Unit-V BIT PATTERN and

CHANGING A BIT SHIFT REGISTER

 Contents of Unit-V
Bit Pattern and Changing a PLC ANALOG OPERATIONS
Shift Bit Register ❖ Analog Modules and Systems
❖ PLC Sequencer Functions and ❖ Analog Signal Processing
Applications ❖ Multi Bit Data Processing
❖ Controlling a Two-Axis Robot ❖ Analog Output Application Examples
with a PLC ❖ PID Principles
❖ Controlling a Three-Axis ❖ Position Indicator with PID Control
Robot with a PLC ❖ PID Modules
❖ PLC Matrix Functions ❖ PID Tuning
❖ PID Functions
 PLC Sequencer
PLC sequencing repeats a set of processes in a certain order until
no additional input signals are registered. It is widely used in
industrial automation scenarios, specifically in batch operations. The
same set of processes is repeated in the same sequence for each
new batch.
Example
Imagine there are 4 light bulbs L1, L2, L3, and L4 which are to be
turned on in a certain order.

Step 1: L1 and L2 are turned on.

Step 2: L3 and L4 are turned on.
Step 3: L1 and L3 are turned on.
Step 4: L2 and L4 are turned on.
After the four steps are completed, step one is executed, and it goes on.
This can be achieved with sequence output instruction (SQO) using a PLC.
SQO instruction transfers a 16-bit data to control outputs for sequential
machine operations. The symbol for the sequencer output command is
as shown in next slide.
SQO representative symbol
There are six parameters represented in the symbol.

File: This represents the memory address of the sequencer file. We must create a file
with Boolean bits representing the various steps in the sequential output.
Mask: It represents the address in which the sequence instructions are given. In the
example symbol given we have given 00F in hexadecimal. The first eight bits do not
provide any data and the complete data is in the last four bits.
Dest: This is the address of the output file to which data is transferred from the
sequencer file.
Control: This shows the address of the control element that stores status byte, length,
and position of the file.
Length: This indicates the number of steps in a sequence. Since we have four steps it
is shown as 4 in the symbol.
Position: This represents the exact step that is being executed at the moment.
B3:0 represents the starting position of the setup. B3:1 represents the first step
and so on. Bit 0 is for the status of L1, Bit 1 for L2, Bit 2 for L3, and Bit 4 for L4.
The high value of the bit (1) indicates light being bright, and low value (0)
indicates the light turned off. We have mapped the required Boolean values in
each step to the sequencer file.
Ladder diagram for the setup
The four outputs corresponding to bit 0, bit 1, bit 2, and bit 3 is connected to L1, L2, L3, and
L4 respectively. In the initial position, the values in B3:0 will be replicated, and all the lights
will be turned off. When the first pulse is applied to I0, B3:1 will be replicated. L1 and L2
corresponding to bit 0 and bit 1 will be turned on.

Similarly, in the next pulse, L3 and L4 will be turned on and L1 and L2 will be turned off. In
the next pulse, L4 will be turned off and L3 and L1 will be bright. In the same fashion step, 4
is replicated at the next pulse of I0. After that step 1 will be replicated again.

The IO in this example can be a switch that needs to be turned on manually or output of a
sensor which measures some parameters. Instead of the light bulbs, the output can be a
crane or motor or other industrial equipment.
ELCTROMECHANICAL SEQUENCING
PLC SEQUENCER FUNCTION
 PLC SEQUENCER FUNCTION
There are three inputs
STEP CIRCUIT - Each pulse steps the function to the next HR pattern.
RESET CIRCUIT - Each on pulse resets back to the first HR.
ENABLE CIRCUIT - when ON the function may be stepped, but not when OFF.

The SEQUENCER function block is programmed with four pieces of information.

