Research Methodology

MEANING OF RESEARCH
• “A careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”
• According to Clifford Woody research comprises
defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,
organising and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Types of research can be looked at from three
different perspectives:
• 1. applications of the findings of the research
study;
• 2. objectives of the study;
• 3. mode of enquiry used in conducting the
study.
Types of Research
 Types of research: Application
perspective
• Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas
fundamental (Basic or pure) research is mainly concerned with
generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
• Basic research helps expand existing knowledge, and Applied research
provides a solution to an existing problem.
• Examples of basic research
– A study examining whether a vegetarian diet is healthier than one with meat
– A study on the origination of cryptocurrency

• Examples of applied research

– A study on how to treat patients with insomnia

– A study searching for ways to encourage high school graduates to attend
college
 TYPES OF RESEARCH: objectives
perspective
• Descriptive study attempts to describe systematically a situation,
problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information
about, say, the living conditions of a community.
– The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control
over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is
happening.
– Before Launching A New Line Of Gym Wear, An Organization Chose More Than
One Descriptive Method To Gather Vital Information. Their Objective Was To
Find The Kind Of Gym Clothes People Like Wearing And The Ones They Would
Like To See In The Market. The Organization Chose To Conduct A Survey By
Recording Responses In Gyms, Sports Shops And Yoga Centers. As A Second
Method, They Chose To Observe Members Of Different Gyms And Fitness
Institutions. They Collected Volumes Of Vital Data Such As Color And Design
Preferences And The Amount Of Money They’re Willing To Spend On It.
The study will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of Gym
wear,” but will not cover any investigative information about “why” the
patterns exist.
– descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for
example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data.
• Correlation study is to discover or establish the existence of a
relationship/association/interdependence between two or
more aspects of a situation.
• Correlational research is a type of research method that
involves observing two variables in order to establish a
statistically corresponding relationship between them.
• The aim of Correlational research is to identify variables
that have some sort of relationship do the extent that a
change in one creates some change in the other.

– What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale

of a product?
– What is the relationship between stressful living
and the incidence of heart attack?
• Explanatory research attempts to clarify why
and how there is a relationship between two
aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
– why stressful living results in heart attacks.
• Exploratory research is carried out with the
objective either to explore an area where little
is known or to investigate the possibilities of
undertaking a particular research study.
– So, research topics that have little published
material and reports are the “go to”
for exploratory research.
 Types of research: mode of enquiry
perspective
1. The structured approach; 2. the unstructured approach
• In the structured approach everything that forms
the research process – objectives, design, sample,
and the questions that you plan to ask of
respondents – is predetermined.
• The unstructured approach, by contrast, allows
flexibility in all these aspects of the process.
• The structured approach to enquiry is usually
classified as quantitative research and
unstructured as qualitative research.
Research Process
STEPS IN SOCIAL RESEARCH
• Selection of the problem
• Study of research literature
• Formulating the problem
• Research design
• Formulating the hypothesis
• Selecting the sample
• Collection of data
• Methods and tool for data collection
• Analysis of data
• Interpretation and generalizations
 Research Process
• Formulating the research problem
– Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the
research problem, viz., understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful
terms from an analytical point of view.
– He must decide the general area of interest or aspect
of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into.
• Extensive literature survey

– The researcher must at the same time examine all

available literature to get himself acquainted with the
selected problem
• Development of working hypotheses
– Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
– Working hypothesis: Hypotheses which are subject to modification as the investigation
proceeds.
– The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to
keep him on the right track
– It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
– For ex:- if you're studying whether a change in temperature affects productivity
• Null hypothesis
• A null hypothesis proposes that there's no relationship between an independent
and a dependent variable.
– The number of working hours in a day doesn't affect employee morale.

