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Form 4 notes - Summary

Information Communication technology (Kaimosi Friends University College)

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TOPIC 1- GENETICS a) For example, when the number of students is plotted
Definition against height it gives a normal distribution curve.
 Genetics is the study of heredity and variation.
 Heredity is the passing on/ transmission of characteristics/
traits from the parents to the offspring/young ones.
 Variation refers to observable differences that are seen in
organisms of the same species or differences between
organisms.
 Species refers to a group of organisms that are able to freely
and naturally interbreed to give rise to a viable offspring.
 The offspring show slight differences from their parents. For
example in human beings, members of the same family differ
in shape of nose, skin colour and height.
 This is because of hereditary factors/ genes each of them
acquires from parents and the effect of environment.
VARIATION.
 This is the differences among organisms of the same
species.
 Variations in human beings are shown in tongue rolling, Causes of variation
fingerprints, height, and type of earlobes (attached or 1. Gamete formation- during gamete formation/
free), sex, blood groups, skin colour, and weight. meiosis, the following meiotic processes cause variation
 In plants variations are observed in length of leaves and namely:
internodes and size of fruits. a) Crossing over- exchange of chromatid segments cause
Types of variation. new gene combinations which causes variation.
a) Discontinuous variation. b) Independent assortment- this is the arrangement of
b) Continuous variation. homologous chromosomes at the equator of the spindle
during metaphase I.
A. Discontinuous variation  This is followed by segregation/ separation into different
 This is a type of variation where there is a distinct/ daughter cells. The resulting daughter cells/ gametes
definite difference in a given characteristic/ without contain different genetic combination which brings about
intermediates. variation.
 It is controlled by genes and the environment has no 2. Fertilization- it allows parental genes to be brought
effect. together in different combination.
 Examples include:  This causes different qualities of parents to be combined
1. Ability to roll the tongue. differently in the offspring.
2. Sex i.e. male or female. 3. Mutations- mutation is the spontaneous change in the
3. ABO Blood groups/ABO blood group system. genetic make-up of an organism. These changes may be
4. Presence of hair in the nose or ear pinna. inherited by the offspring causing variations.
5. Fingerprints. Importance of variation
6. Free or attached earlobes. 1. Organisms/ individuals with advantageous traits/
7. Wing length, size of abdomen, eye color in drosophila variations are favored/ selected by nature and survive to
melanogaster. pass on the traits to their offspring.
8. Smooth/wrinkled seed coat, green/yellow color in 2. It ensures propagation of favorable/ advantageous traits
garden peas. to the future generation/ offspring ensuring quality
9. Melanic/light forms in moths. population/ species.
B. Continuous variation. THE CHROMOSOMES
 This is a type of variation which shows a wide range of  They are thread-like structures found in the nuclei of
differences for the same characteristic/trait from one plant and animal cells.
extreme end to the other with intermediates.  The contain genetic material called DNA
 It is controlled by both genes and environment. (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
 Examples include:  Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands
1. Height. called Chromatids.
2. Weight.  Each pair of chromatids is connected at one point by a
3. Stem diameter. structure called Centromere.
4. Skin colour in humans.  In body/ somatic cells each pair of chromosomes has the
5. Size of seeds and fruits. same length and shape but different versions of the same
6. Length of fingers in humans. genes. They are therefore called homologous
7. Milk yield in cows. chromosomes.
8. Length of leaves.  During sexual reproduction, each parent contributes one
of the chromosomes of the homologous pair.

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM FOUR Page 2

 Along the length of the chromatid there are structures
called genes.
 Genes are found in the protein molecules called DNA
(deoxy ribonucleic acid).

GENES STRUCTURE OF A NUCLEOTIDE.

 They are structures found in the DNA or chromosome  It consists of three different parts:
that control heredity i.e. they carry genetic information  Pentose sugar (5 carbon sugar).
that control the development of a particular  A phosphate molecule.
characteristic/trait.  A nitrogenous base.
 They are found at specific positions in the DNA or
chromosome called gene loci (sing. Locus).
 A given characteristic/trait is controlled by two genes
each located on separate homologous chromosome.
 These genes are called alleles.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
 This is a nucleic acid molecule/protein found in
chromosome.
 It contains the genes.
 One DNA contains approximately 30,000 genes that
occur in pairs.  The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose.
Characteristics/ properties of DNA  The sugar in RNA is ribose.
 It can replicate.  Phosphate groups are important because they link the
 It is inherited. sugar on one nucleotide onto the phosphate of the next
 It can undergo mutation. nucleotide to make a polynucleotide.
Role of DNA  There are 4 nitrogenous bases namely:
 It stores genetic information in coded form. i. Adenine (A)
 It enables the transfer of genetic information unchanged ii. Cytosine (C)
to daughter cells through replication. iii. Guanine (G)
 It translates the genetic information into characteristics of iv. Thymine (T)
an organism through protein synthesis  In RNA Thymine is replaced with Uracil (U).
Structure of DNA  In DNA the four bases are:
 It is made up of two strands that are twisted around each i. Thymine
other to appear like a coiled ladder. ii. Adenine
 This shape is called double helix. iii. Cytosine
 Each strand has structures called nucleotides. iv. Guanine
 Nucleotides are joined together to form one long  In RNA the four bases are:
strand. i. Uracil
ii. Adenine
 Each strand therefore consists of many nucleotides
iii. Cytosine
hence called polynucleotide strand.
iv. Guanine

Structure of a polynucleotide.
 It consists of several nucleotides.
 A polynucleotide is also called a DNA/RNA strand.

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 Twisting of the two polynucleotide strands is brought  This makes the bases/nucleotides free.
about by joining of the bases by hydrogen bonds.  Other nucleotides in the nucleus pair with the free
 The linking or joining of the bases is called pairing. nucleotides or bases hence forming complementary
 In DNA: strands.
 Adenine and Thymine always join together (A-
T).
 Cytosine and Guanine always join together (C-
G).
 In RNA:
 Cytosine and Guanine always join together (C-
G).
 Adenine and Uracil always join together (A-U).

DNA TRANSCRIPTION.
 It is the transfer of genetic information from the DNA in
the nucleus to the ribosome in the cytoplasm through
Messenger RNA (mRNA).
 During this process the DNA molecule unzips to expose
the bases.
 The bases of RNA pairs with the bases of the DNA.
 In this case Uracil pairs with Adenine.
 The mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and
attaches to the ribosome which directs the synthesis of a
specific protein hence characteristics/traits.
 This process is called Translation.
Study questions.
1. What s the basic unit of DNA molecule?
Nucleotide.
2. Name 3 chemical components of the basic unit named
above.
Differences between DNA and RNA.
 5- carbon sugar (deoxyribose sugar)
DNA RNA
 Phosphate group.
i. Contain i. Has ribose sugar.
 Organic nitrogenous base.
deoxyribose
sugar.
TERMS USED IN GENETICS
ii. Has thymine ii. Has uracil base.
1. A gene-it is a structure/portion of a DNA or
base.
chromosome that controls heredity.
iii. Consists of two iii. It is single stranded. 2. Genotype- it is the genetic constitution of an organism
polynucleotide e.g. tt, TT, Tt.
strands/it is 3. Phenotype-this is the physical appearance of an
double stranded organism/observable trait of an organism.
iv. It is found in the iv. It is found both in the 4. Allele/ allelomorph -refers to the alternative form of
nucleus only. nucleus and the same gene that controls the development of a pair of
cytoplasm. contrasting traits.
v. It is stable. v. It is less stable. 5. Homozygosity-refers to a condition where an
individual has identical/similar genes/alleles e.g.TT, tt.
DNA REPLICATION/ DUPLICATION. 6. Heterozygosity-this is a condition where an
 This is the process through which the DNA strands form organism/individual has different alleles.
copies of themselves.
 It is done through unzipping of the strands by breaking the
hydrogen bonds.