➢ Number of steps to be sequenced through

➢ The starting register used for the sequence
➢ Step pointer location, an HR that shows which step you are on
➢ Destination is the OG register, a group of HRs that are to be controlled ON and
OFF by the SEQUENCER function.
PLC SEQUENCER Function and Pattern for Light Sequence
PLC SEQUENCER Function and Pattern for Light Sequence
 ROBOT
Definition of a robot
A robot is a re-programmable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material,
parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks: (Definition by Robot Institute of America, 1979)

WHAT IS ROBOTICS?
• It is a Gadget which tries to mimics human behavior.

A ROBOT IS

An electromechanical device that is;

Reprogrammable
Multifunctional
Sensible for environment
Most popular drive technologies:
1. Electrical
2. Pneumatic
3. Hydraulic
Electric: all robots use electricity as the primary source of energy.

✓ Electricity turns the pumps that provide hydraulic and pneumatic

pressure.
✓ It also powers the robot controller and all the electronic components and
peripheral devices.
✓ In all electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the controller, are
electrically powered.
✓ Because electric robot does not require a hydraulic power unit, they
conserve
floor space and decrease factory noise.
✓ No energy conversion is required.
• Pneumatic: these are generally found in relatively low-cost manipulators with
low
load carrying capacity.
✓ Pneumatic drives have been used for many years for powering simple stop-
tostop
motions.
✓ It is inherently light weight, particularly when operating pressures are moderate.

• Hydraulic: are either linear position actuators or a rotary vane configuration.

✓ Hydraulic actuators provide a large amount of power for a given actuator.

✓ The high power-to-weight ratio makes the hydraulic actuator an attractive
choice for moving moderate to high loads at reasonable speeds and moderate
noise level.
✓ Hydraulic motors usually provide a more efficient way of energy to achieve a
better performance, but they are expensive and generally less accurate.
Work Envelope Geometries

1. Cartesian coordinate robot

2. Cylindrical coordinate robot
3. Spherical coordinate robot
4. Articulate coordinate robot
WORK ENVELOPE
The volume in space that a robot‟s end-effector can reach, both in position and
orientation.
In Cartesian, the end point of the arm is capable of operating in a cuboidal space,
called workspace.

WORKSPACE
Represents the portion of space around the base of the manipulator that can be
accessed by the arm endpoint.

Axes Type Function

1-3 Major Position the wrist
4-6 Minor Orient the tool
TYPES OF ROBOT JOINTS:
Cartesian coordinate robot

• The first type of robot is called the Cartesian robot.

• This type of robot uses the X, Y, Z three dimensional coordinate system to control movement and
location.
• PPP
Gantry Robot
• In a gantry robot, each of these motions
o are arranged to be perpendicular to each other and o are typically labeled X, Y, and Z.
• X and Y are located in the horizontal plane and Z is vertical.
• A gantry robot can move things anywhere within this envelope or perform some
operation on an item within the envelope.
 Cylindrical coordinate robot

Cylindricalrobots have a main axis that is in the centre of the

operating envelope.
• It can reach into tight areas without sacrificing speed or
repeatability.
• RPP
• If the first joint of a Cartesian- coordinate robot is replaced
with a revolute joint to
form the configuration RPP, this produces a cylindrical-
coordinate robot.
• The revolute joint swings the arm back and forth about a
vertical base axis.
• The prismatic joints then move the wrist up and down along
the vertical axis and
in and out along a radial axis.
Spherical coordinate robot
Spherical or polar robots are similar
to a cylindrical robot, but form a spherical
range of motion using a
polar coordinate system.
RRP
The first revolute joint swings the arm
back and forth about a base axis that can also be thought of as a
vertical shoulder axis.
Articulate coordinate robot

Articulated arm robots have at least three rotary joints. They are frequently called an
anthropomorphic arm because they closely resemble a human arm.
Note: 3 degrees of freedom are necessary for position (x, y, z) and 3 degrees of
freedom are necessary for orientation (α, β, ).
TWO-AXIS ROBOT

Robot arms are widely used in robotic

applications. They can make movements similar
to a human hand. A robot arm could be an
independent application or a part of a bigger
robotic system. Robot arms are mainly used in
the industry for pick-and-place applications.

