dough may still be processed but the product quality is reduced. The
sticky dough causes problems in the dividing and moulding stages where dough sticks to the
DC
machinery, building up until the machine clogs and must be stopped. At this point the batch
will be lost and time is also lost to cleaning.

Determining the causes of dough stickiness is difficult as reliable measurement of stickiness

is hard to achieve and there is no universal measure for stickiness within the food industry.
Stickiness is usually determined subjectively based on the results of manually handling the
dough. Any measurements that are done are usually empirical and limited in applicability to
the conditions under which the test was performed. Reliable testing is difficult as, for example,
AW
in probe tests there are issues associated with consistently separating the dough
cleanly from the probe. There have also been problems distinguishing between surface and
bulk contributions in such tests.

Additives used in bakery products

Apart from major ingredient s like flour, fat , sugar , salt , ammonium bicarbonate and
others .Bakers should also be aware of numerous food additives available for bakery products
.

Emulsifiers( denoted by E numbers ):

GMS , poly sorbate , lecithin , CSL , SSL
Dough Conditioners
Calcium stearoyl lactylate , Sodium stearoyl lactylate ,Fumaric acid.
Leavening Agents
Sodium bicarbonate , Ammonium bicarbonate , Yeast , eggs , Gyceroyl monostrate
Preservatives
Anti-oxidants
Tocopherols (Vitamin E) ,Ascorbic acid and sodium ascorbate (Vitamin C) ,Lecithin ,Propyl
gallate
Anti-microbials
Sodium benzoate ,Benzoic acid ,Potassium sorbate ,Sorbic acid ,Natamycin ,Propylene glycol
,Butylene glycol ,Honey
Sweeteners
Sucrose ,Invert Sugar ,Fructose,High Fructose Corn Syrup ,Neotame ,Acesulfame-K
,Aspartame Sucralose ,Saccharin ,Lactose
Colors
Annatto ,Beta carotene ,Carmine ,Saffron ,Turmeric ,,llura Red ,Tartrazine ,Indigo ,Sodium
caseinate ,Calcium caseinate ,Ferrous Gluconate
Flavours
Acids
Acetic acid (vinegar) ,Citric acid ,Stearic acid ,Phosphoric acid ,Fumaric acid, Tartaric acid
Esters
Methyl Vanillin ,Ethyl Vanillin ,Denatonium benzoate
Chocolate
DC
Vanilla ,Monosodium glutamate (MSG) ,Hydrolyzed vegetable protein

Scent
Ethanol ,SD alcohol ,Stearyl alcohol ,Cetyl alcohol ,Glycerine (glycerol) ,Menthol

Fruits
Figs, Dates,Prunes , Cherries , Nuts , Coconuts , PeaNuts

Moisture Controller
AW
Glycerine (glycerol) ,Sorbitol ,Sodium PCA ,Propylene glycol ,Butylene glycol ,Panthenol

Stabilizer
Corn syrup (mostly glucose) ,Sodium caseinate ,Calcium caseinate ,Polyethylene glycol (PEG)
Polypropylene glycol (PPG) ,Lecithin.

Flour improvers and bleaching

Definition
A bread improver is a coherent, balanced combination of baking ingredients chosen from among
various manufacturing aids and raw ingredients (both cereal-based and other), mixed together
in an appropriate formula.
Five types of elements are used in baking ingredients
a. reducing agents to restructure gluten
b. oxidants to strengthen gluten for optimal gas retention
c. enzymes, including amylase, to release fermentable sugars that feed the yeast
d. emulsifiers to consolidate gluten for increased tolerance
e. various baking ingredients with specific effects: bean flour, malt, etc.

Better baking performance

Bread improvers boost dough enhancer and reinforce tolerance during the different
manufacturing stages.
They make the work safer and simplify production, enabling bakers to prepare quality,
standardized end products.
Bread improvers can also act on the following properties of dough:
a. rheological properties: by increasing the dough’s handling, strength or extensibility, so as
to better tolerate its time in the machine;
b. fermentation properties: by optimizing the yeast’s action through stabilized fermentation
and increased gas retention capacity.

Purpose for addition of bread improvers

Bread improvers simplify the work of bakers, allowing them to show off their full expertise.
They can be used with any technology, under the most widely varying production conditions. As
needed, they can:
DC
Smooth out the dough more quickly Enhance machinability
Boost tolerance in control proofing, especially for raw frozen and pre-cooked specialty breads
Increase yields.
This gives consumers the benefit of a product that is as attractive to the eye as it is to the
palate and that retains the mark of the baker’s expertise.

Flour bleaching agents

Is a food additive added to flour in order to make it appear whiter (freshly milled flour has a
AW
yellowish tint) and to oxidize the surfaces of the flour grains and help with developing of
gluten.

Major flour bleaching agents are:

a. Organic peroxides, namely benzoyl peroxide Benzoyl peroxide and hydrogen peroxide are
used as bleaching and "maturing" agents for treating flour to make its grain release gluten
more easily
b. Calcium peroxide
As a solid, it is relatively stable against decomposition. In contact with water however it
hydrolyzes with release of oxygen. Upon treatment with acid, it forms hydrogen peroxide.
Atmospheric oxygen, used during natural aging of flour
Use of chlorine, bromates, and peroxides is not allowed in the European Union.
Chlorinated cake flour improves the structure-forming capacity, allowing the use of dough
formulas with lower proportions of flour and higher proportions of sugar. Inbiscuit
manufacturing, use of chlorinated flour reduces the "spread" and provides a tighter surface.
The changes of functional properties of the flour proteins are likely to be caused by their
oxidation.
- In countries where bleached flour is prohibited, plain flour can be treated in a microwave oven
to produce similar chemical changes to the bleaching process. This improves the final texture
of baked goods made to recipes intended for bleached flours.

3. Oxidizing Agent
Oxidizing agents are added to flour to help with gluten development.
They may or may not also act as bleaching agents.
Originally flour was naturally aged through exposure to the atmosphere.
Oxidizing agents primarily affect sulfur-containing amino acids, ultimately helping to form
disulfide bridges between the gluten molecules.
The addition of these agents to flour will create stronger dough.
Common oxidizing agents are:

4. Flour reducing agent

Reducing agents help to weaken the flour by breaking the protein network. This will help with
various aspects of handling a strong dough. The benefits of adding these agents are reduced
mixing time, reduced dough elasticity, reduced proofing time, and improved machinability.
DC
Common reducing agents are:
L-cysteine (E920, E921; quantities in the tens of ppm range help soften the dough and thus
reduce processing time) fumaric acid, sodium bisulfate non-leavening yeast (ruptured cells).

5. Flour Enzymes
Enzymes are also used to improve processing characteristics. Yeast naturally produces both
amylases and proteinases, but additional quantities may be added to produce faster and more
complete reactions. Amylases break down the starch in flours into simple sugars, thereby
AW
letting yeast ferment quickly. Malt is a natural
Source of amylase
Proteases improve extensibility of the dough by degrading some of the gluten. Lipoxygenases
oxidize the flour.

UNIT - III
Bread

Major and minor ingredients of baking

MAJOR INGREDIENTS

The ingredients are: 1. Flour 2. Water 3. Yeast 4. Salt 5. Sugar 6. Milk 7. Egg 8.
Oil/Fat 9. Bread Improvers.