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7. Dominance-it is a condition where one allele/gene  He collected the seeds and planted them.
suppresses the expression of the other e.g. in Tt, T is  The seeds germinated and grew into tall plants only.
dominant over t.  He allowed them to self-pollinate and collected the seeds
8. Recessiveness-it is a condition where an allele does not and planted them.
express itself because of dominance.  The seeds germinated and grew into a mixture of tall and
9. Crossing-refers to mating or pollinating two organisms. short plants in the ratio of 3 tall: 1short (dwarf).
10. F1generation/first filial generation-this is a first  He repeated the experiment several times and found that
generation obtained after a cross. the ratio of tall to dwarf plants was 3: 1.
11. F2 generation/2nd filial generation-a generation  He tried to cross pea plants with seven such contrasting
obtained after crossing F1 generation. Crossing F2 characters i.e.
generation will give F3 generation and so on. i. Red flowered and white flowered plants;
12. Diploidy(2n)-this is a condition where a cell has two ii. Auxiliary flowered (flower arising in the axial of the leaf)
sets of chromosomes. The cells in diploid forms are and terminal flowered (flower arising at tip of stalk);
body/somatic cells. iii. Yellow seeded versus green seeded;
13. Haploidy (n)-this is a condition where a cell has one set iv. Round seeded verses wrinkled seeded;
of chromosomes. The cells in haploid forms are v. Green pod versus yellow pod
sex/reproductive cells. vi. Plants with inflated pods versus those with constricted
14. Polyploidy- this a condition where a cell has more than pod and
2 sets of chromosomes triploid (3n), tetraploid (4n), vii. Pure tall plants versus pure dwarf plants.
pentaploidn (5n) and so on.
15. Hybrid- refers to the offspring obtained after crossing Reasons for success of Mendel’s experiments
two superior organisms. 1. He used favorable materials i.e. the pea plant which is
16. Hybrid vigour-refers to increased performance of the normally self-fertilized but can also be cross pollinated.
offspring than the parents due to crossing two superior 2. The pea plant he used had several observable contrasting
parents. characteristics/ traits.
3. His study focused on particular traits (unlike those before
FIRST LAW OF HEREDITY/ MENDEL’S FIRST LAW him).
OF HEREDITY/ LAW OF SEGREGATION. 4. He kept accurate data on all his experiments and from the
 It states that the characteristics of an organism are analysis of his data he was able to formulate definite
controlled by genes which occur in pairs and only one of hypotheses.
those genes is contained in a gamete.
 This is because during gamete formation in meiosis I,
homologous chromosomes separate and alleles on the
different chromosomes go into different gametes.
 Inheritance of only one type of characteristic is called
monohybrid inheritance.
 The idea of heredity was first developed by a scientist
called Gregor Mendel.

MENDELIAN GENETICS.
 Sir Gregor Johann Mendel (1822 to 1884) was
Austrian monk who used garden pea (Pisum sativum) for his
experiments and published his results in 1865.
 His work, however, was rediscovered in 1900, long after
Mendel’s death, by Tschermak, Correns and DeVries.
 But since Mendel was the first to suggest principles
underlying inheritance he is regarded as the founder or
father of genetics.
Mendel’s experiments
 He used garden peas because:
i. They mature faster.
ii. They naturally self-pollinate but can also be cross
pollinated.
iii. They produce many seeds.
iv. Have sharply contrasting characteristics e.g. height- tall
and short; seed colour-white or purple; shape of seed
coat-smooth or wrinkled; colour of pods-green or
yellow.
 He selected one characteristic at a time.
 He crossed pure tall plants with pure short plants (by
dusting mature pollen grains onto the stigmas).

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Inheritance of pure tall plants.

Cross between pure breeds

MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE.
 This is the inheritance of one characteristic which is
controlled by a pair of genes.
 It involves the transfer of one pair of contrasting
characteristics e.g. tallness and shortness.
 A pair of genes are located on the same locus but on
different homologous chromosomes.
 Letters are used to represent the genes, upper
case/capital letters represent dominant genes and lower
case/small letters represent recessive genes.
 The following symbols are used to represent male and
female individuals:

 In the above cross the male is tall and the female is short.
Inheritance of pure dwarf/short plants (t represents a
If the cross is reversed i.e. the male is dwarf and female
recessive gene, T represents a dominant gene.
tall, the results will remain the same. This is called
reciprocal cross.
 The tall plants are heterozygous tall hence they are said to
have a dominant trait.
 Recessive genes show up in homozygous state.
Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster)
 The results of monohybrid inheritance have been
obtained by using a common insect, fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster). It has many observable characteristics that
show discontinuous variations e.g.
i. Wing length e.g. long wing trait dominant over vestigial
wing trait.
ii. Eye colour e.g. red eye trait dominant over white eye
trait.
iii. Size of abdomen e.g. broad abdomen dominant over
narrow abdomen trait.
iv. Body colour e.g. grey body colour dominant over black
body colour.

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Example
 A genetic cross between purebreed long winged and
vestigial winged flies results in all F1 offspring long
winged.
 When F1offspring are selfed, F2 offspring will have a
mixture of long winged and vestigial winged in the ratio
of 3 long winged : 1 vestigial winged.
Reasons why fruit fly are suitable
1. Females lay many eggs resulting in a large number of
offspring.
2. It has many distinct and contracting observable
characteristics.
3. They flies are easily bred in the laboratory with minimum
requirements. c) Work out the phenotypic ratio of the F2 offspring.
4. It has a short generation time (10-14 days). Phenotypic ratio: 3 axial flowered plants: 1 terminal
5. Their offspring can be crossed with parents at will (back flowered plant
crossing). d) Name the recessive characteristic in this cross and give a
6. The flies are safe to handle because they do not transmit reason for your answer.
any human diseases. Terminal flower position. This is because of its
PUNNET SQUARE/ CHECKERBOARD. disappearance in F2 and reappearance in F2
This is the alternative method of making genetic crosses. COMPLETE DOMINANCE.
It was devised by Professor Punnet. Done by use of a  This is a condition where a dominant gene suppresses the
square where fertilization is shown. expression of the recessive gene i.e. the dominant gene is
the one which determines the outcome of the phenotype
of the individual.
Example.
Heterozygous tall plant was crossed with a short plant.
Let T represent a gene for tallness.
Let t represent a gene for shortness.
a) Work out the genotype of offspring.

Study question.
 In a breeding experiment, garden peas with axial flowers
were crossed with plants with terminal flowers. All the
F1 plants had axial flowers. When the F1 plants were self-
pollinated, a total of 858 seeds were produced in the F2
b) What percentage of offsprings would be tall?
generation. Out of the total, 651 seeds gave rise to plants
½ x 100= 50%
with axial flowers.
c) What is the phenotypic ratio of the offsprings? 1 tall: 1
Let A represent a dominant gene
short
a) Using the figures given, work out the ratio of F2 plants
d) What is the genotypic ratio of the offsprings? 1Tt : 1tt
with axial flowers to that with terminal flowers.
e) What is the probability that the offsprings would be short?
Total number of plants=858,
½ or 0.50
Plants with axial flowers= 651
Therefore plants with terminal flowers= 858-651=207
Ratio of plants with axial flowers to terminal
flowers=651:207
= 3.14 plants with axial flowers: 1
plants with terminal flowers
= 3 plants with axial flowers: 1 plants
with terminal flowers
b) Use a punnet square to show the genotypes of the F2
offspring (use A to represent a dominant gene).

Example 2

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Example 3

Example 4

Example 2

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
 This is a condition where genes in the allelic pair are both
dominant and express themselves phenotypically
resulting in an intermediate characteristic in an offspring.

