Digital Modulation Schemes & Information Theory Communication Systems

UNIT-5
DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEMES & INFORMATION THEORY

INTRODUCTION:
As baseband transmission is transmission of encoded signal using its own band of
frequencies without any shift to higher frequencies which is limited to wired communication
and short distances only.
Where pass band transmission is done by shifting baseband frequencies to high
frequencies using modulation which can be used for long distances via microwave or satellite
links.
The process of shifting baseband signal to pass band range for transmission is known
as modulation which involves switching (keying) the amplitude, frequency or phase of the
sinusoidal carrier in accordance with the incoming data. Digital Modulation provides more
information capacity, high data security, quicker system availability with great quality
communication. Hence, digital modulation techniques have a greater demand, for their capacity
to convey larger amounts of data than analog modulation techniques.
Based on that there are three basic signaling schemes:
1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
2. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
3. Phase shift keying (PSK)
Amplitude shift keying:
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents
the binary data in the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal. The binary signal when
ASK modulated, gives a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High
input.

Frequency shift keying:

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of
the carrier signal varies according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency
modulation. The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input
and is low in frequency for a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space
frequencies.
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Phase shift keying:

Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the phase
of the carrier signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time.
PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are:
 Binary phase shift keying (BPSK):
This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine
wave carrier takes two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.
 Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK):
In this phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes four phase
reversals such as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.
Except ASK both FSK and PSK have constant envelope. Whenever we are transmitting over
pass band transmission channels PSK & FSK are not effected by amplitude non-linearity’s so
that PSK & FSK are more preferable than ASK for pass band transmission over nonlinear
channels.
DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES:
Depending on whether the receiver is phase recovery circuit or not digital modulation
techniques are classified into two types
1. Coherent phase shift keying
2. Non-coherent phase shift keying
In coherent modulation techniques, the receiver will have phase recovery circuit with local
oscillator, generates the carrier wave which is synchronized with the carrier wave. Which is
actually used to modulate the incoming data. We have two modulation techniques based on
this type of detection. They are
1. Coherent phase shift keying
2. Coherent frequency shift keying
In Non-coherent modulation technique, the receiver does not contain phase recovery circuit. In
this type receiver will recover the carrier which is same as the carrier used in transmitter. Based
on this type of detection. They are
1. Non-coherent binary frequency shift keying
2

2. Differential phase shift keying

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BINARY AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING:

Binary amplitude-shift keying (BASK) is one of the earliest forms of digital modulation used in radio
telegraphy at the beginning of the twentieth century. To formally describe BASK, consider a binary
data stream which is of the ON–OFF signaling variety. That is, b(t) is defined by

, for binary symbol 1

b(t) = −−−−1
0 , for binary symbol 0
Then, multiplying b(t) by the sinusoidal carrier wave with the phase ∅ set equal to zero for
convenience of presentation, we get the BASK wave

2
( )= cos(2 ), 1
− − − −2
0, 0
The carrier frequency may have an arbitrary value, consistent with transmitting the
modulated signal anywhere in the electromagnetic radio spectrum, so long as it satisfies the
band-pass assumption.

When a bit duration is occupied by symbol 1, the transmitted signal energy is When
the bit duration is occupied by symbol 0, the transmitted signal energy is zero. On this basis,
we may express the average transmitted signal energy as

E = −−−−3

For this formula to hold, however, the two binary symbols must be equiprobable. In
other words, if we are given a long binary data stream, then symbols 1 and 0 occur in
essentially equal numbers in that data stream.
Signal space diagram of ASK:
The ASK waveform of symbol ‘1’ is represented by

2
( )= cos(2 ), 1

0, 0

Where ( )= cos(2 )

i.e. ( ) = ( )
Thus there is only one carrier function ( ). The signal space diagram will have two points
on ( ). One will be zero and other will be at .
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GENERATION AND DETECTION OF ASK SIGNALS:

From Eqs. 1 and 2, we readily see that a BASK signal is readily generated by using a product
modulator with two inputs. One input, the ON–OFF signal of Eq. (1), is the modulating signal. The
sinusoidal carrier wave

2
( )= 2 supplies the other input.