1.Flour:
It is the main ingredient used in making breads. Usually strong flours are used in bread making.
Wholewheat flours have lesser concentration of gluten as the bran content is increased. This
causes a weaker structure in the bread. Since the bran particles are slightly abrasive, they cut
the gluten fibres resulting in a loaf with a smaller crumb.

2.Water:
Water is the most commonly used liquid in bread making. It moistens the flour and helps in
forming the dough. It also aids in the baking process. Water performs the following three
main functions in the bread dough.

1. Helps hydrate and moisten the insoluble proteins.

2. Disperses the yeast amongst the entire dough.
3. Binds the flour and other ingredients into a dough.
It is observed that the water content in the dough greatly affects the rate of fermentation.
The speed of fermentation is greater in ferment and dough process as compared to sponge and
dough process, which have an increasing level of hydration.
DC
AW
3.Yeast:
Yeast is a single cell microorganism which causes the leavening in the dough. It converts the
natural sugar in the flour into tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide that are trapped in the dough.
During baking these bubbles expand to give the texture and lightness to the dough.

Yeast is available in two forms—dry and compressed. The ideal temperature for yeast to act is
25°C. The primary function of yeast is to change sugar into carbon dioxide so that the dough is
aerated.

4.Salt:
The main function of salt is to control the action of yeast as it slows down the fermentation
process. It should be mixed with flour for best results. It also provides flavour to the bread. It
also affects the quality of the crumb, crust, and colour of the baked product.

So salt mainly performs the following functions:

i. Imparts flavour;
ii. Gives stability to gluten;
iii. Controls the rate of fermentation;
iv. Retains and of moisture; and
v. Affects the crust colour and crumb, due to control on the rate of fermentation.
More salt or less salt will adversely affect the final product as shown in Table

5.Sugar:
The main function of sugar is to act as food for yeast. It helps in developing flavour and colour.
Sugar is the primary food that the yeast feeds on to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. With

DC
the exception of lactose, yeast can break down all the other sugars present in the dough,
either naturally in the flour or as an addition of sugar, mainly sucrose or sometimes, maltose.
AW
6.Milk:
It makes the bread whiter and softer, and provides moisture and a distinct flavour. Milk also
has a physical effect on bread in the form of the tightening effect of gluten by the action of
‘casein’ or the milk protein. However boiling or pasteurization neutralizes the effect to a great
extent.

7.Egg:
Eggs are used for richness and to give lightness and colour. Eggs are again rich in protein and
hence will tighten the gluten strands, but this effect gets balanced, as the fat in a yolk helps
to soften the gluten as well. The use of eggs will yield softer bread. In many types of bread
where a hard structure is required like hard rolls, one does not use eggs in the recipe.

8.Oil/Fat:
It is used to provide flavour and softness to the texture. Different kinds of fats are used for
different breads such as olive oil for focacia (Italian bread). Fats have a physical effect on
breads rather than any chemical reaction. Fat being a shortening agent reduces the toughness
of the gluten and mellows the final product. Fat also has lubricating effect on the fine gluten
strands giving extra volume to the final product.

Effects of Fat:
The effects of using fat are as follows:
i. It increases the nutritious value of the bread.
ii. It reduces elasticity, softens the crust and the crumb.
iii. It helps retain moisture in the baked product, thereby keeping it moist.
iv. It increases volume if used extensively.
v. Fats such as butter and lard give flavour to the product.
vi. If used in large amounts, it retards fermentation.

9.Bread Improvers:
Flour is of variable quality and hence it becomes necessary at times to add bread improvers to

DC
the dough to bring the final product to a set standard. Bread improvers may be divided into
three main categories.
These include:
i. Those of mineral nature, used by the miller.
ii. Those of organic nature, mainly enriching agents.
iii. Those of the mineral and organic categories which are also foods for yeast. Mineral
improvers are popular because they increase the yield of the bread by necessitating the use of
extra water. Some of the mineral improvers have a slight drying effect on the crumb.
AW
MINOR INGREDIENTS

1.Salt
- Is purified table or cooking salt.The salt to be used should be clean and refined.
Impurities presentences refined alt affect. The taste of the production and also
Increase absorption of moisture.

2.Spices and Seed

Aromatic vegetable products commercially usually available in finely ground
State. Spices contribute to the taste and smell and help improve the quality of a
Product.

3. Flavourings
Solutions for the ethyl alcohol or other solvent. The base of these flavours are
Extracted essential oils of the fruit or bean or an imitation of the same.
Avoid using too much flavour. An excessive use may result to undesirable
Characteristic of baked products.
4.Cocoa and Chocolate

Widely used in production and finishing of cakes, pastries, pies and cookies. They
Produce for variety and supply body acid bulk to the cake mix or icing.

Role of ingredients used in bread making

Baking Powder
Made from Cream of tartar and starch, baking powder is a leavening agent, which causes your
batter to rise. It has a built-in acidic ingredient, so you don’t need to add anything else (unlike
with baking soda). Too much baking powder results in a bitter tasting product, while too little
results in a tough cake with little volume.

DC
Baking Soda
Baking soda is pure sodium bicarbonate, and needs to be paired with an acidic ingredient like
honey, chocolate, or yogurt. Like baking powder, it’s a leavening agent. Use too much, and
you’ll have a soapy, coarse cake.

Butter
As a solid fat, butter is better suited for baking than any other fat product. Butter in
particular adds flavour, with a melting point just below body temperature, which is why some
AW
cookies and baked goods tend to “melt in your mouth.” It also helps in leavening and adds
moisture.

Cornstarch
This ingredient has multiple purposes depending on the type of dish it’s being used in. Corn-
starch is usually either a thickener or a binder, but can also be an anti-caking agent. It’s great
to use in gluten-free cooking instead of flour to thicken sauces, custards, or cake fillings.

Eggs
Eggs do a lot in baking, but most importantly they’re a leavening agent (adding volume), and
are a binder, meaning they keep the finished product together. You can use the whole egg, for
flavour, binding, thickening, or glazing, or you can use egg whites and egg yolks for separate
things. Egg whites are a drying agent, and add moisture and stability. Egg yolks contribute to
texture and flavour.

Flour
Flour holds ingredients together in baking. When flour protein is combined with moisture and
heat, it develops into gluten. Different types of flours have different levels of protein, which
are suitable for various baked goods.
Milk
The protein in milk softens, contributes moisture, and adds colour and flavour to baked goods.
It’s a double-whammy in terms of function, as it gives the dough or batter strength and
structure, as well as adds tenderness, flavour and moisture.

Salt
Salt does a couple different things in baking. For one, it helps preserve the colour and flavour
of flour. In bread, it controls of the fermentation rate of yeast, and strengthens the gluten
protein in dough. Though it seems salt is out of place in sweet recipes, if you skip it, your
product will taste very bland, as it also enhances flavour.

Shortening
Shortening is just 100%, solid fat made from vegetable oils, almost exclusively used in baking.
When you use shortening instead of butter in baking, you’ll get a softer and more tender,
though taller and less flavourful, product.