Example 1

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heterozygous state, the plants are pale green in colour but
grow to maturity.
a) Give a reason for the early death of the plants with the
homozygous recessive gene.
 Leaves do not have chlorophyll, hence do not
manufacture food/carry out photosynthesis, thus no
development of tissues.
b) If a normal green plant was crossed with the pale green plant,
what would be the genotype of the first filial generation (F1
generation)? Show your working.

DETERMINING THE UNKNOWN GENOTYPES.

 An individual showing a dominant characteristic can
either be homozygous or heterozygous.
 Its genotype is determined through:
1. Test cross.
2. Back cross.
3. Self-pollination/selfing.
1. Test cross- this is a genetic cross between individual
CO-DOMINANCE of unknown genotype showing a dominant characteristic
 This is a condition where alleles/genes are both dominant with a recessive individual.
and they both express themselves phenotypically in an 2. Back cross is a genetic cross where an offspring is crossed
offspring. with one of the parents.
Examples 3. Selfing/ self-pollination is a genetic cross between
i. ABO Blood group system. members of the same filial generation.
ii. Sickle cell anaemia. Results of test cross/ back cross/ self-pollination.
iii. White and red flower colors in snapdragon/ 4 oclock 1. If the individual showing a dominant characteristic is
plant. homozygous, all the offspring will show a dominant
iv. White and black coat in guinea pigs. characteristic.
Example 2. If the individual showing a dominant characteristic is
heterozygous the offspring will show both dominant and
 When pure breeding black guinea pigs were crossed with
recessive characteristic.
pure breeding white guinea pigs, the F1 offspring had a
coat with black and white patches. Using letter G to
represent the gene for black coat colour and letter H for
white coat colour, work out the genotypic and
phenotypic ratio of F2.

Study question.
In a certain plant species which is normally green, a
recessive gene for colour (n) causes the plants to be white
in colour. Such plants die at an early age. In the

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 BB
 BO
 OO
 If the genotype is AA/AO, antigen A is formed and the
blood group/phenotype is blood group A.
 If the genotype is BB/BO, antigen B is formed and the
blood group/ phenotype is blood group B.
 If the genotype is AB, both antigen A and B are formed
and the blood group/ phenotype is blood group AB.
 If the genotype is OO, neither antigen A nor antigen
B is formed and the blood group/phenotype is blood
group O.

Example 1

INHERITANCE OF ABO BLOOD GROUPS.

 Blood groups are determined by antigens found on the
surface of red blood cells.
 The antigens are:
 Antigen A
 Antigen B
 The inheritance of blood group is determined by three Example 2
alleles that influence the formation of antigens on the A woman with blood group A married a man with blood
surface of red blood cells. group B. Their firstborn child had blood group O.
 The alleles include: a. Give the genotypes of the parents.
 Allele A Mother-AO
 Allele B Father-BO
 Allele O
 A condition where a gene exists in more than two alleles
for a particular trait is called multiple allelism.
 Allele A determines the formation of antigen A.
 Allele B determines the formation of antigen B.
 Allele o prevents the formation of antigen A and
antigen B on the red blood cells.
 Allele A and allele B show co-dominance to each other
while allele o is recessive to both allele A and allele B.
 The alleles are in the following combination which
represent the possible genotype of individuals:
 AA
 AB
 AO

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM FOUR Page 10

INHERITANCE OF RHESUS FACTOR OR ANTIGEN

D.
 Rhesus factor is another antigen found on the surface of
the red blood cells whose inheritance is controlled by two
alleles.
 The dominant allele (Rh) determines the formation of
rhesus antigen/antigen D on the red blood cells.
 The recessive allele (rh) prevents the formation of rhesus
antigen/antigen D on the red blood cells.
 The possible genotypes are:
i. RhRh.
ii. Rhrh.
iii. rhrh.

If the genotype is RhRh/Rhrh, the rhesus antigen is

formed on the surface of the red blood cells. The
phenotype is Rhesus positive (Rh+).
If the genotype is rhrh, the rhesus antigen is not formed.
BLOOD TRANSFUSION BASED ON ABO SYSTEM. The phenotype is Rhesus negative (Rh-).
 Human serum contains antibodies that can react with Example 1
blood group antigens on the red blood cells membranes
 The antibodies and antigens present in people of different
blood groups are shown below

Solution

 Agglutination/clumping of red blood cells occurs when

the recipient antibodies correspond to the antigens of the
donor’s red blood cell.
 Thus a recipient of blood group A (antibody b)
cannot receive blood from a donor of blood group B
(antigen B).
 This is because the b antibodies present in the Example 2
recipient’s blood would react with B antigens on the
donor’s red blood cells.
 This can cause haemagglutination which can block
small blood vessels leading to death.
 People of blood group O are called universal donors
because their red blood cells do not have antigens to
react with recipient’s antibodies.
 People of blood group AB are called universal recipients
because their serum does not contain antibodies to react
with the antigens of the donor’s red blood cells.

Solution

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 Females have only X chromosomes, hence the genotype
is XX (Homogametic). They therefore produce
gametes /ova that bear only X chromosomes.
 Males have both X and Y chromosomes, hence the
genotype is XY (heterogametic). They therefore
produce gametes/sperms that bear X and Y
chromosomes.
 When a sperm with Y-chromosome fuses with the ovum,
a male child is born.
 When a sperm bearing X-chromosome fuses with the
ovum, a female child is born.
Example 3 Example

 There are no naturally occurring antibodies for the

Rhesus factor.
 They are however formed when a person receives blood
form a rhesus positive individual. LINKAGE
 Such antibodies are formed slowly over a long time and  Refers to location/occurrence of genes on the same
are of little consequence during the first transfusion. chromosomes.
 However, a subsequent transfusion encounters already  These genes do not determine the same characteristics
formed antibodies and may lead to agglutination of the but are inherited together.
recipient’s blood cells leading to fatal results.  These genes are said to be linked/are linked genes.
 This also occurs when a rhesus negative mother bears a Sex-linkage.
rhesus positive child.  Refers to location/occurrence of genes that do not
 Fragments of foetal blood enters the blood stream of the determine sexual characteristics on the sex
mother leading to antibody formation. chromosomes.
 The antibodies pass back into the foetus.  These genes are said to be sex-linked and most of them
 Generally, the antibodies are not formed quickly enough are linked on X-chromosome hence sex linked traits
to affect the first child. are more common in males than females.
 In the subsequent pregnancies if the child is positive  This is because males are heterogametic and require only
would lead to massive destruction of the foetal red blood one recessive gene on X chromosome to show the trait.
cells.  Females are homogametic and require two recessive
 This condition is called Erythroblastosis foetalis (haemolytic genes to show the trait.
disease of the young one) which is fatal. A male (XY) offspring inherits his X-chromosome from
 Control the mother and his Y-chromosome from the father.
 The foetal blood is replaced with rhesus negative blood Therefore he inherits all genes for sex-linked traits from
while in the womb. the mother.
 The mother is treated with anti-rhesus globulin that coats A female (XX) inherits one of her X-chromosomes from
the foetal red blood cells. the mother and the other from the father. Thus the female
SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMANS. inherits genes for sex-linked traits from both parents.
 It is controlled by a specific pair of chromosomes. In Drosophila melanogaster, the gene that determines eye
 In man there are 46 chromosomes(23 homologous pairs) colour is located on the X chromosome.
 44 chromosomes (22 homologous pairs) determine body The principle of inheritance of sex linked traits iin man
characteristics hence called autosomes. and Drosophila melanogaster is the same.
 2 chromosomes (1 homologous pair) determine sexual
characteristics hence called sex chromosomes.
 They include:
i. X chromosome. Sex-linked traits/ characteristics in man.
ii. Y chromosome. A. Red-green colour blindness.
How is sex determined in humans? B. Haemophilia.
C. Tufts of hair on pinna and nose.

