Optimization in Graph Theory

Research Project

Submitted to the Department of Mathematics in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of BSc. in MATHEMATIC

Prepared by:

Ayub Ali

Supervised by:

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ivan Subhi Latif

April – 2024

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Certification of the Supervisor

I certify that this research was prepared under my supervision at the Department

of Mathematics / College of Education / Salahaddin University-Erbil in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of philosophy of

science in Mathematics.

Signature:
Supervisor: Ivan Subhi Latif

Scientific grade: Lecturer

Date: 8/ 4 / 2024

In view of the available recommendations, I forward this report for debate by

the examining committee.

Signature:
Name: Dr. Rashad Rasheed Haji

Scientific grade: Assistant Professor

Chairman of the Mathematics Department

Date: 8 / 4 / 2024

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Acknowledgments

I would like to start by thanking my supervisor, Dr. Ivan, for her invaluable
guidance and support throughout this research project. It has been an honor to
work with her and learn from her expertise. Her insightful feedback and
encouragement have been instrumental in completing this paper.

I also wish acknowledge the mathematical department and its teachers for
providing me with a strong foundation in mathematics and for their support and
encouragement throughout my studies.

Furthermore, I am grateful to my friend shady wahid for his assistance with my

English writing skills. His feedback and support were truly helpful and greatly
appreciated.

Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my family for their unwavering

support, encouragement, and love throughout my academic journey. Their
support has been invaluable and has helped me to pursue my goals with
confidence.

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 Abstract

Graphs are often used to model optimization problems. In optimization, the goal
is to find the best solution from a set of possible solutions. Graphs provide a visual
representation of relationships between entities, making them useful for modeling
various optimization scenarios such as finding the shortest path, minimizing
costs, maximizing efficiency, or optimizing resource allocation. Optimization
algorithms often operate on graphs to efficiently search for the optimal solution
by traversing nodes and edges based on certain criteria or constraints.
Optimization, particularly in graph theory, offers a systematic approach to
tackling complex urban issues like traffic congestion. Duhok, like many cities,
faces challenges due to population growth and increased vehicular traffic, leading
to congestion, delays, and pollution. This study proposes a solution for Duhok's
traffic congestion, using principles from the Chinese Postman Problem (CPP) and
advocating for a modern train system. By applying CPP methodology, the study
aims to identify optimal vehicular routes, reducing congestion and improving
travel experiences for residents.

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 Table of Contents
Certification of the Supervisor ............................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................... iii
Abstract ................................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 History of graph theory ................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Use of the graph theory .................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 6
Background ........................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 15
Introduction About duhok ................................................................................................ 15
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 25
References .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

‫ پوختە‬................................................................................................................................... A
‫ ملخص‬................................................................................................................................. B

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 List of Figures
Figure 1 graph showing vertices ............................................................................................ 6
Figure 2 graph showing Edges .............................................................................................. 6
Figure 3 graph showing adjacent vertices .............................................................................. 6
Figure 4 Graph, showing all vertices and edges ..................................................................... 8
Figure 5 graph showing a Euler circuit .................................................................................. 9
Figure 6 map of Duhok city ................................................................................................... 15
Figure 7 Duhok city Main roads map ....................................................... ………….…17
Figure 8 Graph 1 has four vertices with an odd number of edges connected to them. Graph 2
has two vertices with an odd number of edges connected to them, and three vertices with an
even number of edges connected to them. Graph 3 has six vertices with an even number of
edges connected to them. ..................................................................................................... 19
Figure 9 graph showing street map of Duhok ......................................................................... 20
Figure 10 graph showing street map of Duhok after adding edges to odd vertices ................. 22

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 History of graph theory

Graph theory, an essential field across various disciplines like mathematics,
engineering, sciences, linguistics, and computer science, dates back to 1735 when
Leonhard Euler resolved the Königsberg bridge problem. It involves studying
graphs, which consist of nodes (or vertices) interconnected by edges. Given its
status as a branch of applied mathematics, it's not uncommon for the theory to
have been independently conceived multiple times. (agarwal, et al., 2019)

Who invented graph theory:

Euler, born in 1707 and passing in 1782, presented a paper in 1736 where he
tackled the Königsberg bridge problem, igniting the emergence of graph theory.
His solution in 1736 is often considered the starting point of graph theory, earning
him the title "Father of Graph Theory." (agarwal, et al., 2019)
Nothing more was done in this field for the next 100 years.

Then, in 1847, G. R. Kirchhoff (1824-1887) developed the tree theory in electrical

networks for their applications. Kirchhoff’s research into electric networks led to
the development of the fundamental concepts and theorems relating to trees in
graphs.

10 years later, a. Cayley (1821-1895) thought about trees that arose from the
counting of organic chemical isomers and discovered trees while trying to count
the isomers of saturated hydrocarbons CnH2n+2.

Two other milestone in graph theory were established around the time of
Kirchhoff and Cayley.
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 1. One milestone is the four-color conjecture, and
2. The other milestone is puzzle invented by Hamilton. (agarwal, et al.,

2019) Four-color conjecture:

According to the four-color conjecture, a minimum of four colors suffices to color

any atlas (a map on a plane) in such a way that countries sharing borders are
assigned distinct colors.