Sugar
In any given recipe, sugar is performing a number of functions you’re probably not aware of.
DC
For one, it adds texture, like keeping your baked foods soft and moist. It is also
yet another leavener, though working in conjunction with fat, eggs, and liquid ingredients.
Sugar sweetens by the sugar caramelizing in the recipe, and adds that “crunch” to the crusts
of cakes and cookies.
AW
Bread making process

Straight dough

History The straight dough method became popular after the discovery and later mass
production of baker's yeast, as well as the mass production of mixing machines. Straight
dough was simpler than sponge and dough, took less time and effort, and was considered
superior for commercial purposes. Straight dough is a single-mix process of making bread.
The dough is made from all fresh ingredients, and they are all placed together and combined in
one kneading or mixing session. After mixing, a bulk fermentation rest of about 1 hour or
longer occurs before division. It is also called the direct dough method.

Process
In general, the process steps for making straight dough are as follows:
 Digital scale

 Weigh ingredients: This is also called scaling. If more yeast is chosen for the initial mixing
and it is viable, faster fermentation occurs. If too much yeast is used the result is a noticeable
yeast flavour.

 Mixing: The ingredients are all placed in a mixing bowl at once and combined together.A
variation of this technique is to add ingredients sequentially. This mixing process may be done
by hand kneading or by machine. Once fermentation has commenced, it will continue until the

DC heat of the oven kills the yeast during baking

Dough, resting and rising in bulk fermentation
AW
Some amount of time later

 Bulk fermentation: After mixing, the dough is allowed to rest in a bowl or container of large
enough size to accommodate dough expansion, usually in a warm location of about 75–80 °F
(24–27 °C). The container is often covered so the dough remains in a humid environment, ideal
is 74-77% relative humidity. Without some humidity the dough surface will tend to dry and
develop a skin. As the dough rests, it will expand in volume due to the carbon dioxide created as
it ferments.

 Make-up
Dough in the make up process

 Dividing: This is also called scaling or portioning. The bulk dough is divided to smaller, final
weights. This step is used when making more than one loaf of bread, or many rolls.

 Pre-shaping or rounding: The dough pieces are made into oval, cylinder, or round shapes,
depending upon the shape's appropriateness to the final product.
 Bench or intermediate proofing: A rest period of 8 to 30minutes follows which allows the
dough to relax, easing shaping.

 Shaping: Each piece of dough is manipulated into its desired final shape, and either placed on
proofing trays or panned. It is also called, makeup and panning or moulding and panning.

Proofing

Ready to bake or score

 Proofing [or, outside USA, Proving]: The final fermentation rest before baking. Like bulk


DCfermentation, proofing is ideally done in a humidity- and temperature-controlled environment.
It may be performed at bulk-fermentation temperatures, or temperatures up to about
95–100 °F (35–38 °C), and with 83-88% relative humidity.[21] Yeast thrives within the
temperature range of 70–95 °F (21–35 °C), and within that range, warmer temperatures
result in faster baker's yeast fermentation times. The proofing dough rests and ferments until
it reaches about 85% of its final volume.

Scoring: If desired, proofed dough is scored with a lame or razor to slash the top of the
AW
dough to direct oven-spring expansion. It is also used for its decorative effect.

 Baking: The proofed dough is loaded into a hot oven for baking. During the first few minutes,
the remaining rise will occur in the dough and is known as oven spring . Starch
gelatinization begins at 105 °F (41 °C), the yeast dies at 140 °F (60 °C), and the baking is
finished when the product reaches an internal temperature of 208–210 °F (98–99 °C).

 Cooling: Once the bread is fully baked, it is removed to racks to cool. Bread is sliced once it
has cooled to 95–105 °F (35–41 °C).

Digital stick thermometer

 Bread spoilage
Once out of the oven, bread begins to stale. The manifestations of staling are the toughness or
leathery nature of the crust along with the development of the dry, harsh texture of the
crumb and a stale flavour. The basic cause of staling is the transformation of starch from one
form to another at temperatures below 55°C. The starch becomes more crystalline below this
temperature. The change in the form of starch results in the binding of less water leading to
rapid hardening, and to the shrinkage of the starch granules away from the gluten skeleton
with which they are associated, with the consequent development of crumbliness. These
changes occur in bread even though it is sealed in a moisture/vapour-tight wrap. It is believed
the changes in starch during staling are more due to the amylopectin portion of starch than the
amylose portion.

Amylose is insolubilized irreversibly by retrogradation during baking and hence cannot influence
the staling that occurs subsequently. Amylopectin undergoes a heat reversible association
resulting in staling. There are those who consider that both amylose and amylopectin are
DC
involved in staling. Staling can be reversed by heating. Storage of bread at refrigerator
temperature causes staling at a maximum rate.

Microbiological spoilage: Breads undergo microbiological spoilage due to the growth of moulds
and undesirable bacteria. At the high temperature of baking, mould spores are destroyed.
However, the moulds that deposit on bread during the handling process develop during storage
and affect the quality of bread. Mould infection can be prevented by the addition of sodium or
calcium propionate.
AW
Some bacteria which are members of the Bacillus mesentericus group, if present in dough, are
not destroyed in the interior of bread during baking and develop in bread later, bringing about a
change in colour, texture and disintegration of the crust, which is known as "rope."
Propionates also eliminate ropiness in bread.

Bread staling

Bread staling is predominantly a process of chemical and physical change in the baked bread
which reduces it palatability by impacting its taste and also makes it dry and leathery in texture.
The term does not cover the changes that result from the action of spoilage organisms.

Physical and chemical changes continue to happen within the bread well past the cooling phase.
The bread continues to lose moisture and get dry. However, drying of bread should not be
confused with staling although drying is one of the factors which accelerate reactions leading
to bread staling.
The most important factor that influences bread staling is the starching effect. Starching
effect is when the starch undergoes gelatinization or swelling when heated in the presence of
water. In this state, starch links with and is deposited onto coagulated gluten to form the
crumb structure. This is an amorphous and unstable stage.
As time passes, the starch gradually changes into its original crystalline form. This change is
evident in the progressive hardening of the crumb and the corresponding loss of its softness and
elasticity also reducing its flavour.
On the other hand, after coagulation, the gluten begins to form a gel, which in turn begins to
evolve irreversibly to a harder stage. However, if the gluten percentage is high, it slows down
the effect of staling.
These evolutionary changes that occur during staling of bread influence many other factors
like changes to dough constituents or modification in production technology.
Slowing Down Staling in Bread
Staling cannot be avoided as it is a natural process of ageing in bread however it can be slowed
down by altering certain physical and chemical components in bread. Flour is the major
DC
ingredient in bread and given below are some attributes of flour which can slow down the
process of staling:
- An above average protein/Gluten level.
- A damaged starch level that is slightly higher than average, enabling better water
absorption and helping the amylases to achieve a higher maltose production.
- A slightly higher than average amylase content.
AW
Bread packaging

The principal function of food packaging is to minimize reactions that affect the stability of
the product. Mold spoilage is common in the bakery industry and in many cases; mold growth
determines the product shelf-life of both high-moisture and intermediate-moisture baked.
Baking destroys most molds.