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D. Premature baldness. a) A colour blind woman married a man with normal colour
vision. Predict the possible phenotypes and genotypes of
A. Red- green colour blindness. their children.
 This is the inability to distinguish red from green colour. Solution
The alleles/genes are sex-linked on X-chromosome.
 Upper case/capital letter C represents a gene for normal
colour vision.
 Lower case/small letter represents a gene for colour
blindness/abnormal colour vision.
 The following are the possible genotypes:
 Males-XCY; Xc Y
 Females-XCXC ; XC Xc ; Xc Xc
 Since alleles for colour blindness is recessive it only shows
up in homozygous state.
 Females may be phenotypically normal but carry
recessive genes for colour blindness hence are called
B. Haemophilia/bleeder’s disease.
carriers e.g. XC Xc
This is a blood disorder in which blood fails to clot or
 They are said to have a trait for colour blindness.
takes abnormally long to clot after an injury.
Example
It is caused by a recessive gene linked on X- chromosome.
 A man with normal vision marries a woman with the trait Clotting of blood is caused by factor VIII in blood.
for colour blindness. Work out the possible phenotypes The inheritance of this factor is caused determined by two
of their children. alleles.
Let C represent a gene for normal colour vision. A dominant allele (H) determines the production of
Let c represent a gene for colour blindness. normal clotting factor while a recessive gene (h)
Solution determines the production of defective factor.
The possible genotypes are:
Males-XHY; Xh Y
Females-XHXH ;XHXh; XhXh
If the genotype is XHXH ;XHXh or XHY a normal clotting
factor is formed hence will be phenotypically normal.
A heterozygous female (XHXh is phenotypically normal
but a carrier.
If the genotype is Xh Y or XhXh a defective clotting factor
is formed hence the phenotype is haemophiliac.
Haemophilia is common in males than females because
males require only one haemophiliac gene from the
Example 1 carrier mother to get a disease.
 A colour blind man marries a woman with normal colour Females must have two of the defective genes from the
vision. father and the mother to get a disease.
a. Predict the genotypes of their children. Due to seriousness of the defect, males do not survive to
reproductive maturity hence females have little chance to
inherit the defective gene from the father.
Example
A haemophiliac man marries a carrier woman for the
haemophiliac condition. Use a punnet square to work out
the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their children.
Let H represent the gene for normal blood clotting
Let h represent a gene for haemophilia.

b. What is the probability of getting a:

i. Colour blind son.
Zero Solution
ii. Carrier daughter.
= 100%
iii. Child with normal vision.
= 50%

Example 3.

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 Red-green colour blindness (RGC) is a condition
characterized by the inability of the eye to detect some
colours accurately.
 The pedigree below shows the occurrence in one family

What is the probability that the couple would give birth

to haemophiliac:
i. Son? =50%
ii. Daughter =50%
iii. Child =50%
Example 2
a) With reference to the pedigree, and using symbols R for
 A normal woman and a haemophiliac man have a family.
the dominant allele and r for the recessive allele, state the
Using a punnet square, determine the possible
genotypes of the
phenotypes of their offsprings.
i. Individuals 1,4, 6 and 7
Solution
1-XRXr
4-XRY
6-XrY
7-XRXr
ii. Parents
Mother-XRXr
Father-XRY
b) Marriage between two closely related individuals can
have far reaching effects among the offsprings. Justify this
statement using a cross between individuals 4 and 7.

- Due to recessive defective alleles within the family,

phenotypically normal individuals may give rise to
offsprings with genetic defects

Hairy pinna and nose and pre-mature baldness. MUTATIONS.

 They are Y linked traits i.e. they are controlled by genes  Mutation refers to spontaneous /sudden and permanent
located on Y chromosome only hence they are only found change that occurs in an individual’s genetic constitution.
in males.  Mutations are normally due to recessive genes most of
 This is because females lack Y chromosome. which are transmitted in the usual Mendelian fashion.
Assignment  Mutation can occur on the structure of a gene and
 In Drosophila Melanogaster, the inheritance of eye colour chromosome or in the number of chromosomes.
is sex – linked (X-linked). The gene of red eye is  Mutation that occurs in the body/somatic/non
dominant. A cross was made between a homozygous red reproductive cells is called somatic mutation.
– eyed female and a white – eyed male. Work out the  Changes due to mutation cause discontinuous variations.
phenotypic ration of F1 generation. (Use R to represent Characteristics of mutations.
the gene for red eyes). i. They arise spontaneously.
 In humans, hairy ears are controlled by a gene on the Y ii. They are rare.
chromosome. Using letter YH to represent the iii. They are generally recessive but may become dominant
chromosome carrying the gene for hairy ears, work out a with time.
cross between a hairy eared man and wife. iv. They are inherited.
Pedigree charts v. They may give disadvantages to the organism that inherits
 This is a record, in the table form, showing the them.
distribution of one or more traits in different generations Benefits/ advantages of mutation in living organisms
of related individuals.  It can bring about beneficial/ advantageous traits e.g.
 It records the transmission of a defective gene in a family disease resistance, high yield, early maturity.
across successive generations.  It increases heterozygosity/ increases variation.
Example
Causes of mutations

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 They are caused by factors called mutagens.
 The descendants of individuals with mutation are called
mutants.
 The causes include:
i. Radiations e.g. gamma rays, x-rays, beta –rays.
ii. Chemicals e.g. mustard gas, caffeine, colchicines.
iii. Heavy metals e.g. mercury.
iv. Viruses.
TYPES OF MUTATIONS
A. Chromosomal mutation/aberrations. 4. TRANSLOCATION
B. Gene mutation/point mutations.  This occurs when a portion of the
chromosome/chromatid breaks off and attaches to
A. CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS/ CHROMOSOMAL another chromatid but of the non-homologous pair.
ABERRATIONS.  This leads to movement of genes from one non-
 They involve the changes in the structure and number homologous to another.
chromosomes.
Types of chromosomal mutations.
 They include:
1. Deletion.
2. Duplication.
3. Inversion.
4. Translocation.
5. Non-disjunction.
6. Polyploidy
5. NON-DISJUNCTION
1. DELETION.
 This is the failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes
 It occurs when some sections of the chromatids break off
to separate during meiosis leading to half of the gametes
and fail to reconnect to any of the chromatids hence they
containing two of the same chromosome while other
are completely lost.
gametes having none.
 It leads to failure of development of important body
 This leads to loss or addition of one or more whole
organs.
chromosomes.
 It occurs in Anaphase I where two homologous
chromosomes fail to separate or in Anaphase II where
sister chromatids fail to separate.
 The fusion of the gamete with two similar chromosomes
with a normal gamete of the opposite sex will result in a
zygote/ individual with three similar chromosomes
(normal homologous pair and one extra chromosome).
 It is common in human beings.
2. DUPLICATION. Normal meiosis
 In this type a section of a chromatid replicates and adds an
extra length to itself hence a set of genes is repeated.
 It leads to overemphasis of some traits.

3. INVERSION
 It occurs when a part chromatid breaks at two places,
rotate through 180 degrees and rejoins in inverted
position.
 This reverses the gene sequence of the chromosome or
chromatid.
Non-disjunction at first meiotic division.