In 1840, the inception of the four-color problem is credited to A. F. Möbius (1790-

1868) through his lectures. Approximately a decade later, A. De Morgen (1806-
1871) delved into this quandary in London. By 1879, Cayley introduced this
problem in the "inaugural volume of the proceedings of the Royal Geographic
Society," catapulting it to widespread recognition. Subsequently, the renowned
four-color conjecture gained prominence and has since retained its allure.

since. (agarwal, et al., 2019)

Puzzle invented by Hamilton:

In 1859, Sir E. R. Hamilton (1805-1865) devised a puzzle methodology relating

to graphs and sold it to a gaming enterprise in Dublin for guineas.

The puzzle comprised a wooden regular dodecahedron—a polyhedron with 12

faces, all of which are regular pentagons, along with 20 corners and 30 edges. At
each corner, three edges intersected. The names of 20 significant cities adorned
the corners.

The objective of the puzzle entailed discovering a route along the dodecahedron's
edges that traversed each of the 20 cities precisely once. However, despite the
simplicity of solving this specific problem, no one has yet managed to establish a

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necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of such a route (known as a
Hamiltonian circuit) in any graph.(agarwal, et al., 2019)

After this fruitful period, there was a half-century of relative inactivity.

Subsequently, in the 1920s, a renewed wave of enthusiasm for graphs emerged,

with D. koning emerging as one of the trailblazers during this era. He not only
synthesized the contributions of other mathematicians but also advanced his own
research, culminating in the publication of the inaugural book on the subject in
1936.The past three decades have witnessed a surge of activity in graph theory—
spanning both theoretical and practical domains. A substantial volume of research
has been undertaken and persists in this field. Over the last decade alone,
thousands of papers and more than a dozen books have been published, attesting
to the ongoing vibrancy and significance of graph theory (agarwal, et al., 2019)

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 1.2 Use of the graph theory
1.2.1 Transportation Networks:
In mathematics, the term “graph” can have two different meaning, depending on
the context. The first meaning is related to the graphical representation of
mathematical function or a relation, which shows the relationship between the
input and output values of the function or the relation.

However, the second meaning of the term “graph” is the one most commonly used
in graph theory, which is a mathematical structure consisting of a set of
vertices(also called nodes or points) and a set of edges (also called links or arcs)
connecting them. This type of graph is used in a wide range of applications
including transportation networks, social networks, computer networks, and
many others.

In transportation networks, graph theory is a powerful tool for solving problems

such as finding the shortest route between two points, determining the optimal
location of facilities such as airports or train station, and analyzing traffic flow
patterns. By representing the transportation network as a graph, mathematicians
and transportation planners can use graph theory to develop models that help them
understand and optimize transportation systems. (Mrs.M.durgadevi & Ms.Ch,
2018)

1.2.2 Intelligent Transportation System:

Sensing technologies play a crucial role in the operation intelligent transportation
systems (ITS). These technologies are used to collect real-time data on traffic
conditions and transmit information to the ITS control center for analysis and
decision-making.

For example, in-vehicle sensors can detect changes in speed, acceleration, and
braking, which can be used to predict potential accidents or traffic congestion.
Roadside sensors can detect the presence of vehicle and pedestrians and can
provide real-time data on traffic flow and volume. Additionally, video vehicle
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detection technologies can capture images of vehicles passing through a
designated area and transmit this information to the control center for analysis.

The use of sensing technologies in ITS can lead to significant benefits, such as
improved traffic flow, reduced congestion, and increased safety for drivers and
pedestrians. Real time traffic data can be used to adjust traffic signal timings and
optimize traffic flow, which can reduce travel times and improve fuel efficiency.
Additionally, sensing technologies can be used to detect and respond to accidents
or other incidents quickly, reducing the risk of further accidents and improving
emergency response times.

Overall, the integration of sensing technologies in ITS can help to address many
of the challenges associated with modern transportation systems, such as traffic
congestion, safety concerns, and environmental impacts. As technology continues
to advance, we can expect to see further innovations in sensing technologies and
their applications in intelligent transportation systems. (Mrs.M.durgadevi &
Ms.Ch, 2018)

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 CHAPTER TWO
Background

Definitions 2.1: (Bondy, 2006) Graph, a graph is basically a collection of dots,

with some pairs of dots being connected by lines. The dots are called vertices, and
the lines are called edges.

Definitions 2.2: (Bondy, 2006) Vertex, a vertex is a ‘dot’ in a graph. The plural
of vertex is ‘vertices’, ‘this graph has five vertices. Other synonyms for vertex are
node and point. Here are the vertices of a graph.

Figure 1 graph showing vertices

Definitions 2.3: (Bondy, 2006) Edge, an edge connects two vertices in a graph.
We call those vertices endpoints of the edge. Other synonyms for edge are arc,

Figure 2 graph showing Edges

link and line. here is the edge of a graph.

Definitions 2.4: (Bondy, 2006) Adjacent, two vertices are adjacent if they are
connected by an edge. We often call these two vertices’ neighbors. Two adjacent
vertices:

Figure 3 graph showing adjacent vertices

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Definitions 2.
5: (Bondy, 2006) Bridge, an edge in a graph whose removal
(leaving the vertices) results in a disconnected graph.

Definitions 2.6: (Bondy, 2006) Bipartite Graph, a graph is bipartite if the vertices
can be partitioned into two sets, X and Y, so that the only edges of the graph are
between the vertices in X and the vertices in Y.