FIGURE 1 The three basic forms of signaling binary information. (a) Binary data stream. (b)
Amplitude-shift keying.

A property of BASK that is immediately apparent from Fig. 1(b), which depicts the
BASK waveform corresponding to the incoming binary data stream of Fig. 1(a), is the non-
constancy of the envelope of the modulated wave. Accordingly, insofar as detection of the
BASK wave is concerned, the simplest way is to use an envelope detector, exploiting the non-
constant-envelope property of the BASK signal.
ASK Generator & Detector:
The below figure shows the ASK generator. The input binary sequence is applied to the product
modulator. The product modulator amplitude modulates the sinusoidal carrier. It passes the
carrier when input bit is ‘1’. It blocks the carrier (i.e. zero output) when input bit is ‘0’.

The below figure shows the block diagram of coherent ASK detector. The ASK signal
is applied to the correlator consisting of multiplier and integrator. The locally generated
coherent carrier is applied to the multiplier. The output of multiplier is integrated over one bit
period. The decision device takes the decision at the end of every bit period. It compares the
output of integrator with the threshold. Decision is taken in favor of ‘1’ when threshold is
exceeded. Decision is taken as ‘0’ if threshold is not exceeded.
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COHERENT PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

In this section we focus on coherent phase shift keying by considering binary PSK,
QPSK.

BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (COHERENT BPSK):

In coherent binary PSK system, the pair of signals S1 t  and S 2 t  are used to represent
binary symbols 1 and o respectively, they are defined as

2 Eb
S1 t   cos 2f c t 1
Tb

2Eb
S2 t   cos2f ct  
Tb

2Eb
  cos2fct 2
Tb

Where 0  t  Tb & Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit

nc
Carrier frequency f c 
Tb

nc  integral of no of cycle for carrier wave in one bit duration.

A pair of sinusoidal waves that differ only in a relative phase shift of 180 degrees shown in
equations (1) & (2) are referred as Antipodal signals.
From eq’s (1) & (2), it is clear that coherent BPSK have only one basis function of unit energy,
defined as

2
1 t   cos2f c t 0  t  Tb 3
Tb

 S1 t  
 1 t   
 Eb 
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Then the transmitted signals S1 t  and S 2 t  can be written interms of 1 t  as

1   S 1 t   E b  1 t ; 0  t  Tb (4)

S2 t    Eb1t ; 0  t  Tb (5)

From above eq’s coherent BPSK signal space diagram is one (N=1) dimensional, consisting of
two message points (N=2). The coordinates of the message points are

(6)

(7)

The message point corresponding to S1 t  is located at S 11  E b and the message point

corresponding to S 2 t  is located at S 22   E b . It is shown in below figure

Fig 2: Signal space diagram for coherent BPSK

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GENERATION AND DETECTION OF COHERENT BPSK:

Fig: (a) BPSK Transmitter

Fig: (b) BPSK Receiver

To generate a binary PSK signal, first the binary data sequence is given to polar non-
return to zero level encoder
(i) Non-return-to-zero level encoder: whereby the input binary data sequence is encoded in
polar form with symbols 1 and 0 represented by the constant-amplitude of E b &  E b
respectively. The resultant output and sinusoidal carrier is given to product modulator, it will
generate BPSK signal.
(ii) Product modulator: which multiplies the level encoded binary wave by the sinusoidal
carrier of amplitude to produce the BPSK signal. The timing pulses used to generate the level
encoded binary wave and the sinusoidal carrier wave are usually, but not necessarily, extracted
from a common master clock.