A robot arm usually consists of several links

connected by joints that can rotate. Here, a
robot arm including two joints of rotation, one
for the x-axis and the other for the y-axis.
TWO-AXIS ROBOT
TWO-AXIS ROBOT
 BASIC TWO-AXIS ROBOT WITH PLC SEQUENCER CONTROL
The step-by-step sequence of operation to move a part from position A to position B is as follows;

Arm is initially in the down-left position as shown.

Arm moves to upper position.

Arm rotates to right.

Hand extends to position A.

Gripper closes, gripping part.

Arm swings back to the left to position B.

Gripper opens, releasing part.

Hand retracts.

Arm lowers to the initial position.

• Assume the robot has four powered pneumatic solenoids.
• If all solenoids are off, no air is applied to the robots actuators.
• In this initial position, the robots is in the lowered, left position with the hand
retracted and the gripper open.
• Energizing each of the four solenoids causes the following action to occur :
1. ROTATE – arm rotates full right .
2. RAISE – arm rises to the upper position .
3. EXTEND – hand extends form the arm .
4. GRIP – the gripper closes .
An operational matrix for the robot to move a part from position a to position b shown in
table.
An O indicates the opposite position , down , left , in , or open

A simple control system for the robot shown in Table could consist of four switches , one
for each motion .
DISADVANTAGE OF THE FOUR SWITCH CONTROL:
1. The four switch control is that someone would have to do controlling continuously.
2. Turning off the switch would not immediately stop the arm; it would spring-return to
its initial position, which would be hazardous to anyone expecting it to stop
immediately.
3. There could be also problems in mechanical interface during operation in the upper
position with the arm extended , moving the are down could break off the arm on the
convey or below it. Also, if the gripper opened up while the arm was making a swing .
the part would be dropped or thrown outward .
 BASIC THREE-AXIS ROBOT WITH PLC SEQUENCER CONTROL
3-Axis top entry industrial robots are simple to operate and maintain and are considered the
workhorses of plastic injection molding. Whatever your automation needs are, our 3-Axis
Robots can help you automate the process.
 Three Axis Robots
The number of axes a robot has is one of the key factors to consider when selecting an industrial robot.
The more axes a robot has the greater the possibilities of movement will be. This is why six-axis robots,
like the FANUC Arcmate 120ic, are so common as they have a full range of motion that allows them
to automate most types of applications. However, not everyone will benefit or need a six-axis robot.
Those automating simple applications may only need a three-axis robot.
Three-axis industrial robots consist of three degrees of freedom, which means they can operate along the X, Y, and
Z planes. Unlike higher DOF robots, three-axis robots cannot tilt or rotate making them more rigid than a five-
axis FANUC M-410ib/140H or the six-axis Yaskawa Motoman MH24. Three-axis robots are able to automate simple
processes in which part orientations and locations do not vary. Most three-axis robots are used for pick and
place, part transfer, machine loading, and palletizing.
The majority of three-axis robots consist of Cartesian or SCARA robot types. However, there are
some delta robots featuring only three axes as well. The first axis of a three-axis robot is located at the
base and operates along the X plane. The first axis controls the horizontal movement of the robotic
arm for 180 degrees of motion from center. The first axis is what allows the robot arm to move from
right to left and vice versa along the X plane. The second axis allows for movement along both the X and
Y planes. It controls the vertical movement of the lower robotic arm. The third axis expands the vertical
movement of the robot arm by controlling the up and down motions of the upper robotic arm. Axis
three can operate along all three planes.
 Advantages of Three-Axis Robots

Since three-axis robots have only three degrees of freedom they can be easier
to operate and maintain. Programming a robot with three axes can be easier
than programming one with six as there are less axes to coordinate. In
addition, a three-axis robot can be easier to maintain since there are three
motors instead of six, reducing the robotic components to service. Since
three-axis robots are easier to operate and maintain they are ideal for those
new to robotic automation.

