Chapter 6

Thermal Physics
Kinetic Particle Theory of matter
All matter is made up of molecules, which are in continuous random motion. Since the particles are
in constant motion, the possess kinetic energy, which determines their arrangement in each state.

Particle arrangement and movement

The higher the temperature, the faster the motion of these particles hence the more kinetic energy
possessed by the molecules which enables particles to push each other which results in expansion.
The idea that matter is made up of molecules, which move faster as it gets hotter, is called the
kinetic theory of matter.

6.1 Expansion and contraction

Thermal expansion of solids
In a solid state molecules are closely packed together and occupy minimum spaces usually in a
regular structure called a lattice. Solids have high densities. The molecules vibrate continuously
about their fixed positions because they are held together by strong intermolecular forces. The
forces are attractive and repulsive in nature. The former holds molecules together and the latter
cause matter to resist compression.

The attractive and repulsive forces between neighbouring molecules balance. There is only a very
slight expansion of solids with increasing temperature. Very large forces can be produced if an
attempt is made to prevent solids from expanding, such that they can even crack concrete. Different
solids expand at different rates.

Thermal expansion of liquids

In liquids the molecules are slightly further apart than in solids but still close enough held by weak
intermolecular forces which help give them a definite volume. The molecules move freely and
randomly past one another. It is this freedom of movement which enables a liquid to take up the
shape of any vessel containing them.
As temperature rises, the molecules gain a lot of kinetic energy which makes them move faster and
further apart. Hence the liquid expands. All liquids expand when they heated. Liquids generally
expand more than solids.

Thermal expansion of gases

In a gaseous state, the molecules are much further apart than in liquids or solids such that they can
occupy any space available. This accounts for the low density of gases. Gases have negligible
intermolecular forces between the particles hence they are highly compressible. They have high
kinetic energy, they collide with each other and the walls of the container.

When temperature rises, the molecules move even faster and increases in volume. All gases expand
at the same rate.

Uses of thermal expansion of liquids

The measurement of temperature depends on the fact that liquids expand when heated and
contracted when cooled.

Uses of Expansion of solids

Bimetallic strip

If two thin strips of different metals, equal in length are riveted together so that they cannot move
separately, the form a bimetallic strip. If a Brass and Iron strip is heated, the bimetal strip curves so
that the brass is on the outside of the strip. This shows that brass expands more than iron for the
same temperature.

The strip will straighten when it cools at room temperature.

If the strip is cooled below room temperature the brass would contract more than the iron.

Bimetallic strips are used in electric thermostats. A thermostat is a device used in maintaining a
steady temperature for house hold appliances such as electric iron, ovens, room heaters and
refrigerators.

Thermostat in an iron

When an iron has reached the required temperature the strip bends down, breaks contact and
switches the heater off. After cooling the strips will straighten to remake contact and turns the
heater on again. A steady temperature results.

Fire alarm
Heat from the fire will cause upper metal to expand more than the lower metal, so the bimetallic
strip will bend downwards the contact there by completing the circuit and alarm rings.

Consequences of expansion of solids

1. Motorway bridges are made in concrete sections with expansion gaps between the sections.
The expansion gaps are filled with rubber to stop chunks of stones falling in. If there were
no gaps left the concrete would expand in hot weather against the fixtures and forces
exerted would fracture the bridge.
2. Railways are welded into rails of lengths of about 1km and are held by concrete sleepers
that can withstand the large forces created without buckling. At the joints the ends are
tapered and overlap

Consequences of expansion in liquids

1. The water in the cars cooling system expands when the engine gets hot. A separate tank is
needed for the hot water to expand into. Otherwise the water would expand and damage
the radiator which could lead to damage the engine.
2. At 0˚C when water freezes a considerable expansion occur and every 100 cm3 becomes 109
cm3 of ice. This accounts for the bursting of bottles when left in a deep freeze overnight. In
very cold countries water pipes burst when water freezes, to prevent the pipes are wrapped
in heat insulating material.

6.2 Thermometry
The temperature of a body is a number which expresses the degree of hotness or coldness on some
chosen scale.

Heat is the transfer of internal energy due to the temperature difference.

Heat flows from a body at a higher temperature to one that is at a lower temperature.

A thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperatures, usually in degrees Celsius (˚C).