Definitions 2.7: (Bondy, 2006) Size, the size of the graph is the number of edges
it has.

Definitions 2.8: (Bondy, 2006) Degree, the degree of a vertex is the size of its
neighborhood. The degree of a graph is maximum degree of all of its vertices.

Definitions 2.9: (Bondy, 2006) Pendent Vertex, a vertex of degree 1. Also known
as a leaf.

Definitions 2.10: (Bondy, 2006) Order, the order of a graph is the number of
vertices it has.

Definitions 2.11: (Bondy, 2006) Walk, a walk is a series of vertices and edges.

Definitions 2.12: (Bondy, 2006) Closed Walk, is a walk from a vertex back to
itself.

Definitions 2.13: (naduvath, 2017) Trial, a trial is a walk that does not pass the
same edge twice. A trail might visit the same vertex twice, but only if its comes
and goes from a different edge each time.

Definitions 2.14: (naduvath, 2017) Tour, a tour is a trial that begins and ends on
the same vertex.

Definitions 2.15: (Bondy, 2006)Cycle, cycle is a closed walk with no repeated

vertices (expect that the first and last vertices are the same).

Definitions 2.16: (Bondy, 2006) Path, a path is a walk where no repeated vertices.

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Definitions 2.
A u-v path is a path beginning at u and ending at v.
17: (stephanie, 2019) (U-V) Walk, a (u-v) walk would be a walk
beginning at (u) and ending at (v).

Definitions 2.18: (stephanie, 2019) Directed Graph, a directed graph is a graph

where the edges have direction, that is, they are ordered pairs of vertices.

Definitions 2.19: (stephanie, 2019)Loop, a loop is an edge or arc that joins a

vertex to itself.

Definitions 2.20: (stephanie, 2019) Multigraph, a multigraph is a graph without

loops, but which may have multiple edges.

Definitions 2.21: (stephanie, 2019) Null Graph, a null graph is a graph with no
edges. It may have one or more vertices.

Definitions 2.22: (stephanie, 2019) Simple Graph, a simple graph that doesn’t
have any loops or multiple edges.no multiple edges means that no two edges have
the same endpoints.

Definitions 2.23: (stephanie, 2019) Trivial Graph, a trivial graph is a graph with
only one vertex.

Definitions 2.24: (stephanie, 2019) Undirected Graph, an undirected graph is a

graph where none of the edges have direction, the pairs of vertices that make up
each edge are unordered.

Definitions 2.25: (Bondy, 2006) Subgraph, a subgraph of graph is some smaller

portion of that graph. Here is an example of a subgraph:

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Definitions 2.
4
Figure 4 Graph, showing all vertices and edgesFigure Subgraph, showing a
subset of the vertices and edges from
26: (Bondy, 2006) Spanning Subgraph, a subgraph of the graph G
which contains of all the vertices of G.

Definitions 2.27: (Bondy, 2006) Tree, a connected graph containing no circuits.

Definitions 2.28: (Bondy, 2006)Spanning Tree, a spanning subgraph of a graph

which is also tree.

Definitions 2.29: (Bondy, 2006)Circuit, in a graph, a circuit is a simple, closed

walk.

Definitions 2.30: (Bondy, 2006)Connected, a connected graph is one in which

every pair of vertices are joined by a chain.

Definitions 2.31: (Mohtashim, 2019) Euler Graph, a connected graph G is called

an Euler graph, if there is a closed trial which includes every edge of the graph G.

Definitions 2.32: (Mohtashim, 2019) Euler Path, a Euler path is a path that uses
every edge of a graph exactly once. a Euler path starts and ends at different
vertices.

Definitions 2.33: (Mohtashim, 2019) Euler Circuit, a Euler circuit is a circuit that
uses every edge of a graph exactly once. A Euler circuit always starts and ends at
the same vertex a connected graph G is a Euler graph if and only if all vertices of
G are of even degree, and connected graph G is Eulerian if and only if its edge
set can be decomposed into cycle.

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Definitions 2.
Figure 5 graph showing a Euler circuit
The above graph is a Euler graph as a 1 b 2 c 3 d 4 e 5 c 6 f 7 g covers all edges
of the graph.

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Theorem 2.1: (Sinha, 2015) The edge connectivity of a graph G cannot exceed
the degree of the vertex with the smallest degree in G.

Proof:

The vertex vi be the vertex with the smallest degree in G. Let d(v i) be the
degree of vi. Vertex vi can be separated from G by removing the d(vi) edges
incident on vertex vi. hence the theorem.

Theorem 2.2: (Sinha, 2015) The vertex connectivity of any graph G can never
exceed the edge connectivity of G.

Proof:

Let a denote the edge connectivity of G. Therefore, Ǝ a cut set S in G with

α edges. Let S partition the vertices of G into subsets V 1 and V2. By
removing almost α vertices V1 or V2 which the edges in S are incident, we
can affect the removal of S (together with all other edges incident on these
vertices) from G. Hence the theorem.