Cause of deterioration and their prevention for bakery products

Bakery food Cause of deterioration Prevention

Bread mproper hygienic conditions during Proper hygienic conditions during
production Fungal growth Staling production y using modified
atmospheres containing 70±100% CO2
and 0±30% N2 or by removing O2
 High H2O barrier material
Crispness Oxidation of the fat Proper moisture barrier in the
fraction Fat bloom and Breakage package or O2 atmospheres with high
O2 barrier packaging
materials, Non-translucent packaging
materials
Packaging materials used for cereal based food packaging

Food application Packaging materials

Fresh bread Waxed paper
Nitrocellulose coated cellophane (MS)
Low density polyethylene (PE-LD)
Polypropylene (PP)
Bread bags, Bread crumbs Linear low density polyethylene
Cellulose/Polyethylene/Cellulose
Polyethylene/Polypropylene
Paper/ Polyvinilydene chloride/Polyethylene
DC
Flexible packaging
Flexible packaging is the oldest form of packaging. It is produced by converting paper, film,
or foil, alone or in combination, for use in consumer and industrial applications. Most flexible
packaging is printed. It includes casting, extruding, metallizing, coating, printing, embossing,
slitting, laminating, folding, sheeting, or heat sealing of flexible or semirigid materials,
converted from films, foils, and paper.
AW
Wrapping Styles
There are several popular wrapping styles, which are applied widely to a variety of biscuits (of
all shapes and sizes) and other bakery products.

Endfold Wrapping
This wrapping style is the classic, traditional biscuit wrapper. A portion of biscuits standing on
edge is roll wrapped or fold wrapped into a heat sealable film. The longitudinal packet seal is
sealed tightly in a fin seal style. The packet ends are folded neatly and heat-sealed.

Pillow Pack Wrapping

This is the standard wrapping style for smaller biscuit packs (snack packs/single serve packs)
containing one or more piles of biscuits. In addition, pillow pack wrapping is used for bigger
packets with products standing on edge (Slug wrapping) as well. In this configuration, it often
serves as a primary wrapper, to be overwrapped by a carton to improve presentation and
acceptance.

Biscuits
 Classification of biscuits
Based on dough characteristics, biscuits are classified into:
● short or soft dough biscuit
● hard dough
● crackers (fermented or non-fermented). Depending on the method of production, soft dough
biscuits are further classified as rotary molded or wire cut. The difference in the viscoelastic
properties of soft and hard dough is mainly due to the variation in the level of sugar and fat as
well as mixing conditions. Hard dough normally contains a lower level of fat and/or sugar,
while short dough contains a higher amount of fat and sugar. Biscuits are also classified on
the basis of taste into three categories.

1. Sweet biscuits – produced mainly from soft or short dough’s and with a high water and fat
DC
content.
2. Semi-sweet biscuits – also known as tea biscuits. They are produced from hard dough and
are characterized with having low fat and sugar
3. Salt biscuits – crackers or puffed biscuits are included in this category. These biscuits are
prepared from generally fermented dough or even unfermented hard dough and have a low
AW
amount of fat and sugar. However, the apparent fat is usually considered high, as these
biscuits are usually layered or brushed with oil or oil sprayed. This chapter discusses the role
of individual ingredients, the manufacturing processes of biscuits, and aspects of their quality.
An update on recent developments in healthy biscuit formulation has also been provided.
Crackers and fermented biscuits have not been discussed, as they need a separate discussion. It
is important to discuss the role of various ingredients to better understand the biscuit baking
process.

Ingredients used and role of ingredients in manufacture of biscuits

Baking industry is the most stable sector in the food manufacturing industries. The principal
basis for most products in this range is wheat flour. Addition of water and various other
ingredients give us variety of products like cookies, crackers, cakes, pastries and biscuits.
Biscuits are flat, crisp, baked good, whereas cookies are softer and thicker. Cracker means
biscuits of a low sugar and fat content, frequently bland or savory. These types of flour
confections are palatable, easy to carry and don’t require further preparation before
consumption and thus they are considered as staple snacks.

Characteristics

Biscuit is a low moisture bakery product. Moisture content of biscuit is typically below 4%
depending upon its weight, thickness and shape. Biscuit dough can be made from soft wheat
flour with a high amount of sugar (25-55%) and shortening (20-60%). They are classified
based on the way the dough is placed on the baking band e.g. rotary molded, wire-cut, cutting
machine, etc.

Ingredients

1 Flour

DC
Soft wheat flour is the main component in most recipes. Wheat flour consists of 65 - 75%
starch and 7- 16% protein. When water is added, during the makeup of dough, starch absorbs
a significant amount of water and may act as filler in the continuous protein network with the
proteins. During baking, starch granules get gelatinized, which is a major part of the dough.
Cookies, crackers flours are normally not treated with additives. For cookies to be premium
quality, soft wheat flour containing 8 to 10% protein and less than 0.4% ash content is ideally
AW
suited.

2 Water

Water affects textural properties of baked products. Water acts as a plasticizer, and the
amount of water used is adjusted to produce a batter or dough of acceptable consistency for
processing. Water is needed for hydrating the proteins, gelatinizing the starch, making
leavening agent function, activating the enzymes, dissolving sugar and salt, as well as acting
as major heat transfer mechanism during baking through evaporation and condensation.

3 Fat

Fat provides shortness character to the products, like soft, pleasant and crumbly texture. Fats
and oils are used in dough and batters, in surface sprays and in cream fillings and coatings such
as chocolates. Bakery fats are often premixed with or used in conjunction with emulsifiers.
The function of emulsifier is to promote formation and stabilization of water/fat/air emulsions.

4 Sugar
 Sugar is most important ingredient after flour in soft wheat products such as biscuits, cookies,
cakes, etc. Apart from providing sweetness to the product, sweeteners provide one or more of
the following functions: tenderizing, texture, yeast nutrient and fermentation control,
stabilizing, bulking agent, humactancy, flavour, crust colour and shelf-life extension.
Sucrose, corn syrup solids, invert sugar, honey, glucose syrup and certain permitted intense
sweeteners are used in manufacture of soft wheat products.

5 Salt

Salt is added to dough as a seasoning or as flavour enhancer. Salt also inhibits yeast growth
and thus help in controlling the fermentation.

6 Other ingredients

 Various other ingredients are used in the manufacture of biscuits such as leavening agents,


DC emulsifiers, chocolates, egg products, dairy products, fat replacers, spices, flavours, colours,
icing, etc.
Baking powder is widely used for leavening of the cookies and biscuits mixture. It controls the
spread and imparts lightness to the product. Excess use of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)
than recommended may impart alkaline flavour to the end product. Ammonium bicarbonate
should be used in products which are quite dry after baking, otherwise ammonium odour will be
AW
retained if the product is moist. Baking soda is combination of sodium bicarbonate and an acid
salt. During baking, in presence of moisture, gas will evolve which helps in leavening of
product.
 Baking powder are of three kinds:
1. Fast acting : Most of the CO2 is released during bench operations and very little gas is
released during baking.
2. Slow acting : All the gas is released during baking.
3. Double acting : This is most widely used baking powder by the bakers. This type of baking
soda releases part of gas during bench operations and part of the gas during baking.
 Milk solids have a binding action on the flour proteins. When milk solids are used in large
amount, they cause less spread of the cookies and biscuits.
 Eggs, if added, give structure, impart flavour and taste. If it is used in large amounts, it may
result in giving biscuits and cookies a rise rather than spread. Egg yolk produces a tender
cookies than whole egg.
 Dough Mixing
Dough mixing is an important process in bread making, which directly affects the product
quality. It both homogenizes and hydrates the ingredients in dough.
Most bread uses hard wheat flour, which has dense particles that slow water
penetration. During mixing, the particles rub against each other, exposing the next layer
for hydration.
All the mixing machines available today are designed to incorporate both the mixing and the
kneading processes. Kneading is the development of the dough gluten structure after the
homogenized distribution of the ingredients.