Any physical property which varies in a regular way over a wide range of temperatures can be used
to measure temperature. The physical property in each and every thermometer must be accurately
measurable with simple apparatus and vary in a similar way to other physical properties.

Examples of physical properties

1. The volume of a mass of liquid – a liquid in a glass thermometer, which uses mercury or alcohol.
The thermal expansion of a liquid can be observed directly in a narrow necked tube.

2. The electrical resistance of a piece of pure metal such as platinum or tungsten, the resistance
thermometer. Thermal changes in the electrical resistance of a wire can be made to vary the reading
of a milli-ammeter in suitable circuit.

3. The potential difference produced between two junctions of different metals, thermocouple
thermometer.

Liquid in a glass thermometer

This type of thermometer works by measuring the change in the volume of a liquid after expansion.
As the temperature of the liquid in a thermometer increases, its volume increases. The liquid is
enclosed in a tall, narrow glass (or plastic) column with a constant cross-sectional area. The increase
in volume is thus due to a change in height of the liquid within the column. The increase in volume,
and thus in the height of the liquid column, is proportional to the increase in temperature. Suppose
that a 10-degree increase in temperature causes a 1-cm increase in the column's height. Then a 20-
degree increase in temperature will cause a 2-cm increase in the column's height. And a 30-degree
increase in temperature will cause s 3-cm increase in the column's height. The relationship between
the temperature and the column's height is linear over the small temperature range for which the
thermometer is used.

The liquid in the bulb expands or contract when place in contact with the object whose temperature
is to be measured, depending on the temperature of the object.

Scale of temperature
A thermometer is calibrated by using two fixed points of known temperatures. The typical process
involves using the freezing point and the boiling point of pure water. Water is known to freeze at 0°C
(lower fixed point) and to boil at 100°C (upper fixed point). By placing a thermometer in mixture of
ice water and allowing the thermometer liquid to reach a stable height, the 0-degree mark can be
placed upon the thermometer. Similarly, by placing the thermometer in boiling water and allowing
the liquid level to reach a stable height, the 100-degree mark can be placed upon the thermometer.
With these two markings placed upon the thermometer, 100 equally spaced divisions can be placed
between them to represent the 1-degree marks. Since there is a linear relationship between the
temperature and the height of the liquid, the divisions between 0 degree and 100 degree can be
equally spaced. With a calibrated thermometer, accurate measurements can be made of the
temperature of any object within the temperature range for which it has been calibrated.

The clinical thermometer

It is a special type of mercury-in-glass thermometer designed to measure the temperature of a
human body. It has a short range on either side of the normal body temperature at 37˚C.

The requirements of a clinical thermometer are:

1. That it should have great sensitivity over a very limited range.

2. It should retain its reading after being removed from the patient’s body for the thermometers to
be read, even if the bulb starts to cool.

A clinical thermometer has a very narrow capillary tube, temperatures can be measure accurately
meaning the thermometer has great sensitivity, this is also due to a bulb made of thin glass. The
tube has a constriction, which stops the mercury thread from running back into the bulb when the
thermometer is taken away from the human body. This allows the nurse to take the temperature
reading. After use, the mercury is returned by a flick on the wrist.

Sensitivity, range and linearity

For a thermometer to measure temperature changes accurately, it should have the following
characteristics:

1. Sufficient sensitivity – the property must change enough to be measurable. A very thin bulb
and a narrow capillary tube makes mercury thermometer very sensitive. A small rise in
temperature will cause the tread to move long enough to be measurable.
2. Sufficient range – the property should be used over wide range of temperatures. The range
of a thermometer is the difference between the highest and lowest temperature which
appear on the scale. Liquid in a glass thermometer uses alcohol or mercury. Alcohol can be
used over a wide range of temperatures from −115˚𝐶 𝑡𝑜 78˚𝐶 while mercury has a range of
−39˚𝐶 𝑡𝑜 357˚𝐶. If we need a large temperature range we use a small bulb and a wider
capillary tube so that it takes a large change in temperature to move the mercury or alcohol
up the tube.
3. Linearity – the property must change by the same amount for every degree of temperature.
The thermocouple thermometer
A thermocouple is comprised of at least two metals joined together to form two junctions. One
junction is connected to the body whose temperature is to be measured; this is the hot or measuring
junction. The other junction is connected to a body of known temperature; this is the cold or
reference junction. Therefore the thermocouple measures unknown temperature of the body with
reference to the known temperature of the other body.