2 Eb
Binary1 S 1 t   Eb 1 t   cos 2f c t
Tb
2 Eb
Binary0 S 2 t    Eb 1 t    cos 2f c t
Tb

To detect the original binary sequence of 1s and 0s, the BPSK signal at the channel
output is applied to a receiver.
(i) Correlator: The noisy PSK signal x(t) is applied which is also supplied with a locally
generated reference signal that is a replica of the carrier wave 1 t  .The output of the correlator
x1 is given to decision device.
(ii) Decision-making device: Compares the output with the zero threshold. If the threshold is
exceeded, the device decides in favor of symbol 1; otherwise, it decides in favor of symbol 0.
If x1 is exactly equals to zero the receiver makes a random guess in favor of symbol 0 (or) 1.
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POWER SPECTRA OF BINARY PSK SIGNAL:

The BPSK wave consists of an in phase component only. Depending on the symbol 0 or 1 at
the input of modulator during signal interval 0  t  Tb , the in phase component equals  g t 
or  g t  respectively, where g t  is symbol shaping function defined by

(1)

Suppose the input of the modulator is random wave and equally likely then the psd of
g t  is equal to the energy spectral density of g t 

Energy spectral density of g t  is equal to the squared magnitude of the signals Fourier
 
transform G t 2 .

 Power spectral density of BPSK signal equals to

2Eb sin2 Tb f 

SB  f  
Tb f 2
 2Eb sin c 2 Tb f  (2)
The spectrum representation is shown in below figure

Fig: Power spectra of BPSK.

BANDWIDTH OF BPSK:
The spectra main lobe width gives the bandwidth of BPSK.

BW  f H  f L

1  1
   
Tb  Tb 

 Bandwidth BW  2 f b
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QUADRIPHASE SHIFT KEYING (QPSK):

In a digital communication system our goal is to achieve very low probability of error
and efficient utilization of channel bandwidth. QPSK is the band conservation modulation
scheme which is an example of quadrature carrier multiplication.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a form of Phase Shift Keying in which two bits are
modulated at once, selecting one of four possible carrier phase shifts such a  4 , 3 4 , 5 4
and 7 4 . For this set of values the transmitted signal is defined as

 2E
  
S i t    T cos 2f c t  2i  1 4 ; 0  t  T

(1)
 0 otherwise
Where i=1, 2, 3, 4 and E is the transmitted signal energy per symbol.
Each possible value of phase corresponds to unique dibit. For example phase values to
represent gray coded set of dibits 10, 00, 01, 11.
Signal space diagram of QPSK:

Using trigonometric functions S i t  can be written as

Si t  
2E
T
 4

cos 2i  1 cos 2f c t 
2E
T
 
sin 2i  1 sin 2f c t
4 (2)
Where i=1, 2, 3, 4

There are two orthogonal basis functions 1 t  and 2 t  in the above expansion of S i t  , they
are defined as

1 t   2T cos2f ct, 0  t T (3)

2 t   2T sin2fct, 0 t T (4)

(5)

The elements of the signal vector are listed in below table

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Table: Signal space characterization of QPSK.

Accordingly, QPSK has two dimensional signal constellation (i.e. N=2) and four
message points (i.e., N=4) whose phase angles increase in counter clock wise direction is
shown in figure below.

Fig: Signal space diagram of QPSK

GENERATION AND DETECTION OF COHERENT QPSK:

Fig: Block diagrams of (a) QPSK transmitter and (b) coherent QPSK receiver.
The incoming binary data sequence is first transformed into polar form by a non-return to zero
level encoder. Thus symbol 1 and 0 are represented by +√E/2 and -√E/2 respectively. This
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binary wave divided into two streams by a de-multiplexer (odd and even numbered bits) and
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represented as a1(t) and a2(t). a1(t) and a2(t) are modulated with a pair of quadrature carriers
φ1(t) and φ2(t) respectively. Thus the two waveforms are added to produce desired QPSK
signal.
The QPSK receiver consists of a pair of correlator with a common input and supplied
with locally generated carriers φ1(t) and φ2(t). The correlators produce x1 and x2 and then these
are compared with zero threshold. If the threshold is exceeded, the device decides in favor of
symbol 1; otherwise, it decides in favor of symbol 0. Similarly for quadrature phase channel
also.
Finally these two binary sequences at the in-phase and quadrature channel outputs are
combined using multiplexer to produce the original binary sequence.
POWER SPECTRA OF QPSK SIGNALS:
Assume that the binary wave at the modulator input is random with symbol 1 and 0
being equally likely and with the symbols transmitted during adjacent time slots being
statistically independent. QPSK contains in phase and quadrature phase components. We make
two observations regarding these two components are
 Depending on dibit sent during the signal interval -Tb ≤ t ≤ Tb,
the in-phase component equals +g(t) or – g(t) similar situation exists for the quadrature
component. The g (t) denotes the symbol shaping function defined by

The in-phase and quadrature components are statistically independent. The baseband power
spectral density of QPSK equals the sum of the individual power spectral densities of the in-
phase and quadrature components.