Definition
DC
Bread dough requires a method by which the ingredients are homogeneously mixed and hydrated,
resulting in a well-developed gluten network. The mixing required could be viewed as the
energy necessary to develop the dough. Most bakers use the standard ‘stretch to a window pane’
test to determine proper development. This requires an extensible dough that would stretch to
a thin film, without breaking. Final temperature of dough is recommended not to exceed 80oF
(27oC) when it exits the mixer.
AW
A baker performing a ‘stretch to a window pane’ test

Function
In bread dough, both the dough gluten network development and dough temperature are
established after mixing. Times are varied depending on the speed of mixer, mixer design,
dough size, dough temperature, water absorption of the flour, etc. Dough mixing need to meet
the following requirements:

7. Disperse the recipe ingredients uniformly.

8. Enable full hydration of these ingredients (especially flour protein).
9. Provide the necessary energy for gluten development.
10.Incorporate air bubbles within the dough to provide gas nuclei for the carbon dioxide generated
from yeast fermentation.
11. Incorporate oxygen for oxidation and yeast activity.
12.Provide well-developed dough in a suitable form for subsequent processing.
 Characteristics determined by the mixing stage
If the dough is under or over mixed, the handling properties of the dough will be influenced,
which results in lower volume bread.
If the temperature isn’t right, the fermentation rate will be faster or slower and that will
influence the volume of the bread and the colour of the crust.
If the length of time is not proper, the bread texture and crumb will also be influenced.

Different stages
7. Pick up: dough is sticky, cold and lumpy
8. Initial development: dough is getting warmer, smoother and drier
9. Clean up: dough is at maximum stiffness and comes together as one mass. The colour will also
change from yellowish to more white
10.Final development: dough is at its correct temperature and handling quality. A gluten film can
be easily obtained by extending a piece of dough
11. Let-down: dough is too warm and sticky. It lacks elasticity and has too much flow
12.Breakdown: dough is beginning to liquefy





DCTypes of mixing machines
There are the following common machines used in bakery industry:
Spiral mixer: in which a spiral-shaped mixing tool rotates on a vertical axis.
High speed and twin spiral mixer: where a high level of work can be inputed to the dough in a
short time.
Horizontal mixer: where the beaters are driven horizontally within the bowl and fixed to one or
two shafts.
Low speed: where mixing is carried out over an extended period of time and the commonly used
AW
slow mixing system includes twin reciprocating arm mixer and oblique axis fork mixer.
 Continuous mixing: where the ingredients are incorporated at one end of the extruder, and the
dough leaves the mixer at the other end in a continuous flow

SOFT DOUGH BISCUITS

Short doughs, which are soft enough to be just pourable, are called as soft doughs. Pieces are
formed by extrusion in a similar way and in the same machine as wire cut and rout biscuits but
nozzles rather die holes are used to channel the dough. The dough is pressed out either
continuously or intermittently on the oven band that may be raised up and then dropped if
discrete deposits are requires. As the band drops, the dough pieces break away from the nozzle.
The biscuits produced in this way are usually rich in fat or based on egg whites whipped to a
stable form, the dough must be very short to allow it to break away easily as it is pulled away
from the nozzle.

The nozzles through which the dough is extruded are usually indented to give a pattern and
relief to the deposits. Also by rotating the nozzles, swirls, circles and other attractive shapes
can be developed. In the case Spritz biscuits, the nozzles are oscillated from side to side during
continuous extrusion. This forms a ribbon of dough. Depositing allows not very fancy shapes to
be formed, but also by synchronizing two or more depositors, different colored and flavoured
doughs can be combined. Jams and Jelly can be added on the top of dough deposit.
Typical recipes for soft dough biscuits
Deposited biscuits
Ingredients I II
(g) (g)
Flour 100 100
Butler (salted) 54 70
Fine sugar 35 40
Fresh eggs 1 1
Sodium bicarbonate 0.2 1.0
Biscuits dust 20
Salt 0.7 0.5
Water 7.5 6.0
Flavors Yes no
Invert syrup 1
Sodium pyrophosphate 1
DC
Ingredients
Nearly all these biscuits are luxury types. The production rates are usually low and the
ingredients are expensive. Butler is widely used also eggs, grounds almonds, coconut flour and
cocoa. But contrast with wire cut types, coarse particle size ingredients are avoided as these
block or interfere with the smooth functioning of the depositing nozzles. The consistency of
the dough is critical so the temperature of the ingredients is important. A temperature of
about 170 c is recommended for butter.
AW
Dough mixing
As the dough of pourable consistency is required, detachable bowl type mixer is used. The
mixing times are quite short and relatively gentle. It is usually best to cream up the butter with
sugar, eggs, milk and water and to add the flour later with a minimum mixing to achieve a
homogenous mash. Dough temperature is important to maintain consistency and correct fat
dispersion. It may be necessary to cool the flour and certainly any water and milk and should be
very cold. Dough temperature between10-15 0 c should be aimed at.

Dough piece forming

As already stated the dough is pressed out through nozzles on to the oven band which may be
raised up and then dropped if discrete deposits. As the band drops pieces break away from the
nozzle. The nozzles through which dough is extruded are usually required to give a pattern and
relief to the deposits. Thus it may involve more than one type of nozzle on a single depositing
machine located one after another or more commonly a series of machines located one after
another and with synchronized action.

HARD DOUGH BISCUITS

In hard doughs the gluten is partially developed and to some extent extensible depending on the
percentage of sugar and fat in the composition. In this category then biscuits that can be
included are: Water biscuits, Sweet gluco biscuits, Semi sweet Marie type or cabin biscuits and
Some of the specialty biscuits having slightly higher percentage of shortening
Water biscuits
Water biscuits have a simple recipe mostly of flour, fat, salt and water in the ratio of
100:6.5:1:29. The dough is under developed and crumbly or in balls after mixing.
They may be then given the conditioning period before sheeting when some form of proteolytic
activity mallows the gluten to make it more extensible. A dough sheet is formed which after
laminating is cut and baked in a very hot oven Water biscuits are usually round and may be as
large 3:S 70 mm in diameter. As longitude shrinkage occurs in the oven, the cutter must be
oval and the shape is controlled by the relaxation of the dough before cutter. Mostly Jewish
community prepares water biscuits. No flavor is added in biscuits.
Gluco biscuits
In India gluco biscuits are manufactured in the largest quantities and because of lower cost it is
most popular among children. A typical recipe of these biscuits is given below.
Receipe:
Wheat flour 100 parts
DC Sugar
Salt
SMS
SMP
Shortening
Invert syrup
Ammonium
Water
33 kg
1.1kg
4.2g
l.5kg
24kg
15 kg
0.6
10 liter
AW
Flavour Vanilla.
Preparation
1. Wheat flour is passed through a sifter removes all the dirt, stones etc.
2. Sugar is ground and fat is incorporated in molten form
3. Mixing: Ammonium bicarbonate, sugar syrup and water are mixed thoroughly in a high-
speed mixer for a couple of minutes. Shortening and flavour are creamed for a few minutes. In
dry mixing, maida, salt, sugar, SMS paste, SMP and vitamins premix are mixed. The mixing
time is about 3-5 minutes
4. Shaping and conveying to oven. The Rotary molder is used for shaping operation.
This operation involved feed roll rubber roll and die roll and extraction belt and panning table
belt.
5. Baking: The biscuits baked in an oven that has different temperature zone e.g. 1200C,
3500C and 150°C.
6. Cooling: In cooling, two cooling conveyors are used. The cooling time is around 4 minutes.
Packing: The biscuits are packed in BOPP or any other moisture proof packaging materials.