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vi. Widely spaced eyes.
c. Turner’s syndrome.
 This is a condition where an individual lacks one sex
chromosome hence have 45 chromosomes.
 The zygotes with YO do not develop hence individuals
with Turner’s syndrome are females.
 The females have the following characteristics:
i. Infertility due to lack of ovaries.
ii. Small uterus.
iii. No breast development.
iv. Short.
6. POLYPLOIDY
 This is a condition where cells of an individual have more
Non-disjunction at the second meiotic division. than two sets of chromosomes
 A set of chromosomes refers to a group in the
homologous pair that is usually found in the
gamete/reproductive cell.
 It comes as a result of a failure of the cell to divide after
the first stage of meiosis forming a diploid gamete.
 It is common in plants.
 When a diploid gamete fuses with a haploid gamete the
zygote will have 3 sets of chromosomes hence said to be
triploid (3n).
 When two diploid gametes fuse the zygote will he
tetraploid (4n).
 Polyploidy can be induced artificially by use of chemicals
called colchicines which prevent spindle formation
during meiosis.
Effects of non-disjunction
BENEFITS/ ADVANTAGES OF POLYPLOIDY TO
a. Down’s syndrome (mongolism)
THE FARMER
 This is a condition where cells of an individual have one
1. Increased yields.
extra somatic/ body chromosome (47 chromosomes).
2. Early maturity.
 Results from a fusion of a gamete with 2 homologous 3. Resistance to drought, pests and diseases.
chromosomes with a haploid gamete. Disadvantage
 The individual is said to be trisomic and the condition is  Reduced fertility.
trisomy i.e. has 3 similar chromosomes. Study question.
 The individuals have the following characteristics: a) Define the term diploidy.
i. Mental deficiency.  This is a state/ condition of having two sets of
ii. Thick tongue. chromosomes in a cell/ cells of an organism OR a
iii. Slit eye appearance. condition of a cell having a pair of each of the
iv. Cardiac malfunctions. homologous chromosome.
v. Short body. b) i) Name the type of cell division that gives rise to diploid
vi. Stubby fingers. cells.
vii. Low resistance to diseases/ infection.  Mitosis.
viii. Flat nasal bridge. ii) Name the type of cells in which the process named
above occurs.
b. Klinefelter’s syndrome.  Body/ somatic cells
 This is a condition where an individual has one extra sex c) State the significance of diploidy.
chromosome hence has a total of 47 chromosomes (hence  It ensures that the chromosomes / genetic
the genotype is XXY for males and XXX for females). constitution of the offspring is the same as the
 Symptoms in males are: parent.
i. Infertility.  It ensures perpetuation of a species with desirable
ii. Underdeveloped testes. characteristics or continuity of offspring.
iii. Reduced facial hair. GENE MUTATIONS/ POINT MUTATIONS
iv. Taller than average man.  Gene mutation is the spontaneous change in the structure
v. More pronounced signs of obesity. of the gene.
 Females have the following characteristics:  It arises as a result of a change in the chemical nature of
i. Infertile/ ovary abnormalities. the gene or alteration in the DNA molecule.
ii. Taller than average woman. Types of gene mutation.
iii. Developmental delay.  They include:
iv. Abnormally shaped breast bones. 1. Substitution.
v. More pronounced signs of obesity.

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2. Inversion. Example
3. Deletion.  Intended message:
4. Insertion. DO NOT SAY WHERE YOU ARE
1. SUBSTITUTION- In this type a portion of the gene/the  Actual message:
base is replaced with a new portion e.g. Adenine (A) is DO NOT STAY WHERE YOU ARE
replaced/substituted with Guanine (G) on the DNA Effects of gene mutation
strand. 1. Genetic disorders.
2. Emergence of insects resistant to insecticides.
3. Emergence of micro-organisms resistant to antibiotics.
4. Increased immunity in mammals.
GENETIC DEFECTS/ DISORDERS DUE TO GENE
MUTATION.
 They include:
1. Haemophilia.
2. Red-green colour blindness.
Examples 3. Albinism.
1. Intended message: EXPORT OF THERMOS NOW 4. Sickle cell anaemia.
BANNED 5. Achondroplasia.
 Actual/available message: EXPORT OF 1. ALBINISM
THERMOS NOT BANNED  This is an inherited disorder whereby an individual fails to
2. Intended message- BUY ME A SKIRT produce the skin pigment called melanin.
 Actual message- BUY ME A SHIRT  The individual is called albino with a light skin, whitee
2. INVERSION hair and pink eyes.
- In this, the portion of the gene/DNA breaks at two points  Melanin is responsible for colour of the skin, hairs and
and rotates through 1800 and reattaches. iris of the eye.
Examples  It also protects the skin against harmful rays of the sun
1. Intended message-GUERILLAS SENDING ARMS TO e.g. ultraviolet rays.
AID ROOTERS  It results from gene mutation where the dominant gene
 Actual message- GUERILLAS SENDING RAMS TO (A) for melanin formation is substituted with a recessive
AID ROOTERS gene (a).
2. Intended message- THIS IS MAY TEAM  Therefore the enzyme necessary for melanin formation is
 Actual message- THIS IS MY MATE not synthesized.
3. DELETION  The skin of albino is susceptible to sunburn and the eyes
- In this a gene portion breaks off and is lost hence bases are are sensitive to bright light.
lost.  Use of sunglasses and sunscreen lotions helps them to lead
a normal life.
 The possible genotypes are:
i. Aa-phenotypically normal (carriers).
ii. AA-phenotypically normal.
iii. Aa-albino.
 If the genotype is Aa or AA, melanin is formed; if the
genotype is oo, melanin is not formed.
Example.1
 In the family, a couple with normal skin colour had four
Example children. The first three children had normal skin colour
- Intended message- STAY WHERE YOU ARE and the fourth child had albinism.
- Actual message- SAY WHERE YOU ARE  Suggest the possible genotypes of the parents.
4. INSERTION.  Aa, Aa
 In this there is an addition of extra base onto the existing  What is the probability that one of the children will show
DNA strand. albinism? Show your working.

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- The individual with sickle cell anaemia frequently
experiences oxygen shortage to the body tissues hence
cannot carry out strenuous physical exercises.
- The sickle shaped cells are not able to squeeze through
capillaries hence end up clogging blood vessels preventing
the normal flow. This blockage results into severe pain in
the joints, arms, legs and stomach.
- With close medical attention, sickle cell person can lead
a relatively normal life. A less serious condition is called
sickle cell trait where less than half of the red blood cells
are sickle shaped.
- Individuals with sickle cell trait have an adaptive
survival advantage in malaria endemic areas
because they are resistant to/have natural immunity
Example 2
against malaria because plasmodium parasites do
 In a marriage between normal skin colour man and an not survive well in in sickled shaped red blood cells.
albino woman, all the children had normal skin colour. - Therefore sickle cell trait is more prevalent in tropical
a) Using letter A to represent a dominant gene, state the countries where malaria is prevalent. The individuals
genotypes of the parents. survive and pass on the trait to young ones hence
Man/ father- AA; increasing the population with sickle cell trait.
Woman/ mother- aa Differences between sickle cell anaemia and
b) What is the explanation for the absence of an albino child sickle cell trait.
in this marriage? i. Sickle cell anaemia is homozygous while sickle cell trait is
The gene for normal colour A is dominant over the heterozygous.
gene for albinism a ii. Sickle cell anemia is severe anemia/is where all/100%
2. ACHONDROPLASIA/ CHONDRODYSTROPHIC Red Blood Cells are sickle shaped while sickle cell trait is
DWARFISM. mild anemia/where some/50% RBCs are sickle shaped
 This is a condition that is controlled by a dominant. while others are normal.
 It results into bow leggedness with dome shaped head.
3. SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA.
 This is a condition /disorder where the red blood cells
have abnormal/sickle shape.
 It results from substitution where amino acid (glutamic
acid) in normal haemoglobin is replaced with amino acid
(valine)
 As a result these red blood cells are not able to transport
oxygen efficiently.
 The inheritance is determined by the co-dominant genes
 They include:
i. HbA
ii. HbS
- HbA determines the formation of normal haemoglobin Example 1
(haemoglobin A) hence the red blood cells will have a  A man with sickle cell trait marries a woman with the
normal shape. same trait. Work out the possible phenotypic ratios of
- HbS determines the formation of abnormal haemoglobin their children.
(haemoglobin S) hence sickle celled red blood cells. Let HbA represent a gene for normal red blood cell.
- The possible genotypes include: Let HbS represent a gene for sickle shaped red blood
i. HbAHbA cells.
ii. HbAHbS
iii. HbSHbS
- If the genotype is HbAHbA, a normal haemoglobin is
formed and the red blood cells will have normal shape.
- If the genotype is HbAHbS, both normal and abnormal
haemoglobin will be formed hence some red blood cells
will have a normal biconcave shape an others will have a
sickle shape.
- As a result the individual will have mild anaemia hence
said to have sickle cell trait.
- If the genotype is HbSHbS, abnormal haemoglobin is
formed and all red blood cells will have sickle shape hence
the individual is said to have sickle cell anaemia.