Theorem 2.3: (Sinha, 2015) The maximum vertex connectivity one can achieve
with a graph G of n vertices and e edges (e ≥ n-1) is the integral part of the number
2e/n. [2e/n]

Proof:

Every edge in G contributes two degrees. The total (2e degree) is divided
among n-vertices. Therefore, there must be at least one vertex in G whose
degree is equal to or less than the number 2e/n. The vertex connectivity of
G cannot exceed this number.
To show that this value can actually be achieved, one can first construct an
n-vertex regular graph of degree equal to the integral part of the number
[2e/n] and then add the remaining e-(2/n). [integral part of the number 2e/n]
edges arbitrary.

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 Thus, we can summarize as follows:
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ≤ 𝐸𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ≤ 2𝑒/𝑛 and
maximum vertex connectivity possible = [integral part of the number 2e/n].
thus, for a graph with 8 vertices and 16 edges, we can achieve a vertex

connectivity (and therefore edge connectivity) s high as four

The traffic sensors can be placed on each edge in a cut-set of G determined by its
edge connectivity as well as on each vertex of G determined by its vertex
connectivity. These sensors will provide complete traffic information for the
control system. Thus, optimal locations for the traffic sensors can be obtained by
using edge connectivity and vertex connectivity of the compatibility graph G.

Theorem 2.4: (Mrs.M.durgadevi & Ms.Ch, 2018) One way street problem:
Robin’s theorem, the problem of orienting every edge in a graph in such a way
that it remains possible to travel between any two vertices is known as Robin’s
Theorem, named after mathematician guy Robin who first proved it in 1969.

To solve this problem, we can use the concept of strong connectivity in a directed
graph. A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a directed path between
every pair of vertices. In other words, we can get from any vertex to any other
vertex by following the direction of the edges.

To apply Robin’s theorem to the problem of making every street in a city oneway,
we first represent the streets as edges of a graph and the street corners as vertices.
We then start with the initial undirected graph, where each edge represents a two-
way street.

To make every street one-way, we need to assign a direction to each edge in such
a way that the resulting directed graph is strongly connected. This means that we
need to ensure that for any two vertices in the graph, there is a directed path
between them.

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One way to achieve this is to choose a spanning tree of the initial graph and orient
all edges in the tree to point away from the root of the tree. This ensures that there
is a directed path from the root to any other vertex in the graph. We then orient
the remaining edges arbitrarily, as long as they do not create cycles in the graph.

By using this method, we can ensure that it is still possible to get from any place
to any other place in the city, even after making every street one-way. This can
help to alleviate traffic congestion and reduce air pollution in urban areas.

Chinese postman’s problem (CPP): (Mrs.M.durgadevi & Ms.Ch, 2018) in

1962, a Chinese mathematician called Kuan mei-ko was interested in postman
delivering mail. The (CPP) is a classic problem in graph theory that seeks to find
the shortest possible route that visits every edge of an undirected graph at least
once. In the context of the problem you described, this could be interpreted as
finding the shortest route for a postman to deliver mail to a number of streets.

There are several approaches to solving the CPP, but one common method is to
add additional edges to the graph to make it Eucerin (i.e., having an even number
of edges at every vertex). Once the graph is Eulerian, the postman can traverse
every edge exactly twice (once in each direction) and return to the starting point,
thus ensuring that all streets are visited.

To add the necessary edges, we can use the following algorithm:

1. Identify all vertices in the graph with odd degree (i.e., an odd number of
edges incident to the vertex).
2. For each pair of odd-degree vertices, odd an edge between them with a
weight equal to the shortest distance between them.
3. Find the minimum-weight perfect matching on the set of new edges (i.e.,
the set of edges connecting the odd-degree vertices).
4. Add the matching edges to the original graph to create a new, Eulerian
graph.

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 5. Find a Eulerian circuit on the new graph using any standard algorithm (e.g.,
Hierholzer’s algorithm).
6. Traverse the Eulerian circuit, taking each edge exactly twice (once in each
direction), to visit every edge in the original graph.

By following these steps, the postman can be sure to cover very street in the
shortest possible distance.

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 CHAPTER THREE
Introduction About Duhok

Duhok province, one of the most beautiful cities in Kurdistan region in North Iraq.
The original name of the city was Nuhadra, an Assyrian name, but later it was
called Duhok after its geographical status. The city has a population of 1,772,367
mainly by Kurds with an Arab, Assyrian, and Armenian minority. Historically,
there was a Jewish population in the region as well. The main religious groups are
Muslims, Yazidis and Christians. Duhok is well-known for its wonderful and
natural Landscape, and it is one of the most attracted area for tourist where the
residents can sense the four seasons. Duhok Dam, Zaweta, Sarsang, Amedy, Akre,
Zakho and Sulav are the most important places that attract tourists. Duhok,
located in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, has an economy driven by agriculture,
trade, and tourism, with recent influences from oil discoveries. It borders Turkey
and Syria, facilitating cross-border trade, and interacts economically with
neighboring cities like Erbil and Sulaymaniyah within the Kurdistan Region.
(HAMO, 2018) This is the map of Duhok.

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 Figure 6 map of Duhok city
Like many growing cities, Duhok has been facing traffic congestion issues due to
a rapidly increasing population, the expansion of the city, and an increase in the
number of cars on the roads. This has led to longer commuting times, increased
air pollution, and reduced road safety.

To address this problem, the government of Duhok has implemented several

measures, including building new roads and highways, improving public
transportation, and introducing carpooling schemes. Additionally, the city has
been working to improve its urban planning, such as developing pedestrian
friendly zones and bike lanes.