Packaging Materials Biscuits

A wide range of packaging materials is used to pack biscuits. Since paper cartons, tins have
lost out to flexible packaging materials as the packaging medium, focus is now on the latter. A
variety of flexible packaging materials are used for packing biscuits due to advantages such as
functionality, lower cost, printability, light weight, savings in freight and other such factors.

Flexible Packaging Materials: These are used as wrappers, pre-formed pouches or form-fill
pouches. The oldest flexible film to be used was cellophane because of its excellent gas barrier
properties and heat sealability.MST, MSAT, Coated Cellophane (MXXT) offer excellent
moisture barrier, heat sealability and gloss. Cellophane became less popular when it became too
expensive and with the introduction of new materials with better properties. Another material,
which is widely used is Biaxial Oriented Polypropylene film commonly known as OPP. For less
demanding applications OPP monofilm is used while for higher quality products, duplex OPP or
OPP combinations (pearlised or metallised ) such as OPP/PE, OPP/PET etc. are used.

Thermoformed Plastic Trays: Thermoformed plastic trays of poly estyrene or PVC with
multiple cavities are used to pack assorted biscuits, pastries, cookies etc. They are closed with
DC
a snap-on lid or overwrapped or shrink-wrapped or sealed with a lidding material. The products
rest nicely in the compartments and make a good presentation. Use of active packaging with
oxygen absorbent and antimicrobial properties for bakery products helps to significantly
increase the shelf-life and maintain the original quality of the product. PVDC coated nylon,
polyester, LDPE, PP, ethylene vinyl alcohol, polystyrene are examples of flexible packaging
material used with active sachet.

The pack shape will also have a bearing on the manner in which it can be displayed on the shelf
AW
in the shop. Round column packs tend to roll off, while packs with fine end seals will typically
interlock with the packs adjacent. It is not easy to pile simple bags well for the display, while
bags with block bottoms allow for only a single layer of packs to be placed on the shelf.

Collation
The main aim of packaging biscuits and cookies in packs is to collate the correct number
or weight of product for sale. The biscuits or cookies may be contained single in a pack, in a
jumble, single in a column, or side by side in a series of short column or in another arrangement
that is less common.
Labelling

The proportion of biscuits that are purchased on impulse tends to be very high. As such, it is
important to ensure that the pack has an attractive color and design, and sufficiently describes
the contents. Many markets demand that the “sell by” or “best before” dates are printed onto
each pack as a way of reassuring customers that the biscuits or cookies are safe and pleasant
for consumption.

Protection from Deterioration

Use a barrier to prevent the biscuits or cookies from picking up moisture from the atmosphere
 that could lead to their deterioration.

Change in flavor can typically occur due to chemical reactions that occur in the ingredients,
especially the fats. Fat oxidation can cause rancidity, with this being promoted greatly by
light, and in particular, ultra violet light. Packaging materials may result in the retardation
of the effects of chemical change through the exclusion or reduction of the light intensity and
exclusion of oxygen.

Mechanical Protection

Biscuits and cookies tend to be very fragile and will lose a lot of their appeal when they get
broken. A tight group of cookies or biscuits offers a lot of self protection, while also aiding
in rigidity. Specially formed trays, base cards or corrugated paper folds help to reduce the
chance of breakages in the event that the pack is knocked or it vibrates.
Cavanna Wrapper
There is a comprehensive range of biscuit and cookie packaging and wrapping machines
available on the market today. These machines are of a superior quality, long lasting and
designed to function with utmost precision. The units come in a variety of models to meet diverse


DCpackaging and wrapping needs of biscuit and cookie factories.

Potential Problems and Solutions

Air Left in the Pack – When the biscuit or cookie packs emerge from the production line with
air in the packs, this could be as a result of using low quality packaging machines. This should
be avoided so as to ensure that the product packs are airtight to increase their life.
Broken Product – Broken biscuits and cookies in the packaging may be as a result of choosing
AW
the wrong type of packaging for your product. For instance, the more brittle products should
be packaged in firm tight wraps as opposed to floppy film packs that may not protect the
cookies and biscuits from breakages.
 Unattractive Packaging – With increasingly demanding legislation, significant amounts of
essential information has to be clearly displayed on packs in a form that is readable. This may
sometimes detract from the design aspects of the pack that are considered attractive.
 Deteriorating Product – Deterioration of the visual and eating qualities of biscuits occurs in
form of moisture pick up, and in few cases, moisture loss. Rancidity and the development of
off flavors are other characteristics of deteriorating biscuits and cookies.

UNIT - IV

Cakes
Classification of cakes

There are many different types of cakes and many different ways of dividing them into various
categories, but professional bakers categorize cakes by ingredients and mixing method.
Depending on how the batter is prepared, you will find that the final texture varies. Below is a
comprehensive but by no means exhaustive list of the basic types of cakes.
1. Butter Cake
acebook
interest
F
P
Any recipe for cake that begins "cream butter and sugar" is a butter cake. After the creaming,
you add eggs to aerate the batter a bit, flour (and sometimes another liquid, like milk) to give
it structure and texture, and baking powder or baking soda to ensure that it rises in the oven.
Different types of cake batter within the butter cake family include chocolate, white, yellow
and marble.
2. Pound Cake
Pound cake is a relative of butter cake. It's so called because it can be measured as a matter of
proportion: a pound of butter, a pound of sugar, a pound of eggs, and a pound of flour. In
some pound cake recipes, see the eggs separated and the egg whites whipped and folded into the
batter, to leaven it.

3. Sponge Cake
That's a sponge cake and there are several different types of sponge cake. which will be called
different things wherever you are.

4. Genoise Cake
DC
In Italy and France, a sponge cake is called genoise; in genoise, whole eggs are beaten with
sugar until they're thick and ribbony, and then flour (and sometimes butter) is added and the
batter is baked; the result is wonderful baked in a round cake pan and simply frosted, but
genoise is also pliable enough to be baked in a jelly-roll pan and rolled up into a roulade.

5. Biscuit Cake
Biscuit (always pronounced the French way as bees-kwee) cakes are another type of sponge cake
containing both egg whites and yolks, but, unlike genoise, the whites and yolks are whipped
AW
separately and then folded back together. This creates a light batter that's drier than a
genoise but holds its shape better after mixing. For this reason, it's often used for piped
shapes such as ladyfingers. If baked in a tube pan like an angel food cake, it makes a very
chewy sponge cake that was popular in the early 20th century but has since fallen out of favor.

6. Angel Food Cake

Angel food cakes are made with egg whites alone and no yolks. The whites are whipped with
sugar until very firm before the flour is gently folded in, resulting in a snowy-white, airy,
and delicate cake that marries beautifully with fruit. Most angel food cakes have a spongy,
chewy quality derived from their relatively high sugar content and the absence of egg yolks.