• Alternative hypothesis
– An alternative hypothesis aims to disprove the null hypothesis after you've tested your original
prediction and learned that it was incorrect.
– Employees are more productive if the company provides them with one break every two hours,
as opposed to one break every four hours.
RESEARCH DESIGN
• Research design is the basic framework which
provides guidelines for the rest of research
process.
• “Research design constitute the blue print for
the collection, measurement and analysis of
data” – Bernard S Philips
• “Research design as the logical and systematic
planning and directing a piece of research” –
Pauline and Young
The preparation of the research design, appropriate
for a particular research problem, involves usually
the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) (ii) the availability and skills of the researcher
and his staff (if any);
(iii) (iii) explanation of the way in which selected
means of obtaining information will be
organised and the reasoning leading to the
selection;
(iv) (iv) the time available for research; and (v) the
cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance
available for the purpose.
FEATURES OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN
• Flexible
• Appropriate
• Efficient
• Economical
• Reliable
• Suitable to the context
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO
RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Dependent and independent variables: If one
variable depends upon or is a consequence of
the other variable, it is termed as a dependent
variable, and the variable that is antecedent to
the dependent variable is termed as an
independent variable
➢ For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then
height is a dependent variable and age is an independent
variable
➢ Further, if in addition to being dependent upon age, height
also depends upon the individual’s sex, then height is a
dependent variable and age and sex are independent
variables.
2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not
related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as
a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described
as an ‘experimental error’
3. Control: One important characteristic of a
good research design is to minimise the
influence or effect of extraneous variable(s).
4. Confounded relationship: When the
dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable(s), the
relationship between the dependent and
independent variables is said to be
confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis:
– The research hypothesis is a predictive statement
that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable.
– Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at
least, one independent and one dependent
variable.
– Predictive statements which are not to be
objectively verified or the relationships that are
assumed but not to be tested, are not termed
research hypotheses.
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research:
– Research in which the independent variable is
manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-
testing research’ and a research in which an
independent variable is not manipulated is called
‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research.
– An example of a non-experimental research design
could be gathering information regarding mothers
who experience postpartum depression within the
first three months after undergoing childbirth. This is
an example of a longitudinal study since it includes
tracking people over a specific period of time.
• Ex- For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study
whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of
students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50
students and tests their intelligence and reading ability by
calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two
sets of scores.
• But now suppose that our researcher randomly selects 50
students from a group of students who are to take a course
in statistics and then divides them into two groups by
randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies
programme, and 25 to Group B, the special studies
programme. At the end of the course, he administers a test
to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the
training programme on the student’s performance-level.
This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing
research because in this case the independent variable,
viz., the type of training programme, is manipulated.
7. Experimental and control groups:
– In an experimental hypothesis-testing research
when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is
termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is
exposed to some novel or special condition, it is
termed an ‘experimental group’.
– For example If you want to explore the effect of
salt on plant growth, the control group would be a
set of plants not exposed to salt, while the
experimental group would receive the salt
treatment.
8. Treatments: The different conditions under
which experimental and control groups are
put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’.
Ex:- if we want to determine through an
experiment the comparative impact of three
varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in
that case the three varieties of fertilizers will
be treated as three treatments.
 Sample Design
• CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY
• A population is a collection of all distinct individuals or objects or
items under study.
– Census inquiry:- A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ .

– The number of entities in a population , called the population size,

denoted by N.
• The part of the population selected is called a sample.
– No of individuals in a sample is called sample size. denoted by n.
– A sample should be representative of the population.