Despite these efforts, traffic congestion remains a significant issue in Duhok, and
the city continues to work towards finding sustainable solutions to address the
problem.

The Chinese postman problem is a mathematical problem that seeks to find the
shortest possible route that visits every edge of a given undirected graph at least
once. It is often used in transportation and logistics to optimize delivery routes
and reduce travel time.

While the Chinese postman problem could potentially be used to address traffic
congestion in Duhok by optimizing the routes of public transportation and
delivery vehicles, it may not necessarily solve the problem of traffic congestion
caused by private vehicles.

Private vehicles are often a major contributor to traffic congestion in cities, and
reducing the number of cars on the roads can be challenging. Some potential
solutions could include promoting the use of public transportation, encouraging
carpooling and ridesharing, and improving infrastructure to support
nonmotorized modes of transportation like cycling and walking.

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Ultimately, a combination of solutions will likely be necessary to address traffic
congestion in Duhok and other growing cities. Following example: In the graph
1 where each intersection is a vertex and each street is an edge with a length equal
to the length of the street. The delivery guy needs to find the shortest path that
visits every vertex (intersection) at least once and returns to the starting vertex
(A4).

graph 1
Figure 7 Duhok city Main roads map
In the graph 1,the barzan highway as located in south of duhok city contain vertex
𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , 𝐴4 , 𝐴5 , 𝐴6 , 𝐴7 ,and 𝐴8 .the zakho duhok highway contain
vertex 𝐴9 , 𝐴10 , 𝐴11 , 𝐴29 , 𝐴30 .the duhok erbil highway contain vertex
𝐴20 , 𝐴21 , 𝐴22 , 𝐴23 , 𝐴24 .the ganjina street contain vertex 𝐴25 , 𝐴26 , 𝐴27 , 𝐴28 .the
ashty street contain vertex 𝐴17 , 𝐴18 , 𝐴19 .the zirka road way contain vertex
𝐴12 , 𝐴13 .the qazi mohammad street contain vertex 𝐴32 .the amad city contain
vertex 𝐴15 , 𝐴16 , 𝐴31 .the chanal kurdu street contain vertex 𝐴14 . the starting
vertex is A4.

17
To find the shortest path that visits every vertex at least once and returns to A4 ,
we can use the Chinese postman algorithm, we will return to solving this actual
problem later, but initially we will look at drawing various graphs. The Chinese
postman is traversable graphs given below.

Graph 1 graph 2 graph 3

Figure 8 Graph 1 has four vertices with an odd number of edges connected to
them. Graph 2 has two vertices with an odd number of edges connected to them,
and three vertices with an even number of edges connected to them. Graph 3 has
six vertices with an even number of edges connected to them.
we find:

 It is impossible to draw graph 1 without either taking the pen off paper or
re-tracing an edge.
 We can draw graph 2, but only by starting at either A or D, in each case the
path will end at the other vertex of D or A.
 Graph 3 can be drawn regardless of starting position and you will always
return to the start vertex.

In order to establish the differences, we must consider the order of the vertices for
each graph. The following when the order of all the vertices is even the graph is
Travers able. When there are two odd vertices, we can draw the graph but the start
and end vertices are different. When there are four odd vertices the graph can’t
be drawn without repeating an edge.

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 vertex order vertex order
vertex order
A 3 A 4
A 3
B 4 B 4
B 3
C 4 C 4
C 3
D 3 D 4
D 3
E 2 E 2
F 2
Graph 1 Graph 2 Graph 3

We can use the following algorithm:

1. Identify all vertices in the graph with odd degree (i.e., an odd number of
edges incident to the vertex).
2. For each pair of odd-degree vertices, odd an edge between them with a
weight equal to the shortest distance between them.
3. Find the minimum-weight perfect matching on the set of new edges (i.e.,
the set of edges connecting the odd-degree vertices).

4. Add the matching edges to the original graph to create a new, Eulerian
graph.
5. Find a Eulerian circuit on the new graph using any standard algorithm (e.g.,
Hierholzer’s algorithm).
6. Traverse the Eulerian circuit, taking each edge exactly twice (once in each
direction), to visit every edge in the original graph.

19
To find the shortest path in (figure 2.10), while each node represents a street
intersecting, and each edge represents a street. the numbers on the edges represent
the distance between two intersections for example, the edge between 𝐴25 and𝐴30
has a distance of 1.6 kilo meter.

Figure 9 graph showing street map of Duhok

First, you need to identify the odd-degree vertices in the graph, which are 𝐴4 , 𝐴11 ,
𝐴12 , and 𝐴18 , then we need to find a minimumweight matching of these vertices.

Since there are more than two odd-degree vertices, of each degree, there is more
than one way to matching them, we can compute the weights of the edges
connecting the odd-degree vertices:

(𝐴4 , 𝐴11 ) = 5.86 ,(𝐴4 , 𝐴12 ) = 7.28 ,(𝐴4 , 𝐴18 ) = 2.82,(𝐴11 , 𝐴12 ) = 1.44,

(𝐴11 ,𝐴18 ) =3.68 ,(𝐴12 ,𝐴18 ) =4.44 ,(𝐴𝑖 , 𝐴𝑖 ) = ∞ when 𝑖 =

4,11,12,18

Using an algorithm to find a minimum-weight. Perfect matching, we can select

the following edges:

(𝐴4 , 𝐴18 ) ,(𝐴11 , 𝐴12 )

The total weight of this matching is:

1.44+2.82+1.44+2.82 = 8.525

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In the matching that we have chosen for the odd-degree vertices in the graph, the
total weight of the four edges connecting these vertices is 8.525 kilometers. This
represents the minimum amount of additional distance that the delivery guy
would need to travel in order to visit all edges in the graph at least once, and return
to the starting point.