The working principle of thermocouple is based on three effects, discovered by Seebeck, Peltier and
Thomson. They are as follows:

1) Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that when two different or unlike metals are joined
together at two junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions. The
amount of emf generated is different for different combinations of the metals.

2) Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two dissimilar metals are joined together to form
two junctions, emf is generated within the circuit due to the different temperatures of the two
junctions of the circuit.

3) Thomson effect: As per the Thomson effect, when two unlike metals are joined together forming
two junctions, the potential exists within the circuit due to temperature gradient along the entire
length of the conductors within the circuit.

The general circuit for the working of thermocouple is shown in the figure 1 above. It comprises of
two dissimilar metals, A and B. These are joined together to form two junctions, p and q, which are
maintained at the temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. Remember that the thermocouple cannot
be formed if there are not two junctions. Since the two junctions are maintained at different
temperatures the Peltier emf is generated within the circuit and it is the function of the
temperatures of two junctions.

If the temperature of both the junctions is same, equal and opposite emf will be generated at both
junctions and the net current flowing through the junction is zero. If the junctions are maintained at
different temperatures, the emf’s will not become zero and there will be a net current flowing
through the circuit. The total emf flowing through this circuit depends on the metals used within the
circuit as well as the temperature of the two junctions. The total emf or the current flowing through
the circuit can be measured easily by the suitable device.

The device for measuring the current or emf is connected within the circuit of the thermocouple. It
measures the amount of emf flowing through the circuit due to the two junctions of the two
dissimilar metals maintained at different temperatures.

Now, the temperature of the reference junctions is already known, while the temperature of
measuring junction is unknown. The output obtained from the thermocouple circuit is calibrated
directly against the unknown temperature. Thus the voltage or current output obtained from
thermocouple circuit gives the value of unknown temperature directly.

6.3 Change of state

Changes of state are:

 solids melting into liquids

 liquids boiling into gases
 gases condensing into liquids
 liquids freezing or solidifying into solids

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at a constant temperature Occurs at varying temperatures
Takes place at the surface and within a liquid Takes place from surface only
Bubbles are formed No bubbles are formed
Rate of boiling depends on the supply of Rate of evaporation depends on the
energy, energy must be supplied continuously temperature, the area of the surface and the
to maintain boiling. state of the air above the surface
Quick process Slow process

Evaporation is sometimes confused with boiling. They both involve liquids turning to gases, but
evaporation is different because:

 it occurs at any temperature - not just the boiling point

 it only happens at the surface of the liquid - not throughout like boiling
 boiling requires an energy input - whereas evaporation is the release of the molecules with
the highest energy

Evaporation cools liquids which results in energy loss. Evaporation is increased by higher
temperatures, a greater surface area.

A substance must absorb heat energy so that it can melt or boil. The temperature of the substance
does not change during melting, boiling or freezing - even though energy is still being transferred.

Cooling Curve
If we need to cool a pure substance, it changes to a solid at the same temperature as its melting
point. During this process the substance does not lose heat to its surroundings until it has all
solidified. When the substance has completely solidified the temperature begins to fall.
The temperature stays the same during a state change:

 during melting and evaporating, internal energy increases as the motion of particles
increases and bonds are broken
 during condensing and freezing, internal energy decreases as the motion of particles
decreases and new bonds are formed

Heating curve
When ice is at a temperature below 0˚C is heated, its temperature rises until it reaches 0˚C and then
the temperature stays at the same value while the ice melts. After all the ice has melted the
temperature of the liquid starts to rise.
The melting point for a pure substance is a temperature where the solid changes state into a liquid,
when a solid changes state into a liquid the energy input is absorbed by the solid called latent head
of fusion. Latent heat does not cause temperature change. When a liquid freezes the heat released
is called latent heat of fusion.

When energy is supplied to a liquid constantly, its temperature rises, a temperature will be reached
at which the liquid boils. The temperature remains the constant as the water boils. The temperature
at which this occurs is known as the boiling point. At this point the energy input is not used to
change the temperature but enables molecules from the liquid to escape and break free from bonds
binding them. This latent heat is known as latent heat of vaporisation.

6.4 Thermal Energy transfer

Heat passes along solids by conduction.

Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through matter from places of higher temperatures to
places of lower temperatures without linear movement of the matter as a whole.

