Unit – 4 Electrical Machines

4.1 Dc Machines:
4.2 Construction of a DC Machine:
The given figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC machine
consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are
described below.

Figure 4.1.1: constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine

1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke.

 It is made up of cast iron or steel.
 It provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly
 It provides low reluctance path to the flux produced by the field winding.

2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.
 They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them.
 Pole shoes serve two purposes
(i) They support field coils
(ii) They Spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.

Figure 4.1.2: Pole Core and Poles Shoes representation

3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper.
 Field coils are wound on each pole and are connected in series.
 They when energized, create magnetic field and form alternate North and South poles.

4. Rotor: It is cylindrical in shape with slots on its outer peripherry to carry armature winding.
 The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current losses.
 It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is
keyed to the shaft.

Figure 4.1.3: Armature of DC machine

5. Armature winding: It is copper coil distributed in rotor slots.

 The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
 Armature winding can be wound by one of the two
Method is
 lap winding
 wave winding.
 Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that
each armature slot will carry two different coils.

Figure 4.1.4: Armature Winding/coil of DC machine

6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a commutator-
brush arrangement.
  A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The
number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to
an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft.
 Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and
slide on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or
supply the current.
 The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the alternating current
generatedin armature conductors and convert it in DC for load
 In dc motor, commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors. It converts
DC supply in to ac for armature winding.

Figure 4.1.5: Commutator of DC machine

4.3 DC generator
4.3.1 Principle :

 It is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced e.m.f .Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic
flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This
e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
 The direction of induced current can be determined by using Fleming’s right
hand rule.
 The basic essential parts of an electric generator are :

 A magnetic field which is produced by field winding wound on stator

poles
 A conductor or group of conductors which can so move as to cut the
flux. Group of conductors is called armature winding.
Fig4.1.6: FlemmingRight handrule

4.3.2 Working

 Let us consider an armature conductors (rotor) rotating clockwise

 anda conductor at the left under North pole moving upwards. As per
 Flemings right hand rule the direction of induced current is inwards.
 When the armature completes a half rotation and comes under South
Pole, the direction of motion of the conductor will be reversed
downward. Hence, the direction of the current in it is outwards.
 It means when armature conductor comes under the influence of other pole, the
direction of current reverses i.e.armature carries alternating current.
 But with commutator and brushes we get unidirectionalcurrent at the terminals.

4.3.3 Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor

Let,
P – Number of poles of the machine
ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
Z – Total number of armature conductors.
N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute(r.p.m).
A – Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
• A=2 For wave winding
• A= P For lap winding

As per the faraday’s law of EMI ,emf induced in conductor is rate of change in flux by it
i.e. e = 𝒅∅
𝒅𝒕
let,
 dØ is the flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the rotor
 dt is time taken to complete onerevolution

dØ = P ϕ
60
dt = seconds
𝑁

 Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be

e= 𝒅∅ 𝑷ϕN
= volts
𝒅𝒕
𝟔𝟎
 The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

 Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature terminals is given bythe
equation shown below.

𝑷ϕNZ
e=
𝟔𝟎𝑨

 For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A)are
constant. Hence, the above equation can be written as
 Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as

 Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as

Imp point
 The induced emf is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole.
 The polarity of induced emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of rotation.
 If either of the two is reverse the polarity changes, but if two are reversed the polarity remains unchanged.
 If the machine DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the equation
shown below.

Where Eg is the Generated Emf

 If the machine DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the equation shown below.

In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it acts opposite to the supply voltage.
4.4 DC motor
4.4.1 Principle and working:

An electric motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy

into mechanical energy. The basic working principle of a DC motor is:
"whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force".
The direction of this force (motion) is given by Fleming's left-hand rule and
its magnitude is given by F = BIL. Where, B = magnetic flux density, I =
current and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
Hence, the basic essential parts of an electric motor (same as in generator) are : Fig:4.1.8

 A magnetic field which is produced by field winding wound on stator poles

 A conductor or group of conductors which can so move as to cut the flux. Group of conductors is called
armature winding.
 When armature windings are connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets up in the winding.
 Magnetic field is created by giving dc supply to field winding on stator.
 In this case, current carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the magnetic field, according to
the principle stated above.
 Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise, the direction of force would have
reversed every time when the direction of movement of conductor is reversed in the magnetic field. This is how
a DC motor works
4.4.2 Armature torque (Ta)

The power developed in the armature can be given as, Pa = Ta × ω = Ta × 2πN/60

The mechanical power developed in the armature is converted from the electrical
power, Therefore, mechanical power = electrical power
That means, Ta × 2πN/60 = Eb.Ia
We know, Eb = PΦNZ /60A
Therefore, Ta × 2πN/60 = (PΦNZ / 60A) ×Ia
Rearranging the above equation,
Ta = (PZ / 2πA) × Φ.Ia(N-m)
The term (PZ / 2πA) is practically constant fora DC machine. Thus, armature torque is directly proportional to the
product of the flux and the armature current i.e. Ta α Φ.Ia

4.5 Types of DC Machines (Generator and Motors) – Separately Excited and Self
Excited
 The magnetic flux in a DC machine is produced by the field windings carrying current.
 The process of giving supply to field winding to produce magnetic field is called Excitation.
 DC Machine is classified according to the methods of their field excitation.The DC Machines are classified
as:-
 Separately excited DC Machines
 Self-excited DC Machines..
 The self-excited DC Machines are further classified as:-
 Shunt wound DC Machines
 Series wound DC Machines
 Compound wound DC Machines
 The Compound Wound DC Machines are further divided as:-
 long shunt wound DC Machines
 short shunt wound DC Machines
4.5.1 DC generator

4.5.1.1 Separately Excited DC Generator

 A DC generator whose field winding is energized by a separate or external DC source is called a separately
excited DC Generator.
 The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field current i.e. flux is directly proportional to the
field current. But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.
 The figure of self-excited DC Generator is shown below.