To calculate the total weight of the graph, we need to sum up the weights of all
the edges in the graph. From the given graph, we can see that the weights of the
edges are as follows:

(𝐴1 , 𝐴2 ) = 1.28 , (𝐴2 , 𝐴3 ) = 0.96 , (𝐴3 , 𝐴4 ) = 2.25 , (𝐴4 , 𝐴5 ) = 1.44,

(𝐴5 , 𝐴6 ) = 1.44, (𝐴6 , 𝐴7 ) = 1.6, (𝐴7 , 𝐴8 ) = 1.28, (𝐴8 , 𝐴9 ) = 0.64 ,

(𝐴9 , 𝐴10 ) = 0.96 , (𝐴10 , 𝐴11 ) = 0.9, (𝐴11 , 𝐴12 ) = 1.44 , (𝐴12 , 𝐴13 ) = 0.64,

(𝐴13 , 𝐴14 ) = 1.28 , (𝐴14 , 𝐴15 ) = 0.8, (𝐴15 , 𝐴16 ) = 0.8, (𝐴16 , 𝐴17 ) = 1.9,

(𝐴17 , 𝐴18 ) = 0.48, (𝐴18 , 𝐴19 ) = 0.48, (𝐴19 , 𝐴20 ) = 1.24 (𝐴20 , 𝐴21 ) = 1.6,

(𝐴21 , 𝐴22 ) = 1.07, (𝐴22 , 𝐴23 ) = 1.44 , (𝐴23 , 𝐴24 ) = 0.96 , (𝐴24 , 𝐴1 ) =
1.28,

(𝐴4 , 𝐴25 ) = 0.16, (𝐴25 , 𝐴26 ) = 0.48, (𝐴26 , 𝐴27 ) = 0.8, (𝐴27 , 𝐴28 ) =
0.9,

(𝐴19 , 𝐴28 ) = 0.32, (𝐴19 , 𝐴29 ) = 1.28 ,

(𝐴11 , 𝐴30 ) = 0.32, (𝐴29 , 𝐴30 ) = 1.6, (𝐴16 , 𝐴31 ) = 0.8, (𝐴18 , 𝐴31 ) = 1.9,

(𝐴16 , 𝐴32 ) = 1.1, (𝐴12 , 𝐴32 ) = 0.96

Adding up all these weights, we get:

1.28 + 0.96 + 2.25 + 1.44 + 1.44 + 1.6 + 1.28 + 0.64 + 0.96 + 0.9 + 1.44

21
 + 0.64 + 1.28 + 0.8 + 0.8 + 1.9 + 0.48 + 0.48 + 1.24 + 1.6

+ 1.07+ 1.44 + 0.96 + 1.28 + 0.16 + 0.48 + 0.8 + 0.9 + 0.32+1.28

+ 1.6 + 0.32 + 0.8 + 1.9 + 1.1+0.96 = 39.59

Therefore, the total weight of the graph is 39.59 kilometers.

After adding the edges from, the minimum-weight matching, the resulting graph
is:

Figure 10 graph showing street map of Duhok after adding edges to odd
vertices

the graph now has no odd-degree vertices, which means that it has an Eulerian
circuit. The delivery guy can simply traverse the circuit to visit every edge in the
graph exactly once and return to 𝐴4 . one possible Eulerian circuit is:

𝐴4 → 𝐴5 → 𝐴6 → 𝐴7 → 𝐴8 → 𝐴9 → 𝐴10 → 𝐴11 → 𝐴12 → 𝐴13 → 𝐴14 → 𝐴15 →

𝐴16 →𝐴17 → 𝐴18 → 𝐴19 →𝐴20 →𝐴21 → 𝐴22 → 𝐴23 → 𝐴24 → 𝐴1 → 𝐴2 → 𝐴3 → 𝐴4
→ 𝐴25 → 𝐴26 → 𝐴27 → 𝐴28 → 𝐴19 → 𝐴18 → 𝐴31 → 𝐴16 →𝐴32
→ 𝐴12 →𝐴11 →𝐴30 → 𝐴29 → 𝐴19 →𝐴28 →𝐴27 →𝐴26 →𝐴25 →𝐴4

The total distance traveled is the sum of the lengths of the edges in the circuit:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐴4 𝐴5 + 𝐴5 𝐴6 + 𝐴6 𝐴7 + 𝐴7 𝐴8 + 𝐴8 𝐴9 + 𝐴9 𝐴10 + 𝐴10 𝐴11

