Chapter 2

RESERVOIR COMPLETION METHODS

The reservoir completion method is usually considered as part of the initial well design and
completion plan. It will be decided whether the well will be drilled vertically, horizontally or at a
certain inclination to the vertical axis. The choice of well completion trajectory will be dependent
on the degree of complexity of reservoir geology. Vertical wells are cheap, simple to operate and
ideal for thick homogeneous reservoirs. Deviated or inclined wells are more suitable for draining
wells drilled and completed in anisotropic reservoirs with the potentials for an increased fluid
inflow. Horizontal wells are particularly more suitable in thin oil rims and naturally fractured
reservoirs. It can easily be adapted to wells penetrating complex paths where horizontal
permeability (kh) can be maximised in order to minimise drawdown at a desired flowrate.

Vertical well Horizontal well Much deeper penetration

20 m

300 m

Fig. 1 Vertical versus horizontal well completion trajectories

3.1 Reservoir performance

Reservoir performance gives an indication of the economic viability of a hydrocarbon system. It
is largely dependent of the quality of the reservoir and expressed by initial production rate and
production rate decline over time.

Equations for flow in porous rocks are usually derived based on the integration of mass,
momentum and energy conservation equations and other constitutive equations involving fluids-
rock interaction. Isothermal conditions are usually assumed in reservoir systems and the energy
conservation equation may be excluded unless there is an injection of cold water into a warmer
reservoir.
For a single-phase flow of an incompressible fluid, the diffusivity equation in 1D radial geometry
can be written as:

1   p  c t p
r  = 1
r r  r  k t

Three cases can be considered:

p
a) Steady state system where: (r , t ) = 0 1a
t
p
b) Pseudosteady state in which case: (r , t ) = constant 1b
t
𝜕𝑝
c) Transient state where varies with r and t
𝜕𝑡
1c

The rate and cross-sectional area of a cylindrical shape reservoir can be expressed by Darcy’s
equation as:
𝑘(2𝜋𝑟ℎ) 𝜕𝑝
𝑞= 2
𝜇 𝜕𝑟

𝑞 = 𝐴𝑢 3
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ 4

3.1.1 Pseudo-steady state flow equation (Darcy’s radial flow equation)

Under the pseudo-steady state flow condition, the drawdown from the reservoir remains the same
but the average reservoir pressure (𝑝̅𝑟 ) and bottom hole flowing pressure (𝑝𝑤𝑓 ) fall

7∙08𝑒 −3 𝑘𝑜 ℎ
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑟 (𝑝̅𝑟 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 ) 5
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 [(𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑒 )−0.75+𝑆]
𝑤

Productivity index, 𝐽, is the ratio of the stabilised flowrate, q, to the pressure drawdown, (𝑝𝑟 −
𝑝𝑤𝑓 ), required to sustain that flowrate:
𝑞
𝐽= (𝑝𝑟 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 )
6

Equation 4 can be used to relate productivity index to formation and fluid properties for the case
of a well centered in a circular drainage area. In this case Productivity index, 𝐽, can be expressed
as:
7∙08𝑒 −3 𝑘𝑜 ℎ
𝐽= 𝑟 7
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 [(𝑙𝑛 𝑒 )−0.75+𝑆]
𝑟𝑤

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where,

7.08𝑒 −3 = conversion factor to oilfield units

ko = permeability (md)
h = net isochore pay (ft.) = gross pay x NTG ratio
pr = average reservoir pressure (psi)
pwf = flowing bottom hole pressure (psi)
qo = flow rate (bopd)
𝜇𝑜 = oil viscosity (cp)
𝐵𝑜 = oil formation volume factor
re = drainage radius (ft)
rw = wellbore radius (ft)
S = skin factor
𝑞𝑜 = oil flow rate (bopd)

3.1.2 Steady state flow equation (Darcy’s radial flow equation)

Under steady state flow condition, the drawdown, average reservoir pressure and bottom hole
flowing pressure 𝑝𝑤𝑓 , remain constant as influx into the drainage area equals the voidage
replacement.
7∙08𝑒 −3 𝑘𝑜 ℎ
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑟 (𝑝̅𝑟 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 ) 8
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 [(𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑒 )−0.5+𝑆]
𝑤

And the productivity index in a steady-state system can be expressed as:

7∙08𝑒 −3 𝑘𝑜 ℎ
𝐽= 𝑟 9
𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 [(𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑒 )−0.5+𝑆]
𝑤

Table 1: Summary of radial inflow performance equations for stabilised flow conditions