Another advantage of three-axis robots is they are generally more affordable

than those with more degrees of freedom. Typically, the more axes a robot
has the more it will cost.
 Disadvantages of Three-Axis Robots

One of the main disadvantages of three-axis robots is their limited range of motion.
Three-axis robots can accommodate linear movements but their inability to tilt or rotate
prevents them from automating more complex applications. Applications requiring
movement flexibility will need a FANUC R-2000ic or another six-axis articulated robot.

Since three-axis robots have a limited range of motion they have a narrower scope of
applications they can automate. For manufacturing processes that have high turnover, a
three-axis robot may not be able to adapt to process changes. However, the ABB 4600-
40 and other robots with more axes are capable of automating a wide variety of
applications making them incredibly adaptable.
 PID Working Principle
The goal of a PID
controller is to
produce a control
signal that can
dynamically minimize
the difference
between the output
and the desired
setpoint of a certain
system.

Mathematically, the complete control function in its most general form can be written as the sum of the three individual
contributions:
Example of error function with the highlighted contributions of the P, I
and D terms
The Proportional Term The proportional term is denoted
by P and is based on the current
error between the measured
output of the system and the
setpoint. This term facilitates the
output of the system being
brought back to the setpoint by
employing a correction that is
proportional to the amplitude of
the error.

The greater the error, the

greater the correction applied
by the proportional term, i.e.,
the greater the error with a
fixed Kp, the greater uP(t)
 The integral term is denoted by I and
The Integral Term applies a correction that is
proportional to the time integral of
the error
If a steady-state error exists, an
integral term with a large gain
coefficient will result in the control
signal removing the error faster than a
smaller integral term.

Increasing the integral term too

much may cause an oscillating
output if excess error is
accumulated. This results in the
control signal overshooting and the
creation of oscillations around the
setpoint.
 The derivative term is denoted by D and
The Derivative Term provides control over the error tendency
i.e. it is proportional to the time
derivative of the error.
This enables the rate of change of the
error to be reduced, which, in turn,
enhances the stability and
responsiveness of the control loop.

When the reference value rapidly changes,

such as in the case of a very noisy control
signal, the derivative of the error often
becomes very large. This leads to the PID
controller undergoing an abrupt change that
can cause instabilities or oscillations in the
control loop.
The effect of each term on the response of the system depends heavily on the system’s
characteristics.
As a result, the weighting of the Kp, Ki, and Kd gains may be adjusted to fine-tune the
performance of the control loop and to accomplish the desired accuracy and responsiveness.

Some applications or simple systems may not require all three control terms provided by a PID
controller. To operate the controller with only a subset of these terms, the unused terms can
be set to zero, thus resulting in a PI, PD, P, or I controller.

For instance, due to their slow dynamics, a PI controller is commonly used in applications that
prioritize steady-state error elimination and stability over fast response times.
 PID Tuning The process of setting the optimal
gains for P, I and D to get an ideal
Ziegler Nichols (Z-N) Tuning Method response from a control system is
Depending on the desired type of control loop (P, PI or PID) set the gains to the following values: called tuning.

Kp Ki Kd

P controller 0.5 Ku 0 0

PI controller 0.45 Ku 0.54 Ku / Tu 0

PID controller 0.6 Ku 1.2 Ku / Tu 0.075 Ku Tu

The critical gain Ku

Measure the period of the oscillation (Tu)
 PID functions
A PID controller is an instrument used in industrial control applications to regulate temperature,
flow, pressure, speed and other process variables. PID (proportional integral derivative)
controllers use a control loop feedback mechanism to control process variables and are the most
accurate and stable controller.

The basic idea behind a PID controller is to read a sensor, then compute the desired actuator
output by calculating proportional, integral, and derivative responses and summing those three
components to compute the output.