In solids the molecules are arranged in a crystal structure, where each molecule is linked to its
neighbours by strong intermolecular forces which act as though they are springs. This allows the
molecules to vibrate in their fixed positions. According the kinetic particle theory of matter all the
molecules are vibrating gently in their fixed positions.
If heat is applied to one end of the solid, the particles at this end will begin to vibrate violently and
faster, they move greater distances than before. A violently vibrating molecule will move closer to
neighbouring particles, since both particles will experience equal repulsive force. As a result the
neighbouring molecules jostled and gain some of the kinetic energy which sets them into a violent
vibrating mode as well. This process will repeat itself continuously until vibrational energy is shared
equally among all the molecules in the solid. Hence thermal energy is transferred along the solid.

Metals have a much greater thermal conductivity than that of any other solid due to delocalised
electrons moving freely between positively charged ions of the crystal lattice. The free electrons at
the heated end momentarily gain kinetic energy, due to their small mass they acquire very high
velocities and move through the whole length of the metal. The electrons transfer thermal energy to
the positive ions at the unheated end. In this way the heat spreads rapidly through the metal bar.

Good and bad conductors

Some materials are much better conductors of heat than others. Metals are generally good
conductors of heat while other solids as wood, glass, or plastic are poor conductors. Bad conductors
of heat are also known as insulators.

Heat can also be conducted through liquids and gases, however the process is slow and inefficient
than in solids because molecules in gases and liquids are not so rigidly attached to their neighbours.
Heat conduction in liquids and gases involve transfer of kinetic energy from fast moving molecules to
the slow moving ones. Since molecules are further apart in gases than in liquids there is less
frequent collisions hence gases are poorer conductors of heat than liquids.

Uses of good conductors

1. Cooking utensils are made from good conductors of heat. Such utensils get heated up
quickly. Food can be cooked efficiently in shorter time. The utensils are generally made of
copper, brass, steel, aluminium etc.
 2. The handles of kettles and utensils are made of bad conductors of heat such as wood,
plastic, ebonite, etc. They help in holding them comfortably.

Uses of insulators
1. Woollen clothes are bad conductors. Woollen clothes are not actually warm. They do not
allow heat to conduct away or to escape out and thus keep our body warm.
2. Building materials like brick, asbestos, mud, grass, etc., are bad conductors of heat. They do
not permit heat and cold to pass through the walls of bricks. They keep the houses warm in
winter and cool in summer. Roof sheds are made of asbestos for the same reason.
3. Hair and the fur of animals are bad conductors of heat. They protect them from cold.
4. Vehicles carrying inflammable materials such as petrol are covered with materials of bad
conductors of heat. Otherwise, the petrol can get heated up and catch fire.

Convection
Convection is the flow of heat through a fluid from places of higher temperature to places of lower
temperature by movement of the fluid itself.

Transfer of heat by convection can only occur when the space between a hot body and the cooler
body is occupied by a liquid or a gas. When a vessel containing a liquid is heated at the bottom a
current of hot liquid moves upwards and its place is taken by a cold current moving downwards.
Heat is actually carried from one place to another in the liquid by the movement of the liquid itself.

Convection currents in water can be illustrated by filling a beaker with water and dropping
potassium permanganate crystals at the edge, bottom of the beaker through a tube. A finger is
placed over the end of the tube which is then removed, this is done to prevent it from colouring the
water before it is required. The beaker is heated just below the crystals with a very small flame.
Streaks of purples solution are seen rising vertically upwards and sink again along the cooler sides.
Convection currents are streams of warm moving fluid. The circulation of the purple streams of
water in the experiment above represents the convection currents.

When the water at the bottom of the beaker is heated it expands. The expanded fluid becomes less
dense than the water around it, it is therefore forced upwards, and leaving some space which is
occupied by the surrounding cooler, denser fluid. The process is repeated several times until the
fluid is at the same temperature. This movement of fluid due to difference in densities sets up
convection currents, which cause thorough mixing when the liquid is heated from below.

In thick and sticky liquids, convection occurs slowly and one part of the mixture may become very
much hotter than the rest of it.

Convection in air
Convection of heat occurs much readily in gases than in liquids since they expand considerably when
their temperature rises. Convection currents set up by gas, oil and electric heaters help warm
domestic homes. Warm air rises and cooler air flows at the bottom to replace it. In time all the air in
the room passes through the heater.