22
 + 𝐴11 𝐴12 + 𝐴12 𝐴13 + 𝐴13 𝐴14 +𝐴14 𝐴15 + 𝐴15 𝐴16 + 𝐴16 𝐴17 +
𝐴17 𝐴18
+𝐴18 𝐴19 +𝐴19 𝐴20 +𝐴20 𝐴21 +𝐴21 𝐴22 +𝐴22 𝐴23 +𝐴23 𝐴24
+𝐴24 𝐴1 +𝐴1 𝐴2 +𝐴2 𝐴3 +𝐴3 𝐴4 +𝐴4 𝐴25 +𝐴25 𝐴26 + 𝐴26 𝐴27
+𝐴27 𝐴28 +𝐴28 𝐴19 +𝐴19 𝐴18 + 𝐴18 𝐴31 + 𝐴31 𝐴16 + 𝐴16 𝐴32 +
𝐴32 𝐴12 +𝐴12 𝐴11 +𝐴11 𝐴30 +𝐴30 𝐴29 +𝐴29 𝐴19 +𝐴19 𝐴28 +𝐴28 𝐴27
+𝐴27 𝐴26 +𝐴26 𝐴25 + 𝐴25 𝐴4
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 1.44 + 1.44+ 1.6 + 1.28 + 0.64 + 0.96 +0.9 + 1.44
+0.64+1.28+0.8+0.8+1.9+0.48+0.48+1.24+1.6+1.07

+1.44+0.96+1.28+1.28+0.96+2.25+0.16+0.48+0.8+0.9+0.32+0.48

+1.9+0.8+1.1+0.96+1.44+0.32+1.6+1.28+0.32+0.9+0.8+0.48+
0.16=43.85

Therefore, the shortest path that visits every vertex at least once and returns to 𝐴4
is 43.85 kilometers.

train system can potentially help alleviate traffic congestion in certain areas, as it
provides an alternative mode of transportation that can reduce the number of
vehicles on the road. However, it is important to consider several factors before
implementing such a system.

Firstly, the cost of building and maintaining a train system can be substantial, and
the government would need to carefully consider the financial implications of
such a project. Additionally, the train system would need to be convenient and
accessible to users, with stations located in areas where there is a high demand
for transportation.

Another factor to consider is the existing infrastructure in the area. The train
system would require a dedicated track, and the government would need to ensure
there is sufficient space and resources to accommodate the new system without
disrupting existing traffic flows or infrastructure.

Furthermore, the train system would need to be integrated with other modes of
transportation, such as buses, taxis, and private vehicles, to ensure seamless and
23
efficient travel for commuters. The government would need to consider how the
train system would fit into the overall transport network and how it would impact
the existing transport options available to the public.

24
 Conclusion

The Chinese Postman Problem stands as a classic puzzle in graph theory,

entailing the quest for the shortest closed path that traverses every edge within a
given graph. This challenge extends its reach into practical domains like
transportation, logistics, and network design To tackle the Chinese Postman
Problem, we commence by identifying the odd-degree vertices within the graph.
Subsequently, we seek a minimum-weight matching for these vertices, thereby
introducing even-length paths into the graph, thereby morphing it into an
Eulerian graph. With this transformation, we employ algorithms to unearth an
Eulerian circuit within the adapted graph, effectively outlining the shortest
closed path that touches every edge within the original graph. Various
algorithms, such as Hierholzer's or Edmonds', serve as tools for computing
solutions to this problem. However, it's worth noting that some graphs may not
yield a solution due to an odd number of odd-degree vertices, impeding their
pairing in a minimum-weight matching The Chinese Postman Problem emerges
as a captivating and consequential enigma within graph theory, bearing
significant implications across scientific and engineering realms.

In evaluating paths or routes, the weight of a graph emerges as a crucial

measure, indicative of efficiency and cost. Specifically, within the context of the
Chinese Postman Problem, graph weight mirrors the cumulative distance a
delivery individual would traverse to visit each edge at least once and return to
the starting point Understanding the total weight of a graph enhances
comprehension of its structure and attributes, facilitating informed decisions
regarding navigation and optimization with in the graph.

25
In conclusion, while introducing a train system presents a promising avenue to
alleviate traffic congestion in specific locales, its implementation demands
meticulous planning, considering factors such as cost, accessibility,
infrastructure, and integration with existing transportation systems.

26
 References

1. agarwal, l., agarwal, s., niharika & agarwal, p., 2019. history of graph theory. [Online]
Available at: https://prinsli.com/history-of-graph-theory/ [Accessed 13 November 2024].

2. Bondy, J. A., 2006. Graph Theory with Application. third edition ed. New Delhi: NEW AGE
INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED .

3. Hamo, D. S., Malaika, M., & Namo, Q. (2018). Planning to control traffic congestion in Duhok
University campus. Journal of University of Duhok, 21(1), 97-110.
https://doi.org/10.26682/sjuod.2018.21.19

4. Mohtashim, M., 2019. Eulerian Graphs. [Online]

Available at: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/eulerian-graphs#
[Accessed 28 march2024 ]

5. Mrs.M.durgadevi & Ms.Ch, S. H., 2018. use of the graph theory

in transportation problems and different networks. applied
science and computations, 5(12), pp. 32-40.

6. naduvath, s., 2017. Lecture Notes on Graph Theory. first ed. kerala,inia: Centre for Studies in
Discrete Mathematics.

7. Sinha, R., 2015. connectivity of grapgs. [Online]

Available at: https://www.slideshare.net/aswathymaths/a-study-on-connectivity-in-
graphtheory-june-18-123e [Accessed 1 april 2024].