Steady-state Pseudo-steady state

General relationship 7∙08𝑒 −3 𝑘𝑜 ℎ 7∙08𝑒 −3 𝑘𝑜 ℎ
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑟 (𝑃 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 ) 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑟 𝑟2
(𝑃 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 )
between p and r 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 (𝑙𝑛 )
𝑟𝑤 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 (𝑙𝑛 − )
𝑟𝑤 2𝑟2
𝑒
Inflow equations 7∙08𝑒 −3 𝑘𝑜 ℎ 7∙08𝑒 −3 𝑘𝑜ℎ
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑟 (𝑝̅𝑟 − 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑟 (𝑝̅𝑟 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 )
expressed in terms 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 [(𝑙𝑛 𝑒 )−0.5+𝑆] 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 [(𝑙𝑛 𝑒 )−0.75+𝑆]
𝑟𝑤 𝑟𝑤
of the average 𝑝𝑤𝑓 )
reservoir pressure
Inflow equations 7∙08𝑒 −3 𝑘𝑜 ℎ 7∙08𝑒 −3 𝑘𝑜 ℎ
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑟 (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 ) 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑟 (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 )
expressed in terms 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 [(𝑙𝑛 𝑒 )−0.5]
𝑟𝑤 𝑟𝑤
p=pe at r=re

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3.1.3 Effect of skin on production performance
Skin is a measure of the extent of damage or stimulation of a well. It has no physical dimension
but magnitude can be zero, positive or negative.

𝑟𝑤′ = 𝑟𝑤 𝑒 −𝑆 , 10

where,
r’w = effective wellbore radius, ft
rw = wellbore radius, ft
S = skin factor

3.1.4 A positive skin indicates some restrictions to flow or damage to the natural reservoir
permeability meaning that there is a certain degree of distortion of the flow lines from the
perfectly normal to the well flow path. This may result from any of the following conditions:
• Insufficient number of perforations
• Phase changes
• Turbulence due to high-velocity flow
• Partial completion where perforation is height less than the formation thickness

3.1.5 A negative skin on the other hand indicates some degree of flow enhancement which
may have resulted from any of the following operational conditions:
• Hydraulic fracturing operation
• Matrix stimulation operation
• Highly inclined wellbore

pwf ideal
(∆𝒑)𝒔

pwf real
p

Damaged zone Uniform formation

permeability, ks permeability, k

rw rs
r
Fig. 2 Pressure drop due to skin

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Pressure drop (psia) due to skin can be written as:
141.2 𝑞𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜
∆𝑝𝑠 = 𝑆, 11
𝑘ℎ
where,
qo = oil flow rate, STB/D
μo = oil viscosity, cp
Bo = oil FVF, bbls/STB
k = reservoir permeability, mD
h = reservoir thickness, ft
S = skin factor

Fig. 3 Indication of formation damage

3.1.6 Skin indicator
No damage present – no skin (ks = k)
The ideal drawdown can be expressed as:
141.2 𝑞𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑟
𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓,𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = (ln 𝑟 𝑠 ), 12
𝑘ℎ 𝑤

Damage present – skin present (ks < k)

Real drawdown can be expressed as:
141.2 𝑞𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜 𝑟
𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓,𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = (ln 𝑟 𝑠 ). 13
𝑘𝑠 ℎ 𝑤

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3.2 Flow efficiency
Flow efficiency, F, is a measure of the ratio of the productivity index with skin to productivity
index without skin.
𝐽𝑠≠0
𝐹= 14
𝐽𝑠=0

• F < 1: well is damaged (positive skin)

• F = 1: No change (zero skin)
• F > 1: Well is stimulated (negative skin)

Tutorial exercise 2
1) Show that the expression for pressure drop due to skin is given as

141.2 𝑞𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝐵𝑜
∆𝑝𝑠 = S
𝑘ℎ
where the expression for the skin factor S is:
𝑘 𝑟𝑠
𝑆= ( − 1) (ln )
𝑘𝑠 𝑟𝑤
𝑞
2) Starting from the expression 𝐽 = , show that the expression for the flow
(𝑝𝑟 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 )
efficiency, F, can be written as:
𝑟
(ln 𝑟 𝑒 ) − 0.75
𝑤
𝐹= 𝑟
(ln 𝑟 𝑒 ) − 0.75 + 𝑆
𝑤

3) Given a fixed wellbore radius re = 0.354 ft., and varying external radius re = 1,000 ft.,
2,250 ft., 5,000 ft. and 10,000 ft., show that the expression for the flow efficiency F
converges to:

𝑐
𝐹≅ 𝑐+𝑆
for 7 < c < 9,
where, c is an integer.

4) A well with a skin of 10 is producing at 4,000 bopd.

a. Estimate the production rate if the skin was removed.
b. Calculate the actual production rate with skin 𝑠 = −2.

Further reading
1) Clegg, J. D.: “Production Operations Engineering,” Petroleum Engineering Handbook,
Vol. IV, SPE, 2007.
2) Economides, M. J., Hill, A. D., and Ehlig-Economides, C.: “Petroleum Production
Systems,” Prentice Hall, PTR, 1994.
3) Bellarby, J.: “Well Completion Design,” 1st Ed., Elsevier B.V., 2009.

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