In a refrigerator, convection is used to circulate air around its contents. Air is cooled at the top
compartment by the freezer. As air sinks down, it replaces warmer air rising from below it.

Coastal breezes
Sea Breeze

This process takes place for the duration of the day. Both the sea and the land surface is heated up
by the sun. The sea heats up slower than the land because it has a much higher heat capacity. Thus,
the temperature over the land surface increases, in turn, heating up the surrounding air. Expansion
occurs in the less dense warm air and an area over the land having low pressure is developed. At the
same time on the top of the sea, a high-pressure area develops. Due to the difference in pressure
and the air flows from the high pressure over the sea to the low pressure over the land. This flow of
air from the sea to the land is termed as the sea breeze.
Land Breeze

This process takes place for the duration of the night and the above-mentioned process gets
reversed. Both, the land and the sea start cooling down when the sunsets. As the heat capacity of
the land is different from the sea it cools down quicker. Thus, a low-pressure situation develops over
the sea as the temperature above it is higher when compared to the land. Due to this, the air flows
from the land to the sea which is termed the land breeze.

Radiation
Radiation is the third way in which thermal energy is transferred. Radiation can occur in a vacuum
unlike conduction and convection, which need matter to be present.

Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves.

Heat from the Sun reaches the Earth through radiation. The part of the electromagnetic spectrum
that makes us feel warm is the infrared radiation. A body which emits thermal radiation will also
emit visible light when it is warm enough. Thermal radiation is the radiation which a body emits by
reason of its temperature. Bodies at higher temperature emit more radiation than bodies at low
temperature.

When radiant heat falls on an object it is partially absorbed, partially reflected and partially emitted.

Good and bad absorbers of infrared radiation

Dull black surfaces are good absorbers of infrared radiation while shiny metallic surfaces are poor
absorbers of thermal radiation.

Dull black surfaces are good emitters of infrared radiation while shiny surfaces are poor emitters of
radiation. White shiny surfaces are good reflectors of radiation.

A body which absorbs all the radiation the falls upon it is called a perfect black body.

Applications and consequences of thermal radiation

1. Wearing dull black clothes on a sunny day will be much uncomfortable than wearing shiny,
white clothes due to large amounts of infrared radiation absorbed by the black clothes.
 2. The cooling fins at the back of a refrigerator are painted black to increase heat loss by
radiation because black surfaces are goof emitters.
3. Car radiators are painted black to help them lose heat by radiation, as well as by contact
with the wind produces by the cars motion and by the fan while the car is stationary.

The vacuum flask

The vacuum flask is a double walled glass vessel having a vacuum in-between the walls. Both walls
are painted silvery on the vacuum side. Conduction and convection through the sides of the flask is
prevented by the vacuum between the walls. Radiation is reduced by the use of silvery surfaces, so
as to reflect the radiant heat back into the hot liquid. Some heat may be lost by convection up the
cork, unless the liquid is full. The stopper is made of plastic which is a bad conductor and it prevents
heat losses due to evaporation.

The greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped close to the surface of the Earth by
“greenhouse gases.” These heat-trapping gases can be thought of as a blanket wrapped around the
Earth, which keeps it toastier than it would be without them. Greenhouse gases include carbon
dioxide, methane and nitrous oxides.

Greenhouse gases arise naturally, and are part of the make-up of our atmosphere. Earth is not too
hot, not too cold, and the conditions are just right to allow life, including us, to flourish. Part of what
makes Earth so amenable is the naturally-arising greenhouse effect, which keeps the planet at a
friendly 15 °C on average. But in the last century or so, humans have been interfering with the
energy balance of the planet, mainly through the burning of fossil fuels that give off additional
carbon dioxide into the air. The level of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere has been rising
consistently for decades and traps extra heat near the surface of the Earth, causing temperatures to
rise. This is known as global warming.

Without greenhouse gases in its atmosphere, the Earth would be much colder on average than it is
now. Greenhouse gases:

 absorb energy transferred as infrared radiation from the Earth’s surface

 release infrared radiation in all directions, which keeps the Earth warm

How the greenhouse effect works

 electromagnetic radiation at most wavelengths passes through the Earth's atmosphere

 the Earth absorbs most of the radiation and warms up
 the Earth radiates energy as infrared radiation
 some of the infrared radiation goes into space
 some of the infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
 the lower atmosphere warms up