7. Chiffon Cake
This fairly recent American creation was invented by a salesman who sold the recipe to General
Mills, which spread the recipe through marketing materials in the 1940s and 1950s. A classic
chiffon cake is kind of a cross between an oil cake and a sponge cake. It includes baking powder
and vegetable oil, but the eggs are separated and the whites are beaten to soft peaks before
being folded into the batter.
8. Baked Flourless Cake
These include baked cheesecakes and flourless chocolate cakes. For easy removal, they're often
made in a spring form pan, though some can also be made in regular round layer cake pans.
Often the filled pan is placed in a larger pan that's half-filled with water to insulate the
delicate, creamy cake from the oven's strong bottom heat, which might give the baked cake a
porous rather than silky texture. This is called baking the cake in a water bath.

9. Unbaked Flourless Cake

acebook
interest
F
P
These types of cakes are typically molded in a dessert ring or springform pan then simply
chilled before unmolding. They include unbaked cheesecakes and mousse cakes. They often have
a crust or bottom layer that's baked before the mousse is added. Sometimes other layers, such
as genoise or biscuit, are alternated with the mousse.

10. Carrot Cake

acebook
interest
F
P
Carrot cake uses the leavening practices of butter cake, but instead of butter uses a neutral oil
like vegetable or canola oil. For this reason, it will keep a little longer than butter cakes but
can sometimes come out on the greasy side.
DC
11. Red Velvet Cake
acebook
interest
F
P
Butter cake, though it is frequently made with oil instead of butter. In addition, cocoa is added
to the cake batter to create the distinct red velvet flavor — originally it was a reaction between
buttermilk and the raw cocoa widely available at the time of red velvet's inception that caused a
ruddy-hued crumb.
AW
Ingredients used and role of ingredients in manufacture of cakes

The basic ingredients of a cake are: flour, fat, sugar, eggs, liquid, salt, and leavening
agents.

Ingredients
Flour
Flour creates the basic structure for the entire cake. Wheat flour is the most popular form,
though it is not used in cheesecakes or gluten free cakes.

Gluten is a protein in flour that provides a way for the cake to bind to itself. It creates a web
that traps and seals in air bubbles. The more gluten that is formed, the tougher the cake is.
Due to this, the less gluten formation, the better, as long as the cake sets correctly.

The difference between cake flour and all-purpose flour is the gluten content. All-purpose
flour has higher gluten content at 11% than cake flour does at 8%.

Fats and Oils

Adding fat to the cake is a way to curb the amount of gluten formation that occurs. Fat
prevents gluten from combining as easily. It also contributes to the fluffiness.
This is due to the fact that when fat is combined with sugar, the sugar cuts the fat, which
causes air pockets to form. This aeration results in a texture that is less grainy and tenderer.

Generally, fats are solid, while oils are liquid. In baking, oils, shortening, lard, butter, and
margarine are used most commonly.

Butter is typically used for its flavor. It is not particularly great at making flaky pie crusts or
creating a very tender cake, but its flavor wins, bar none. It is better to use unsalted, unless

Sugar
Sugar’s main role is to sweeten the cake. It also assists in the aeration and stabilization of the
batter.

Sugar helps to keep the cake moist and soft, but it can also create a crisp, browned crust due
to caramelizing. It can come in both solid and liquid forms, such as granulated sugar, powdered
sugar, honey, and corn syrup.
Granulated white sugar is what is typically used within the cake. Powdered sugar is typically
used on top of a cake, as a glaze or a frosting. It is granulated sugar ground up into a fine
DC
powder.

Brown sugar can sometimes be used in a cake, depending on how you would like the cake to turn
out. It is typically moister than white sugar, so you may need to reduce the liquids in the recipe
if you plan on substituting brown sugar for white sugar.
Eggs
Eggs add volume to the finished product. They also act as a binder, which is what keeps the
finished product together. Used as a whole, they can bind, thicken, or be used as added flavor.
AW
When brushed onto a baked good, they can be used as a glaze to brown the top. When used
separately, egg whites are a drying agent and add stability to the batter. The yolks contribute
to the texture and flavor of the overall finished product.

Liquid
While milk tends to be the most used liquid for a cake, a recipe can also call for water, juices,
or alternative milks. Because each liquid can cause different reactions in the mix, be careful
when substituting one for the other.

Liquids are used to supply moisture to the flour and the starch, aid in gluten formation, and
assist in leavening by dissolving the sugar and salt. The more liquid in the recipe, the moister
the cake will be.

Salt
Salt is used in small quantities in a lot of baked goods. It is mainly used as a flavor enhancer, as
it brings out the flavor of what it is added to. The lack of salt use in a recipe that calls for it
can result in a flavorless, bland end product.

Salt can also be a good preservative, as it absorbs water, which means less for bacteria and
 mold growth.

Leavening Agents
Common leavening agents are baking powder, baking soda, and yeast. Baking powder and
baking soda are known as “chemical leaveners”, while yeast is a “natural leavener”.

Baking soda is sodium bicarbonate, and it needs an acid to get its aeration engines started. On
the other hand, baking powder is baking soda paired with cream of tartar.

Baking powder is the usual choice for cakes, though its over-use can result in a coarse cake
that may be deemed inedible. If your recipe calls for baking powder, but you only have baking
soda, there are different ways to substitute to achieve the desired effect.

Formula balance in cakes

DCLow ratio cake

1. Sugar not more than flour

2. Total liquid = liquid in egg and milk

3. Total liquid = sugar

4. Shortening not to exceed egg

AW
High ratio cake

1. Sugar greater than flour

2. Total liquid = liquid egg and milk

3. Total liquid is more than sugar

4. Egg equal or greater than shortening

Other Ingredients

 Dry substance such as corn flour, cocoa powder can be substituted. they absorb more water.
Water addition has to be taken care.
 Cocoa powder requires extra liquid about equal in weight to the powder.
 When including inverted sugars e.g. honey, allowance must be made for the approximate 25%
water content.
 Fruits can be added in any amount depending on the carrying capacity. End of the process,
after batter formed fruits can be added. Consistency of batter is very important, if it is not,
particles will sediment. Equal amount of flour and fruits can be added. eg- plumbed cakes.
 Basic principles of addressing a balanced cake formula

 Amount of flour to be kept at 100%. other ingredients depend on flour. Cake balancing is very
important, balancing for tenderness, flavor, nutrition, color and smell.
 Amount of sugar should be less than flour 85-90%.
 Amount of fat should be less than sugar 50-70%.
 Amount of egg should be higher than fat 55-75%.
 Total amount of liquids should be higher than sugar.
 Chemical leavening should be from 0-3%.
 Salt should be 2-3%.

Functions of emulsifiers in cakes

 Improves dispersion of fat in cake batter

 Better foam stability
 Better distribution of air in the batter
 Finer air cells, better volume, improved texture
 Liquid oils could be used



DCLess mixing time
Single stage mixing
Retardation of staling rate and extension of shelf - life

Cake Ingredients
Manufacturing process of cakes
AW
Before we delve into the actual cake making process and what it entails, let’s first take a look
at the most commonly used ingredients for commercial cakes. They are:

 White or wheat flour

 Eggs
 Sugar
 Milk powder
 Water
 Various flavorings
 Preservatives (such as sulfur dioxide)
 Raising agents (such as sodium carbonate)

The Commercial Cake Creation Process

Mixing Things Up

The first step in terms of creating a commercial cake is to mix all of the ingredients. This is
most commonly done using a commercial mixer. During this part of the process, food processing
filters are used to filter out impurities and to ensure that the mixture is uniform and free of
lumps, clumps, and other unsavory things. Also, keep in mind that the quality of the industrial
filters being used can have an impact on the quality of the cake you create. Moreover, once all
of the ingredients have been combined, the mixture is beat for an additional 10 minutes to trap
in the air and ensure that the cake can rise properly.