The power spectra of QPSK is shown in figure below

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BANDWIDTH OF QPSK SIGNALS:

The main lobe width in the power spectra gives the band width of QPSK signals.

BW  f H  f L

1  1 
   
2Tb  2Tb 

 2 1   f b
 2Tb 
QPSK requires half of the bandwidth than BPSK. So QPSK is called as the bandwidth
conserving modulation scheme.
Ex: Generate the QPSK signal for given binary sequence 01101000

M-ARY PSK:
In M-ary PSK the carrier will take one of the M possible values, namely θi= 2(i-
1)π/M, where i = 1,2,…M.
The transmitted signal is defined as

(1)

Where E is transmitted signal energy per symbol

f c is carrier frequency
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Using trigonometric function above eq’n can be written as

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2E  2  2E  2 
Si t   cos i  1 cos2f c t  sin i  1  sin 2f c t (2)
T M  T M 4
Where i=1, 2, 3, 4

There are two orthogonal basis functions 1 t  and 2 t  in the above expansion of S i t  , they
are defined as

1 t   2T cos2fct, 0  t T (3)

2 t  2T sin2fct, 0  t T (4)

From the above equations the signal space diagram of M-ary PSK will be two dimensional with
M message points. The M message points are equally spaced on a circle of radius and
centered at the origin.
The Euclidian distance between each two points for M = 8 can be calculated as:

For example M=8, the signal space diagram is shown in below figure

Fig: Signal space diagram of octa phase shift keying (M=8)

POWER SPECTRA OF M-ARY PSK:

The symbol duration of M-ary PSK is
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OPSK

QPS

BPSK

BANDWIDTH EFFICIENCY OF M-ARY PSK SIGNAL:

In the power spectra of M-ary PSK main lobe width gives the band width of M-ary
PSK signals.
The minimum bandwidth required to pass the M-ary PSK signals over the channel is

2
B 
T
Where T is the symbol duration

 T  Tb log 2 M
1 1
Rb  or fb 
Tb Tb
2
B
Tb log 2 M

2 Rb

log 2 M (1)
The band width efficiency is defined as

Rb

B
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Rb

2Rb log2 M

log 2 M
 
2
As the M value increases, the bandwidth efficiency increases.

M-ARY QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION:

M-ary QAM is a two dimensional generalization of M-ary PAM, it involves two
orthogonal basis functions, they are

1 t   2T cos2f ct, 0 t T (1)

2 t   2T sin2f ct, 0 t T (2)

The ith message point in Si in the (Φ1, Φ2) plane be denoted by (ai dmin/2, bi dmin/2),
where dmin is the minimum distance between any two message points in the constellation,
where ai and bi are integers.
Let dmin /2 = √E0 where E0 is the energy of the signal with the lowest amplitude.
The transmitted M-ary QAM signal for symbol k is defined by

(3)

The signal S i t  consists of two phase quadrature carriers with each one being
modulated by a set of discrete amplitudes, hence the name quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM).
Depending on the number of possible symbols M, we have two different constellation
diagrams.
(1) Square constellation: In which number of bits per symbol is even.
(2) Cross constellation: In which the number of bits per symbol is odd.
COHERENT FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING:
BINARY FSK:

In BFSK, symbol 1 is represented by S1 t  and symbol 0 is represented by S 2 t  ,

these two transmitted signals differ in frequency by a fixed amount. It is defined as

(1)
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Where i=1, 2

nc  i
Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit and f c 
2
FSK signal described here is known as sunde’s FSK. It is a continuous phase signal. It is an
example of continuous phase FSK
From the equations, the orthonormal basis function is defined as