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 This is done through inbreeding or cross breeding in
animals and polyploidy in plant breeding.
 Inbreeding refers to crossing of genetically closely related
individuals and it is useful for retaining desirable qualities.
 Inbreeding however leads to loss of hybrid vigor because
chances of recessive/ defective genes combining
increases leading to weaker offspring.
 Cross breeding is the genetic cross between distantly
related individuals of the same species
 Cross breeding increases variation resulting in hybrid
vigour/ heterosis.
 Hybrid vigor is the crossing of two genetically dissimilar
lines leads to an offspring called hybrid.
 Hybrids will have the following favorable characteristics:
i. Increased yield/production/performance.
ii. Improved food quality.
Example 2 iii. Resistance to diseases.
A female with sickle cell trait marries a normal man. The iv. Resistance/tolerance drought.
allele for sickle cell is BbS and the normal allele is HbA. v. Increased growth rate.
Determine the probability that their first born will have Phenotypic characteristics selected during plant
the sickle cell trait. Show your working. and animal breeding/ artificial selection suitable
for modern agricultural purposes.
1. Early maturity (in both plants and animals).
2. Resistance to diseases.
3. Increased length of productive season e.g. long egg laying
period.
4. Higher yields in terms of milk, meat, egg and fruit
production.
5. Adaptability to local conditions e.g. amount of rainfall,
soil type, temperature.
6. Shape, colour and aroma of flowers e.g. roses.
7. Ease of harvesting in coffee, mango, coconut, palm and
banana where short varieties have been produced.
3. GENETIC ENGINEERING.
 This refers to the process of identifying a desirable gene,
isolating, changing and transferring a gene from one
organism to the DNA of another organism. This leads to
a change in the genetic make-up of an individual.
 Organisms obtained through genetic engineering are
called transgenic organisms/ genetically
modified organisms (GMOs). A DNA which has been
PRACTICAL APLICATION OF GENETICS. changed is called recombinant DNA (rDNA).
1. BLOOD TRANSFUSION. Advantages of genetically modified organisms.
 The knowledge of blood group and Rhesus factor will i. Higher yields.
help in blood typing before transfusion to ensure ii. Resistance to pests and diseases.
compatibility of donor and recipient blood groups. iii. Early/ faster maturity.
 Blood typing is a process of determining the antigens iv. Resistance to harsh climatic conditions e.g. drought and
and antibodies of blood to ensure safe transfusion. extreme temperatures.
 This is important to reduce the risk of agglutination and Disadvantages of genetically modified plant
possible death of the recipient. products.
 For example, a donor who is blood group O+ can donate 1. Most products have lost original desirable qualities e.g.
blood to a recipient who has blood group A+ but not to taste.
a recipient of blood group A-. 2. Poor/ undesirable qualities are perpetuated through
 This is because rhesus negative individual will produce subsequent generations.
antibodies against rhesus antigen/ antigen D. 3. Products’ qualities are irreversible/ it is not possible to get
2. PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING through original species/ qualities.
artificial selection. APPLICATION OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
 Artificial selection refers to selectively choosing A. IN MEDICINE.
organisms with desirable qualities. 1. Production of hormones through Genetically
 It is done in plants and animals to determine the genes Modified Organisms (Gmos)
which will be passed on to the next generation. i. A strain of bacteria (Escherichia coli) has been modified to
synthesize human insulin.

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 The human gene that codes for insulin is transferred into ii. Production of genetically modified tomatoes
the bacteria thereby producing insulin that is purer and in that take long before rotting- A gene that leads to
large quantities. softening of the fruit coat is deleted hence there is no
ii. The human gene that codes for Human somatotrophin production of enzyme responsible for rotting.
hormone is transferred into bacteria thereby producing  This is important to avoid rotting of tomatoes before
the hormone in large quantities that is used to treat reaching the market and also full maturity before
dwarfism. harvesting.
2. Production of medicinal proteins in milk to iii. Attempts to transfer a gene for nitrogen fixation from
relieve haemophilia and hereditary emphysema. bacteria into cereal crops to increase yield without use of
 Sheep has been genetically modified to produce milk fertilizers.
which contains medicinal proteins to relieve haemophilia iv. Production of bovine somatotropin- This is a
and Emphysema patients) hormone that increases milk production and weight
i. For haemophilia, the gene for blood clotting factors into increase in cattle.
transferred into sheep embryos to interact with milk  The gene that controls the production of this hormone is
producing genes. transferred to bacteria that produce the hormone in large
ii. When born, the sheep’s female offspring has the ability to quantities.
produce milk containing the blood clotting factors. This  The hormone is extracted, purified and injected into the
factor is isolated and used to relieve haemophilia. cow that leads to increase in the cells in the mammary
- Hereditary emphysema is due to the presence of glands and weight of beef cattle.
uninhibited activity of enzyme elastase in the lungs. This c. IN ENVIRONMENT.
enzyme dissolve the elastic tissue leading to the collapse • Genetically modified Pseudomonas bacteria are capable of
of the alveoli. decomposing hydrocarbons in petroleum controlling
- In the normal persons the activity of the enzyme elastase pollution due to spillage in water bodies.
is inhibited by a protein called Alphant-trypsin (AAT)
normally circulating in the blood. 4. GENETIC COUNSELLING.
- The emphysema patients lack this protein AAT. The  This is the provision of information and the advice on
protein is now being produced in sheep milk the same genetically inherited disorders, their risks and outcomes.
way blood clotting factor is produced.  This is offered by specialists with the knowledge of
3. Production of vaccines e.g. a vaccine for medical genetics and proper counseling techniques
hepatitis B virus, rabies and cholera. (medical counselor)
i. In production of a vaccine against hepatitis B virus, the  The genetic disorders which require counseling are sickle
gene for protein coat of hepatitis B virus is isolated and cell anemia, albinism, haemophilia, erythroblastosis foetalis,
transferred into a fungus (yeast). klinefelter’s syndrome and colour blindness.
 The yeast is cultured to produce the protein which is Importance / the need for genetic counseling in
isolated and purified. present day health facilities.
 When injected into the human body it acts as an antigen 1. It helps to provide information/ advice to individuals
which stimulates the production of antibodies against /families/ communities about genetic disorders.
hepatitis B virus. 2. It helps to identify/ predict/ test/ advice families/
ii. Some genetically modified banana is targeted to produce communities on possible risks of genetic disorders.
orally administered vaccines against rabies and cholera. 3. It provides supportive services/ acts as patient advocates/
4. Gene therapy. refer individuals/ families to relevant health
 Gene therapy is the replacement of defective genes professionals.
with normal ones aimed at correcting genetic disorders. Steps followed in genetic counselling.
 In somatical gene therapy genetically modified organisms 1. Establishing the nature of the disorder e.g.
e.g. viruses are used to carry the gene and introduce it i) Physical examination e.g. lack of breasts in turner’s
into the affected tissue cells. syndrome.
 The defective gene in the tissue cell is thereby corrected ii) Laboratory tests e.g. blood test for sickle cell anemia.
by the genes in the carrier. It is used in treatment of lung iii) Amniocentesis (for chromosomal abnormalities in foetus)
cystic fibrosis. iv) Family history to determine the possible inheritance of
 IN AGRICULTURE/ FARMING. the disorder e.g. haemophilia.
 Agricultural biotechnology can assist farmers to improve v) Genetic screening of defective gene in the population.
yield, storage properties, quality of produce, increase 2. Explaining the cause of the condition and analyze the risks
resistance to diseases, insect pests and other stresses. involved.
Examples include: 3. Giving advice on the quality and likely length of life for
 Production of genetically modified maize and people with disorders.
soya beans that are resistant against pest attack- 4. Explaining the options available for parents who have not
A gene that provide resistance is isolated from bacterium given birth, for example a carrier woman and a normal
(Bacillus thurungensis) and transferred into these crops. man for haemophilia e.g. contraception, adoption of a
 The gene enables the crops to produce toxins which kill child, artificial insemination.
the insects that feed on them. Limitations of genetic counseling.
i. The affected individuals may be stigmatized.
ii. Children may sue the parents for inherited disorders.