• Researcher must prepare a sample design for his study i.e., he must
plan how a sample should be selected and of what size such a
sample would be.
• To estimate the amount of wheat produced
per acre, a farmer divides his total land
holding of 350 acres into 350 one- acre plots.
He then selects 10 plots at random and
examines his harvest in these 10 plots.
Identify the a) Population, b) Sample
 STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
• Type of universe
• Size of sample
• Parameters of interest
• Sampling procedure
Samples can be either probability samples or non-
probability samples.
Probability sampling:-
– It is based on the concept of random selection.
– Each member of the population has a known chance of
being selected.
– A simple random sample (or simply a random sample)
from a finite population as a sample which is chosen in
such a way that each of the NCn possible samples has the
same probability, 1/NCn , of being selected.
Non-probability sampling:-
– Non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.
– It is a method in which not all population members have
an equal chance of participating in the study.
– In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected
deliberately by the researcher; his choice concerning the
items remains supreme.
Probability samples:-
• simple random sampling
• systematic sampling
• stratified sampling
• cluster/area sampling
Non-probability samples:-
• Convenience sampling
• Judgment sampling
• Snowball sampling techniques
• Simple random sampling
– In a simple random sample, every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected.
Your sampling frame should include the whole
population.
• Systematic sampling
– Systematic sampling is similar to simple random
sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct.
Every member of the population is listed with a
number, but instead of randomly generating numbers,
individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
– It can be taken as an improvement over a simple
random sample in as much as the systematic sample is
spread more evenly over the entire population
• Stratified random sampling
– If the population from which a sample is to be
drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group,
then stratified sampling technique is applied so as
to obtain a representative sample.
– Stratified random sampling involves dividing the
entire population into homogeneous groups called
strata (plural for stratum). Random samples are
then selected from each stratum.
– Ex:- Divide a sample of adults into subgroups by
age, like 18–29, 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, and 60 and
above.
• Cluster sampling is a method of obtaining a
representative sample from a population that
researchers have divided into groups.
• An individual cluster is a subgroup that mirrors
the diversity of the whole population while the
set of clusters are similar to each other.
• Typically, researchers use this approach when
studying large, geographically dispersed
populations because it is a cost-controlling
measure.
 Comparison of Stratified & Cluster
Sampling
• Stratified sampling is used when each group
has small variation within itself but there is a
wide variation between the groups.
• We use cluster sampling in just opposite case
ie when there is considerable variation within
each group but the groups are similar to each
other.
• Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling
method where units are selected for inclusion in
the sample because they are the easiest for the
researcher to access.
• While the subjects are easy to access, the researchers
are unlikely to obtain a sample representing
the population accurately.
• Examples of convenience sampling include online and
social media surveys, asking acquaintances, and
surveying people in a mall, on the street, and in other
crowded locations.
Convenience sampling could be a good fit for your research
if:
– You want to get an idea of people’s attitudes and opinions.
– You want to run a test pilot for your survey. Use it when
you’re testing your survey instrument
• Judgment sampling (purposive sampling)
– It is a non-probability sampling technique in which
the sample members are chosen only on the basis
of the researcher’s knowledge and judgment.
– The primary consideration in purposive sampling
is your judgment as to who can provide the best
information to achieve the objectives of your
study.
– Ex- if a researcher wants to study the buying
patterns of high-end luxury car owners. The
researcher may use judgemental sampling to
select a sample of individuals who they believe
are most likely to purchase a luxury car.
 Snowball sampling
• Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method where
new units are recruited by other units to form part of the sample.
• Snowball sampling is the process of selecting a sample using
networks.
• Also known as chain sampling or network sampling.
• Snowball sampling begins with one or more study participants. It
then continues on the basis of referrals from those participants.
This process continues until you reach the desired sample, or a
saturation point.
• For example, if you are studying the level of customer satisfaction
among the members of an elite country club, you will find it
extremely difficult to collect primary data sources unless a member
of the club agrees to have a direct conversation with you and
provides the contact details of the other members of the club.
• Determining sample design
– The researcher must decide the way of selecting a
sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design.
• Collecting the data:
Primary data can be collected through survey in
the following ways:-
– By observation
– Through personal interview
– Through telephone interviews
– By mailing of questionnaires
• By observation:
– Observation is a purposeful, systematic and
selective way of watching and listening to an
interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
– This method is no doubt an expensive method and
the information provided by this method is also
very limited.
– As such this method is not suitable in inquiries
where large samples are concerned
• There are two types of observation:
1. participant observation; 2. non-participant
observation
Participant observation, a researcher, participate in the
activities of the group being observed in the same
manner as its members, with or without their
knowing that they are being observed. For example,
you might want to examine the reactions of the
general population towards people in wheelchairs.
Non-participant observation, on the other hand, is when
you, as a researcher, do not get involved in the
activities of the group but remain a passive observer,
watching and listening to its activities. For example,
you might want to study the functions carried out by
nurses in a hospital.
• Through personal interview:
– The investigator follows a rigid procedure and
seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions
through personal interviews.
– This method of collecting data is usually carried
out in a structured way where output depends
upon the ability of the interviewer to a large
extent.
• Through telephone interviews:
– This method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondents on telephone itself.
– It is particularly useful, when the survey has to be
accomplished in a very limited time

• By mailing of questionnaires:

– Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a

request to return after completing the same.
– Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for
testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals
the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
• Execution of the project
– If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such
a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be
coded.
– If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training
of the interviewers.
• Analysis of data
– The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as establishment of categories, the application
of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical inferences
• Hypothesis-testing

– It will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.

– Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for the purpose.
Generalisations and interpretation
• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times.
• to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a
theory
Preparation of the report or the thesis
In its preliminary pages the report should carry
• Title and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword.
• A table of contents followed by a list of tables and list
of graphs and charts, if any.
In the main text of the report should have the following
parts
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of
the objective of the research and an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
The scope of the study along with various limitations
should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings:
(c) Main report: The main body of the report
should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: The results of his research clearly
and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
The end of the report:-
• Appendices contain material that is too detailed
to include in the main report, such as long
mathematical derivations or calculations, detailed
technical drawings, or tables of raw data.
• Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports,
etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.
 Books
• Research Methodology, Methods &
Techniques – CR Kothari
• Research Methodology – Ranjit Kumar