 2
 cos 2 f i t 0  t  Tb (2)
 i t    T b
 0 elsewhere

Where i=1, 2
The coefficient S ij , for i=1, 2 is defined as

S ij   S t  t dt
i j

(3)

The two message points are defined as

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Fig: Signal space diagram for BPSK

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GENERATION AND DETECTION OF COHERENT BFSK SIGNALS:

Fig: BFSK Transmitter

Fig: BFSK Receiver

The generation block diagram is shown in figure above. The incoming binary data
sequence is first applied to an on-off level encoder, it generates constant amplitude of E b
pulse for binary 1, zero for binary 0. When binary 1 is transmitted, it is passed through first
channel and it modulates with 1 t  and the second channel is switched off due to inverter. For
binary 0, first channel is switched off, due to inverter the output of on-off encoder into pulse
with E b amplitude and then modulates with 2 t  carrier. The output of first channel and
second channel are added to generate the BFSK signal.
To detect the original binary sequence from x (t), we use BFSK receiver as shown in
above figure. It consists of two correlators with a common input, which are supplied by locally
generated carrier 1 t  and 2 t  . The output from both the correlators are subtracted from one
another and then compared with the zero threshold value.
If y>0, the receiver decides in favor of 1
y<o, the receiver decides in favor of 2
y= 0, the receiver makes a random guess in favor of 1(or) 0.
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POWER SPECTRA OF BFSK SIGNALS:

Consider the case of sunde’s FSK, carrier frequency f c is the arithmetic mean of f 1 and f 2 .
This special binary FSK signal as follows

(1)

Using trigonometric function the above equation can be rewritten a

(2)

In the above equation minus sign corresponds to transmitted symbol 1 and plus sign
corresponds to transmitted symbol 0.
Following observations relayed to the in phase and quadrature components of the binary FSK
signal with continues phase.

(i) The in phase component is completely independent of the input binary wave. It equals to
2 Eb  t 
cos  for all values of t. The psd of this component consists of two delta functions,
Tb Tb 
E 1
weighted by the factor b and occurring at f   .
2Tb 2Tb

(ii) The quadrature component is completely related to the input binary wave. During the
signaling interval 0  t  Tb , it equals  g t  when we have symbol 1 and  g t  when we have
symbol 0. The symbol shaping function g t  is defined by

(3)

The energy spectral density of symbol shaping function equals to

(4)
gf 
The psd of quadrature components equal to
Tb

 The psd of coherent BFSK signals is

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The power spectra is shown in the figure below

BANDWIDTH OF BFSK SIGNAL:

From the spectrum,

BW  BW1  BW 2

  3  3    1  1 
 2Tb 2Tb  2Tb 2Tb 

 3Tb  Tb  4Tb

 4 fb
NON-COHERENT ORTHOGONAL MODULATION:
Non-coherent orthogonal modulation involves two non-coherent receivers. They are
BFSK and differential phase shift keying.

Consider a binary signaling scheme that involves the use of two orthogonal signals S1 t  and
S 2 t  , which have equal energy, during the interval 0  t  T , one of these two signals sent
over the noisy channels that shifts a carrier phase by a fixed amount. Let g1 t  and g 2 t  are
phase shifted version of S1 t  and S 2 t  . Assume that g1 t  and g 2 t  are orthogonal we refer
such signaling scheme as non-coherent orthogonal modulator.
The received signal x (t) is

For the detection of signals from x(t), The receiver consists of a pair of filters matched
to the transmitted signal S1 t  and S 2 t  . Because the phase is unknown the detection
depends on amplitude. After that, the matched filter output are envelope detected, sampled
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and then compared with each other.

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If the upper path has an output amplitude l1 greater than the output amplitude l 2 on lower
path, the receiver makes a decision in favor of S1 t  . Else it will take a decision in favor of
S 2 t  .