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iii. Some of the options available to the individuals have to produce drugs to enhance or inhibit the activity of such
serious ethical and socio-cultural implications. proteins.
5. CLONING.
 This is a type of asexual reproduction where a group of
cells arise from a single individual cells without
fertilization. The offspring are called clones and are
genetically identical.
 In plants it is common and has resulted into a
biotechnology called tissue culture.
 Cloning has been carried out in sheep producing “Dolly”
sheep. In this process, a nucleus from a fertilized ovum
was removed and replaced with a diploid nucleus of a cell
from the mammary gland of another sheep. The ovum
was then implanted into the sheep’s uterus.
6. SETTLINGS/SOLVING LEGAL ISSUES.
a) Crime detection- it is don through DNA
fingerprinting/DNA profiling.
- The DNA is extracted from a specimen on the crime
scene e.g. blood, semen or hair and sample from the
suspects.
- The DNA is mapped to reveal base sequence and
compared. Since the DNA pattern is unique for each
individual it is possible to isolate the culprit from several
suspects.
b) Disputed parentage.
- The knowledge of blood typing and matching can be used
to solve disputed parentage.
- For example if a woman of blood group A (genotype AO)
gives birth to a child of blood group O and claims that a
man of blood group AB is the biological father, the
knowledge of ABO blood group determination and
inheritance shows that the man is not the biological
father.
- This is because the biological father must be of genotype
AO, BO or OO.
- Alternatively the most accurate method is DNA
matching/ fingerprinting. A child inherits one set of DNA
from the mother and the other from the mother.
- DNA is extracted from the suspected father, mother and
the child and matching done. If portions of DNA in the
father match the one in the child then it confirms
paternity.
7 HUMAN GENOME PROJECT.
 Genome is the total genetic content of any cell in an
organism. In humans there are up to 100,000 genes.
 The human genome project aims at:
a) Gene mapping- this is the process of identifying
specific positions occupied by specific genes on a
chromosome e.g. cystic fibrosis gene is found on
chromosome 7, sickle cell gene is located on
chromosome 11 and haemophilia gene is located on X
chromosome.
b) Sequencing of genes- this is the process of analyzing
DNA to reveal the order of bases in all chromosomes.
Importance of human genome projects.
a) Identification of defective genes, hence facilitating their
correction.
b) Identification of genes that are susceptible to certain
diseases so that individuals can take preventive measures.
c) Predicting the protein that the gene produces some of
which are disadvantageous. This provides an opportunity

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TOPIC 2: EVOLUTION
• Organic evolution is the emergence of complex life
forms from pre-existing simple life forms gradually over
a long period of time.
• It also refers to progressive development of complex
organisms from simple pre-existing life forms over a long
period of time.
Importance of organic evolution.
• It provides a scientific explanations for the great
diversity/ variation observed in organisms and in their
similarities in structure and function.
• It enables organisms to change and adapt to their
environment. These adaptations help them to survive and
breed passing these adaptations to the young one.
THEORIES THAT EXPLAIN THE ORIGIN OF EVIDENCE FOR ORGANIC EVOLUTION.
LIFE. • They include:
A. Special creation theory- it explains that the whole 1. Fossil records.
universe and all it contains was created by action of a 2. Geographical distribution of organisms.
supreme being (God). 3. Comparative embryology.
• It holds the following views on the origin and nature of 4. Comparative anatomy.
life: 5. Cell biology.
1. Life was brought into existence by a supreme being. 6. Comparative serology.
2. Life forms were created in a perfect form and have 1. FOSSIL RECORDS.
remained unchanged over time. • Fossils are remains of ancestral forms that were
3. This knowledge is based on faith and cannot be disputed. accidentally preserved in some naturally occurring
It cannot be contradicted/ proved by science because it is materials e.g. sedimentary rocks, plant resins and amber.
not scientifically testable. The study of fossils is called Palaentology.
B. CHEMICAL EVOLUTION THEORY. • The fossils arte arranged from the oldest to the latest. The
• It explains that life occurred/ originated when simple age of the fossils are determined through radioactive
chemical compounds reacted to form simple life forms/ carbon dating.
first living organisms. Methods of fossil formation.
• It explains that life began by a catalytic effect of lightning a) Petrification/ permineralization- process by which
or some other catalysts bringing together elements hard parts e.g. bones, teeth, shells and woody parts of
(Hydrogen, Oxygen and nitrogen) to form simple plants are converted into rock/ stones
molecules e.g. water (H2O), Ammonia (NH3) and b) Preservation of entire organisms or its parts in
Methane (CH4). amber, plant resins and ice.
c) Impressions such as moulds and casts- If an organism is
• Further, combinations of such compounds possibly
totally dissolved or liquefied in sedimentary rock, it my
resulted in the formation of complex self-replicating
leave behind impressions of its outer surface in the rock
molecules (DNA) which forms the genetic material of
known as moulds. If the mould is filled with other
living cells.
minerals it is called a cast.
• Successive replication of these molecules and further
Importance of fossils.
development led to formation of simple forms of the
1. They give direct evidence of the type of animals and plants
living cells.
that existed at a certain geological age. By comparing the
• Chemical theory holds the following views about origin fossils of different organisms it is possible to tell the
and nature of life; phylogenetic relationships between the organisms.
1. Life came into existence through combinations of
• Example- Fossils show that the different groups of
chemical substances.
organisms arose at different times on earth e.g. earliest
2. The initial life forms were simple and have changed over
fossils are for Monera, followed by Protoctista and then
the years to form present day complex organisms.
Fungi. Plantae and animalia appeared later.
3. Scientific experiments, artifacts and fossil records provide
2. They also show gradual increase in complexity from
evidence/ proof to this theory.
simple organisms to more complex organisms. The older
rock strata at lower layers contain fossils showing simple
structures while the younger rock strata at upper layers
contain fossils showing more complex structures.
3. They show phylogenetic relationship of organisms.