8. stephanie, 2019. Graph theory: Definitions for common terms. [Online] Available at:
//www.statisticshowto.com/graph-theory/ [Accessed 29 january 2024].

27
 ‫پوختە‬

‫زۆرجار گرافەکان بەکاردەهێنرێن بۆ مۆدێلکردنی کێشەکانی باشکردن‪ .‬لە پرۆسەی‬

‫باشکردندا ئامانج ئەوەیە کە باشترین چارەسەر لە کۆمەڵێک چارەسەری ئەگەری‬
‫گرافەکان نوێنەرایەتییەکی بینراوی پەیوەندییەکانی نێوان یەکەکان‬ ‫بدۆزرێتەوە‪.‬‬
‫دابین دەکەن‪ ،‬ئەمەش وایان لێدەکات کە بەسوود بن بۆ مۆدێلکردنی سیناریۆکانی‬
‫باشکردنی ژیرانە وەک دۆزینەوەی کورتترین ڕێگا‪ ،‬کەمکردنەوەی تێچوونەکان‪،‬‬
‫زۆرجار‬ ‫سەرچاوەکان‪.‬‬ ‫تەرخانکردنی‬ ‫باشکردنی‬ ‫یان‬ ‫کارایی‪،‬‬ ‫زۆرترین‬
‫ئەلگۆریتمەکانی باشکردن لەسەر گرافەکان کاردەکەن بۆ دۆزینەوەی چارەسەری‬
‫گونجاو بە شێوەیەکی کارا بە تێپەڕاندنی گرێ و لێوارەکان لەسەر بنەمای هەندێک‬
‫باشکردن‪ ،‬بە تایبەت لە تیۆری گرافدا‪ ،‬ڕێبازێکی‬ ‫پێوەر یان سنووردارکردن‪.‬‬
‫سیستماتیکی پێشکەش دەکات بۆ چارەسەرکردنی پرسە ئاڵۆزەکانی شار وەک‬
‫قەرەباڵغی هاتوچۆ‪ .‬دۆهوک وەک زۆرێک لە شارەکان بەهۆی زیادبوونی ژمارەی‬
‫دانیشتووان و زیادبوونی هاتوچۆی ئۆتۆمبێلەکانەوە ڕووبەڕووی ئاستەنگ دەبێتەوە‪،‬‬
‫کە دەبێتە هۆی قەرەباڵغی و دواکەوتن و پیسبوون‪ :‬ئەم توێژینەوەیە چارەسەرێک‬
‫بۆ قەرەباڵغی هاتوچۆ لە دۆهوک پێشنیار دەکات‪ ،‬بە بەکارهێنانی بنەماکانی‬
‫کێشەی پۆستەچی چینی ( )‪CPP‬و داوای مۆدێرنیزاسیۆنی سیستماتیکی دەکات‬
‫‪ .‬ڕاهێنان دەکات‪ .‬بە بەکارهێنانی میتۆدۆلۆژیای ‪ ،CPP‬توێژینەوەکە ئامانجیەتی‬
‫ڕێگاکانی ئۆتۆمبێلی گونجاو دەستنیشان بکات‪ ،‬قەرەباڵغی کەم بکاتەوە و ئەزموونی‬
‫گەشتکردن بۆ دانیشتووان باشتر بکات‬

‫‪A‬‬
 ‫ملخص‬

‫غالبًا ما تُستخدم الرسوم البيانية لنمذجة مشكالت التحسين‪ .‬في عملية التحسين‪ ،‬الهدف هو إيجاد أفضل حل‬
‫من بين مجموعة من الحلول الممكنة‪ .‬توفر الرسوم البيانية تمثيالً مرئيًا للعالقات بين الكيانات‪ ،‬مما يجعلها‬
‫مفيدة لنمذجة سيناريوهات التحسين الحكيمة مثل العثور على أقصر مسار‪ ،‬أو تقليل التكاليف‪ ،‬أو زيادة‬
‫الكفاءة إلى الحد األقصى‪ ،‬أو تحسين تخصيص الموارد‪ .‬غالبًا ما تعمل خوارزميات التحسين على الرسوم‬
‫البيانية للبحث عن الحلول المثلى بكفاءة من خالل تجاوز العقد و حواف بناء على بعض المعايير أو القيود‪.‬‬
‫يقدم التحسين‪ ،‬وخاصة في نظرية الرسم البياني‪ ،‬نهجا منظما لمعالجة القضايا الحضرية المعقدة مثل‬
‫االزدحام المروري‪ .‬تواجه دهوك مثل العديد من المدن تحديات بسبب النمو السكاني وزيادة حركة مرور‬
‫المركبات‪ ،‬مما يؤدي إلى االزدحام والتأخير والتلوث‪ :‬تقترح هذه الورقة حالً لالزدحام المروري في‬
‫والدعوة إلى التحديث المنهجي‪ (CPP) .‬دهوك‪ ،‬وذلك باستخدام مبادئ مشكلة ساعي البريد الصيني‬
‫‪ ،‬تهدف الدراسة إلى تحديد المسارات المثلى للمركبات وتقليل االزدحام ‪ CPP‬يدرب‪ .‬وباستخدام منهجية‬
‫وتحسين تجربة السفر للمقيمين‬

‫‪B‬‬