Fill the Mold

The baking molds are sprayed with a thin layer of oil to prevent the cake from sticking to the
pan. The batter is then emptied into the mold in such a way that ensures it has enough room to
rise without overflowing.

Baking the Cake

Next, the filled molds are put onto a conveyor belt, which gently inserts them into an automatic
oven. These ovens are closely monitored and regulated to ensure the cakes are cooked
thoroughly and evenly. The crust is often sprayed during this time to make sure it does not
crack as it rises. Once it has fully risen, the crust is allowed to dry.

DC
The Cool Down

Lastly, the cake is allowed to cool before packaging. This is because a warm cake is still likely
to crack and crumble, which can totally ruin the cake.

 Cake faults and remedies

AW
Many a time cakes don’t turn out the way they should. There can be many underlying causes for
the same. To make things simpler for you when you bake, I am listing the first half of the
two-part series where I will put up an easy-to-comprehend chart with cake faults, causes and
the remedy for each of those. This is just a guideline which will help you to troubleshoot. The
recipe, the oven temperature and many such factors which can affect the cake baking are
listed here. Hope you can use this chart as a reference and fix the problem you are facing in
cake-making.

DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

Batter spread unevenly Spread batter evenly

Layers Uneven /Uneven Oven trays out of balance Adjust oven trays
Cake
Cake tins warped Do not use damaged tins

Insufficient shortening Balance recipe

Cake peaks in the centre Batter too stiff Increase moisture or decrease flour content

Too much oven top heat Adjust oven top heat

Cakes sag in the centre Excessive sugar in the cake Balance recipe
 Insufficient structure building materials Increase egg content and/or flour content

Too much leavening Adjust the leavening

Poor symmetry
Cold oven Correct oven temperature

Cakes underbaked Bake thoroughly

Unbalanced cake recipe Adjust cake recipe

Oven too hot Check oven temperature

Undersized Cakes Oven too cold Check oven temperature

Improper mixing Mix properly

Cake tins too large for the batter size Use a proper amount of batter

Oven too hot Use correct baking temperature

Dark Crust Colour Too much top heat in the oven Adjust top heat in the oven

DC Light Crust Colour

Too much sugar, too much milk solids

Oven too cold

Unbalanced recipe
Check cake recipe

Raise oven temperature

Balance recipe
AW
Wafers

 Ingredients used and role of ingredients in manufacture of wafers

Wafers are a crisp, thin, aerated baked good with characteristic surface reeds. They are
commonly filled with a cream paste of vanilla, chocolate, hazelnut or other inclusions. Wafers
can also be made gluten-free.
Commercially, wafers come in two main varieties

 No or low sugar wafers: typically filled with sweet creams, and/or enrobed with chocolate.
 Sugar wafers: contain at least 10% sugar and include wafers cones, reels, flutes, fans and
sugar wafer cookies.
 Ingredients Commonly used ingredients in wafers

Usage level
Ingredient Type (Baker’s Function
percentage)

Aids in starch gelatinization

Water – 140 %
Enhances leavening

Provides structure
Low protein flour (All-
Flour 100 %
purpose wheat flour) Imparts brown color, a result of
Maillard’s reaction

Provides tenderness, lubrication

DC Fat

Sugar
Butter, margarine

Granulater white
1%

12 -20% for sugar

wafers
and mouthfeel

Provides a rich buttery flavor

Improves release from plate

Adds sweetness and browning

flavor/color
AW
Enhances texture crunchiness

Sodium bicarbonate or
Leavening 0.3 % Provides leavening and aerated
ammonium bicarbonate texture

Salt Granulated < 0.4 % Enhances flavor and aroma

perception

Aids in emulsification of batter

Emulsifier Lecithin 0.2 %
Improves release of steam

Processing of wafer
Commercial production
Wafers are commercially produced through the following process

 Mixing: water, flour, fats, lecithin and other minor ingredients are mixed in a stainless steel
 vessel to form a batter.
 Depositing: batter is deposited in large baking plates with top and bottom layers.
 Baking: wafer sheets are baked at 180 oC (356 oF) for 2 minutes or until moisture drops to
below 2%.
 Cooling: wafer sheets are demoulded and cooled at ambient temperature.
 Cream application: cream is deposited and spread on cooled wafer sheets.
 Sandwich building: a top wafer sheet is placed on top of the cream, and the wafer sandwich
passes through a cooling tunnel to solidify the cream.
 Cutting: wafer sheets may be cut into smaller wafer fingers.
 Packaging; wafers are immediately wrapped in moisture-tight packaging material.

Processing considerations

 Addition of starch improves sheet quality, stability and produces lighter colored versions.
 Ammonium bicarbonate produces softer wafers.
 Fats should be thermally stable for sheet release.
 Storage: at temperatures below melting points of creams.

DC Frozen dough products

Frozen dough is regular dough pieces which have undergone freezing and frozen storage prior
to proofing and baking steps.
AW
It is one of the fastest growing segments in the baking industry. This trend is driven by
consumers’ appetite for convenience and ability to eat freshly-baked products that can be pulled
out of the freezer and baked. It is commonly made with short dough processing systems such as
straight dough and no time dough. Laminated products and small-sized hearth breads from
frozen dough have been popularized recently.

Application

 Flour: should be strong with high protein content (>12.5%) to ensure sufficient dough
strength and gas retention during proofing after thawing cycle.

 Yeast: should be added at 1.5–2 times more than regular straight dough systems. The use of
compressed and liquid forms of yeast such as cream is advisable since these forms are less
processed and contain the lowest amount of cell damage.

 Yeast food: mineral yeast food is recommended to improve cell viability, condition the water and
improve gassing.

 Water: only low levels are required to reduce the generation of free water, after thawing
 frozen dough, which may damage gluten structure and yeast cells. It is important to have the
flour fully mixed hydrated and mixed to limit the amount of free water.

 Dough hydration: lower levels of dough hydration also help the dough maintain its shape
during makeup and increase its stability during freezing and thawing cycles.

 Oxidizing agents: are essential for improving gas retention by promoting aggregation of gluten
-forming proteins.

 Fat: higher fat levels are recommended for frozen doughs. Inclusions of 3–8% based on flour
weight are common to help extend dough shelf-life and improve its machinability during
moulding as water levels are reduced.

 Salt: salt levels in frozen dough formulations are similar to regular dough. Typically
1.8–2.0% based on flour weight is used to enhance the flavor and control yeast activity.

 Sugars: higher levels are required in frozen doughs. Sugars’ hygroscopic nature provides for
binding excess free water. Subsequently improving dough freezing and thawing stability.


DCHigher sugars also increase shelf-life and help with crust color.

Modified starches and gums: are often included to improve dough freezing/thawing stability.

Emulsifiers: SSL, DATEM and GMS can act as crumb softeners, thus improving the texture
and enhance the overall quality of the baked product.
AW