Fig:4.1.9. Separately Excited DC Generator

 Current Ia = IL
 Terminal voltage V = Eg- IaRa- 2Vb
 Power developed EgIa
 Power output VIL

4.5.1.2 Self- Excited DC Generator

 Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by the generator
itself.
 In self-excited DC generator, the field coils may be connected in parallel with the armature or in the
series,or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with the armature windings.
 The self-excited DC Generator is further classified as

1. Shunt Wound Generator

2. Series Wound Generator
3. Compound Wound Generator
4.5.1.2.1 Shunt Wound Generator

 In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature winding
 Therefore, full terminal voltage is applied across it. A very small field current Ish, flows through it
because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very high resistance Rsh
 The connection diagram of shunt wound generator is shown below.

Fig:4.1.10. Shunt Wound DC Generator

𝑉
 Shunt field current I sh =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
 Armature current Ia = IL + I s h 
 Terminal Voltage V = Eg- IaRa- 2Vb
 Power developed EgIa
 Power output VIL
Where, Rsh is shunt field resistanceIL is load current
Eg is generated emf
Ra is armature winding resistance
V is voltage across load
The current field Ish is practically constant at all loads. Therefore, the DC shunt machine is considered to
bea constant flux machine.

4.5.1.2.2 Series Wound Generator

 In series-wound generator the field coils are connected in series with the armature winding. The
series field winding carries the armature current.
 The series field winding consists of a few turns of wire of thick wire having low resistance to keep the
armature current high.
 Its conventional diagram is shown below.
 Fig:4.1.11.Series Wound DC Generator
Series field current IL =Ia =I se
 Terminal Voltage V = Eg- IaRa- IaRse - 2Vb
V = Eg - Ia(Ra+ IaRse) - 2Vb
 Power developed EgIa
 Power output VIL
 The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to the current flowing
through it. But after the saturation flux becomes constant even if the current flowing through it is
increased.

4.5.1.2.3 Compound Wound Generator

 The generator which has both shunt and series fields is called the compound wound generators.
 If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced by the shunt
winding, then the machine is said to be cumulative compounded.
 If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, then the machine is called the differentially
compounded.
 It is connected in two ways.
i Long shunt compound generator,
ii Short shunt compound generator.
 If the shunt field is connected in parallel with the armature alone then the machine is
Called the short compound generator.
 In long shunt compound generator, the shunt field is connected in series with the armature.

4.5.1.2.4 Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator

 In this the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with both armature and series field winding.
The connection diagram of long shunt wound generator is shown below.
𝑉
 Shunt field current Ish =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
  Armature current Ia = IL + Ish
 Terminal Voltage V = Eg- Ia (Ra + Rse) - 2Vb
 Power developed EgIa
 Power output VIL

Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator

 In this the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding only. The
connection diagram of short shunt wound generator is shown below.









 
4.5.2 Dc Motor

4.5.2.1 Separately Excited DC Motor

 Field windings are energized by a separate DC source as shown in the circuit diagram.

Fig: 4.1.14. Separately Excited DC Motor

4.5.2.2 Self-Excited DC Motor

 In this type of motor, the current in the windings is supplied by the machine or motor it self.

 Self-excited DC Motor is further divided into shunt wound, and series wound motor.

4.5.2.2.1 Shunt Wound Motor

 Here the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature as shown in the figure below.
𝑉
Shunt field current I sh =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
Armature current Ia = IL - I s h
Supply voltage V = Eb + I a R a + 2Vb

Fig:4.1.15.Shunt Wound DC Motor

4.5.2.2.2 Series Wound Motor

 In this, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding.

Armature current IL =Ia =I se

Supply Voltage V = Eb + IaRa+ IaRse +2Vb
V = Eb + Ia(Ra+ IaRse) +2Vb

Fig:4.1.16

4.5.2.2.3 Compound Wound Motor

 A DC Motor having both shunt and series field windings is called a Compound Motor. The
connection diagram of the compound motor is shown below.

Fig:4.1.17. Long shunt Compound Motor

  The compound motor is further subdivided as Cumulative Compound Motor and Differential Compound
Motor.
 In cumulative compound motor the flux produced by both the windings is in the same direction, i.e.

 In differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings is opposite to the
flux produced by the shunt field winding, i.e.

4.5.2.2.4 Long Shunt Compound Wound motor

𝑉
 Shunt field current I sh =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
 Armature Current Ia = IL - I s h 
 Supply voltage V = Eb + Ia(Ra +Rse)+ 2Vb
 4.5.2.2.5 Short Shunt Compound Wound motor

Armature Current Ia = IL - I s h 
 Supply voltage V = Eb + IaRa + ILRse + 2Vb

V−𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒
 Shunt current Ish =
𝑅𝑠ℎ

4.6 Applications of DC generator

 The separately excited type DC generator is used for boosting as well as
electroplating. It is used in power and lighting purpose using field regulator
 The self-excited DC generator or shunt DC generator is used for power as well as
ordinary lighting using the regulator. It can be used for battery lighting.
 The series DC generator is used in arc lamps for lighting, stable current generator and
booster.
 Compound DC generator is used to provide the power supply for DC welding machines.
 Level compound DC generator is used to provide a power supply for hostels, lodges,
offices, etc.
 Over compound, DC generator is used to reimburse the voltage drop with in Feeders.
Application of DC Motor