This non-coherent matched filter may be viewed as being equivalent to quadrature

receiver.
NON-COHERENT BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING:
In binary FSK, the transmitted signal is defined by

 2Eb
 cos2f i t; 0  t  Tb
Si t    Tb (1)
 0; elsewhere

The transmission of frequency f1 represents symbol 1, and the transmission of frequency f 2
represents symbol 0.
GENERATION AND DETECTION OF NON COHERENT BFSK SIGNALS:

Fig (a): Generation block diagram of BFSK signal.

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Fig (b): Detection block diagram of BFSK signal.

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To generate a binary FSK signal, the incoming binary data sequence is first applied to an on-
off level encoder as shown in above figure (a) at the output, symbol 1 is represented by
amplitude of E b volts and symbol 0 is represented by zero volts.

For binary 1, the second channel is switched off because of inverter with the result frequency
f1 transmitted.

For binary 0, the first channel is switched off, with the result frequency f 2 transmitted.

For non-coherent detection of this frequency modulated wave, the receiver carrier of a pair of
matched filter followed by envelope detectors shown in figure (b) are used.

The filter in the upper path of the receiver is matched to cos 2f1t and filter in the lower path
is matched to cos 2f 2 t , 0  t  Tb . The resulting envelope detector outputs are compared at
time t  Tb . And their values are compared.

The sample values of upper and lower paths are represented by l1 and l2 .

 If l1  l2 , the receiver decides in favor of symbol 1

 If l1  l 2 , the receiver decides in favor of symbol 2
 If l1  l2 , the receiver makes a decision in favor of symbol 1(or)0.

The probability of error (or) bit error rate of Non-coherent BFSK is

1   Eb 
Pe  exp 
2  2N 0 
DIFFEREENTIAL PHASE SHIFT KEYING:
DPSK is the non-coherent version of PSK. It eliminates the need of phase recovery circuit in
the receiver by combining two basic operations at the transmitter.
(i) Differential encoding of the input binary wave.

(ii) Phase shift keying for symbol 0, carrier phase advances by 180 o (or)  . For symbol 1,
carrier phase is unchanged.

GENERATION OF DPSK:
In the generation DPSK, first the actual binary sequence converted into differential
encoded data based on signal transitions. For example, transition is encoded by binary 0, if no
transition is done then it is encoded as binary 1.Generation and detection block diagram is
shown in below figure.
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Digital Modulation Schemes & Information Theory Communication Systems

Fig: (a) Generation block diagram of DPSK

(b) Detection block diagram of DPSK

In generation, the binary sequence bk  is given to encoder. The output of encoder is
applied to one of the input for product modulator and another input for product modulator i.e,
carrier modulates with phase of differential encoded data depends on output of the encoder and
generates DPSK signal.
In detection DPSK signal is applied as the input for multiplier and other input is delayed
version of received DPSK signal by Tb time. If same phase signal are produced the integrator
output will be positive and for different phase signals the integrator output will be negative.
The output of integrator is represented by l.
 b
 If l  0 , choose it as binary 0
BANDWIDTH OF DPSK SIGNAL:
In DPSK, the differential encoded data is generated based on receiver bits.

 Symbol duration T  2Tb

2 2 1
Bandwidth BW     BW  f b
T 2Tb Tb
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Digital Modulation Schemes & Information Theory Communication Systems

INFORMATION THEORY

Introduction:

The performance of the communication system is measured in terms of its error

probability. Zero probability of error represents no error condition.
The performance of system is depends on the properties like available signal power, channel
noise and bandwidth. The error less transmission is obtained by defining these properties
using Shannon’s theory. Information theory is used to mathematical modeling and analysis of
communication systems.

Information content of message:

The amount of information transmitted through the message ‘mk’ with probability ‘pk’ is
= Bits
Properties of Information:

1. If uncertainty is more, then information is more.

2. If receiver knows the message being transmitted then the amount of information is
zero
3. If message m1 carries an information I1 and information in m2 is I2 then the amount of
information in combined message is I1+ I2
4. If there are M=2N equally likely messages then the amount of information carried by
each message will be N bits.

Entropy:

Average information is represented by Entropy.

= =

1
= /

Where pk = Probability of kth symbol

M= number of different messages

Entropy of symbols in long independent and dependent sequences:

Consider that there are M different messages. Let these messages be m1,m2,m3,…..mM. They
have probabilities as p1,p2,p3,…….,pm. Suppose a L message sequence is transmitted,
p1L messages of m1 are transmitted
p2L messages of m2 are transmitted
p3L messages of m3 are transmitted
.
.
.
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PML messages of mM are transmitted

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Digital Modulation Schemes & Information Theory Communication Systems

The total information due to message1 will be ( ) =

The total information due to message2 will be ( ) =

And so on

The total information carried due to sequence of L messages will be

I(total)= I1(total) + I2(total) +I3(total) ……….+ IM(total)
= + + +⋯+

The average information will be,

( )
Avg., Information= =

Therefore the entropy (H) is given by

( )
Entropy (H) = = + + + ⋯+

Entropy: =∑ /

Properties of Entropy:

1. Entropy (average information) is zero if the event is sure or impossible.

H=0 if Pk = 0 or 1
2. If symbols are equally likely events then probability is pk = 1/M, then entropy is
H= log2 M
3. Upper bound of entropy is given by Hmax =Log2 M.

MUTUAL INFORMATION:
Although conditional entropy can tell us when two variables are completely independent, it is
not an adequate measure of dependence. A small value for H(Y| X) may implies that X tells us
a great deal about Y or that H(Y) is small to begin with. Thus, we measure dependence using
mutual information:

I(X,Y) =H(Y)–H(Y|X)
Mutual information is a measure of the reduction of randomness of a variable given knowledge
of another variable. Using properties of logarithms, we can derive several equivalent
definitions

I(X,Y)=H(X)–H(X| Y)

I(X,Y) = H(X)+H(Y)–H(X,Y) = I(Y,X)

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Digital Modulation Schemes & Information Theory Communication Systems

Properties of Mutual Information:

PROPERTY 1: Symmetry
The mutual information of a channel is symmetric in the sense that
I (X,Y) = I (Y,X)

PROPERTY 2: Non-negativity
The mutual information is always nonnegative; that is;
I (X,Y) ≥ 0

PROPERTY 3: Expansion of the Mutual Information

The mutual information of a channel is related to the joint entropy of the channel input and
channel output by

I(X,Y) = H(X) + H(Y) – ( , )

where the joint entropy H(X, Y) is defined by H(X, Y) = ∑ ∑ , log

,

Shannon – Hartley theorem:

Shannon – Hartley theorem is channel capacity theorem which is applied under Gaussian
noise. It is also called information capacity theorem. According to this theorem, the channel
capacity of a white band limited Gaussian channel is

= 1+ /
Where B is channel bandwidth, S is transmitted power, N noise power.

Proof:

Le t the noise is AWGN over a channel of bandwidth ‘B’ having ‘N’ average power. Then
the maximum entropy of the noise is
ℎ( ) = (2 ) /

let the received signal is ‘Y’ due to input signal of X over the bandwidth ‘B’ Hz. Therefore
Y will be of the form

Y=X+N; N is the noise in the channel (AWGN assumed)

Let X is having its average power S in the given bandwidth. Since X and N are independent,
then the power of Y will be the variance of the received signal.

= +
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Digital Modulation Schemes & Information Theory Communication Systems

The maximum differential entropy of Y is given by

ℎ( ) = 2
= (2 ( + ))

The channel capacity is given by

C=max {h(Y) – h(N)}

Since Y and N are independent it can be written as

C=h(Y)max – h(N)max

Substituting the h(Y)max and h(N)max in the above equation

C= (2 ( + )) − (2 )
On solving it results
= 1+ /

Implications of Shannon Hartley Law:

1. It gives upper limit on reliable data transmission rate over Gaussian channels.
2. The channel capacity depends on the SNR and bandwidth.

**Important Note**
Noise less channel has infinite bandwidth, but infinite bandwidth has limited capacity.
Proof: In N=0, then capacity of channel C=B log2(1+∞)= ∞
But when B infinite, then noise power increases. Then the noise power is N=BN0. So SNR will
be increased. The upper limit given by = lim = 1.44
→

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