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Disadvantages/ limitations of fossil records/ reasons why
fossil records are incomplete.
1. Partial/ entire decomposition of dead organisms/ organic
matter.
2. Some parts/ entire dead organisms are eaten by
scavengers.
3. Soft-bodied organisms do not fossilize.
4. Natural disasters e.g. earthquakes, earth movements,
faulting, mass movement, folding.
5. Distortion due to sedimentation, earth movement,
earthquakes.
Study question
• The diagram below illustrates the skulls of an adult human
Examples and chimpanzee.
1. Increase in complexity of limbs of a horse.
2. Human fossils show progressive increase in skull sizes to
the present age.
• Charles Darwin proposed that human beings (Homo
sapiens) descended from ape-like creatures.
• The order of evolution include Proconsul, Homo habilis,
Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.
Features of Homo sapiens/ humans/ Advantages
evolution has given man over other animals.
1. Ability to think/ rationalize/large brain capacity.
2. Ability to communicate through speech.
3. Upright posture/ ability to walk on two hind limbs/bi-
pedal locomotion. a) State one difference between the two skulls in the
4. Binocular vision. following structures (3mks).
5. Modification of the limbs/ opposable thumb to
manipulate objects.

b) State the significance of the evolution observed on the

parietal bone in the chimpanzee and human skulls. (1mk)
• Larger to accommodate large sized brain in humans
2. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS.
• This refers to the dispersion/distribution of organisms on
specific geographical locations due to geographical
isolation.
Geographical distribution as evidence/importance of
continental drift.
• The theory of continental drift explains that in the past
the present day continents formed one large single land
mass/pangea. The animals migrated freely all over the
land mass.
• The land mass later broke up into parts which drifted
from one another forming the present day continents.
• This continental drift isolated organisms of common
ancestry causing the organisms to evolve along different
evolutionary lines.
• This resulted in the formation of new different species
distinct from those found in other climatically similar but
separate regions.

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Examples  Due to geographical distribution, the animals
• Llama of South America resembles the Camel of Africa adapted to survive in their environments (cold/
and Asia and are thought to have originated from North hot).
America.  Those having thicker fur were adapted to
• Tiger of Asia and leopard in Africa resemble Jaquar of colder/ cooler region for insulation.
South America.  The genes were passed from parent to offspring.
• Short-tailed monkey of Africa resemble the long-tailed 3. COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY.
monkey of South America. • Embryology is the study of the formation and
development of the embryo
• Vertebrate embryos are morphologically similar during
their early stages of development suggesting that they
have a common/similar/same ancestry.
• Therefore, the closer the resemblance between the
embryos the closer the evolutionary/ phylogenetic
relationship between organisms.
• This is described using recapitulation theory which
states that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny i.e. in the
development from embryo to adult, animal embryos go
through stages resembling successive stages in the
evolution of their ancestral forms.

Study question.
• Below are diagrams representing developmental stages of
different vertebrates.

Study question
• Below are photographs of two dogs.

a) State the evidence of evolution illustrated by the

vertebrates in the diagram. (1mk)
• Comparative embryology.
b) Suggest why the structure labeled J has been retained
throughout the evolution of fish. (2mks)
Explain the possible reason for the difference in length of their fur.

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• Fish remained in water/ aquatic habitat and the c) Organisms are able to occupy new habitats.
well-developed tail is used for propulsion/
movement. Study questions.
1. During a lesson, students observed the structure of bat,
4. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. cat and human forelimbs to determine their evolutionary
• Anatomy is the study of structural similarities/differences relationship.
between organisms. a. State the name given to the structure of the limbs
• Some group of organisms show basic structural observed by the students.
similarities suggesting that they have common/ related Pentadactyl limb/homologous structure.
ancestry. b. Name the type of evolution illustrated by the structure of
• When anatomical structures show many differences they the limbs observed.
have less evolutionary relationship. Divergent evolution/adaptive radiation.
• There are three evidences under comparative anatomy c. What evidence of evolution is illustrated by the limbs?
namely: Comparative anatomy.
a. Divergent evolution. d. State the significance of the type of evolution illustrated
b. Convergent evolution. by the limbs.
c. Presence of vestigial organs. Allows organisms to exploit different habitats/to
a) DIVERGENT EVOLUTION. reduce competition.
2. The diagram below illustrate some forms of beaks in
• This is a type of evolution where one basic structural form
birds.
is modified to give rise to various different forms.
• The type of evolution where organisms with the same
embryonic origin become adapted to exploit different
habitats/ to a different ecological niche in a given habitat
is called adaptive radiation.
• These organisms have homologous structures.
• Homologous structures are structures with similar/
common embryonic origin but modified to perform
different functions.
• Therefore organisms with homologous
structures have the same embryonic origin.
Examples of divergent evolution/ adaptive
radiation.
1. Pentadactyl limb- this is the limb that ends with five a)
Which diagram represents the beak from which others are
digits/fingers. These limbs are modified to perform likely to have evolved?
different functions e.g. • M
a) The forelimb of a bat is modified to form a wing for flight. b) Explain your answer in (a) above.
b) The fore limb of a horse is modified for running. • Beak M is simpler/ basic/ original hence likely to be
c) The forelimb of a whale/ turtle is modified for swimming. original beak. The birds separated to occupy different
d) The forelimb of a lizard for walking. niches and specialized for different diets..
e) Forelimb of human is modified for grasping. • This led to more complex/ developed beaks over time.
2. Adaptations of beaks of birds to different feeding modes
e.g.
a) Short stout beaks for seed eaters.
b) Long slender beaks for nectar feeders.
c) Large beaks for fruit eaters.
d) Strong hooked beaks for flesh eaters/ carnivorous birds.
3. Adaptations/ modifications of foot structure in birds for
various functions and habitats e.g.
a) The webbed feet of ducks for swimming.
b) Heavy feet of eagles for grasping and tearing prey.
4. In the family Diptera, the hind pair of wings are modified
into little rods called halters, which serve as organs that
maintain balance during flight.
5. The pericarp/ ovary wall becomes modified after
Divergent evolution
fertilization of the ovules to assist in seed and fruit
dispersal.
Advantages/importance of divergent
evolution/adaptive radiation.
a) It reduces competition of organisms for the available
resources.
b) It leads to formation of new species.

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C. PRESENCE OF VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES.

• They are structures that have ceased to be functional in
the course of time and therefore become reduced in size/
are rudimentary.
Examples.
1. Appendix in man- it has no digestion function in man
but in herbivores it is well developed and is used for
cellulose digestion.
2. Vestigial tail/coccyx in man but functional in other
primates e.g. monkey.
3. Nictating membrane in mammalian eyes, but in
birds and fish they move over the eye and act as a third
eye lid.
4. Reduced wings beneath the body plummage in
kiwi (flightless bird).
5. Rudimentary pelvic girdle in snakes and whale
reveal the original presence of limbs.
6. Presence of hair in humans.
B) CONVERGENT EVOLUTION. • Therefore, organisms with vestigial organs and
• This is a type of evolution where structures with the those with functional organs are said to have the
different embryonic origin are modified to perform same ancestral origin.
similar functions.
• These organisms have analogous structures.
• Analogous structures are structures with different
embryonic origin but adapted to perform similar
functions. This is due to exploitation of same kind of
environment.
• Therefore organisms with analogous structures
have the different embryonic origin.
Examples.
i. Wings of birds and insects adapted for flight. The wings
of birds have pentadactyl structure while insect wings
originate from the exoskeleton.
ii. Eyes of vertebrates and thosse of molluscs e.g. octopuses.
iii. Limbs of mammals and those of arthropods/ jointed legs
of insects and legs of vertebrates used for locomotion.
iv. Presence of thorns in leaves and stem of a plant and spines
on animals that perform the same function.

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5. CELL BIOLOGY. generations resulting in the emergence of new forms/
• The cells of all higher organisms show basic similarities in species.
their structure and function hence contain cell Reason why Lamarck’s theory in unacceptable.
membranes and organelles (e.g. mitochondria, • Acquired characteristics are not inherited.
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies). • Characteristics are determined by genes found in
• They also contain some biological chemicals e.g. ATP and reproductive cells only.
DNA or similar amino acid molecules hence those Role of Lamarck's theory of evolution.
organisms are said to have the same embryonic origin. 1. It explains the role of the environment in directing
• Differences in structures and chemical substances in phenotypic changes in an individual.
plants and animals e.g. presence of cell wall, chloroplast, 2. It tries to explain the occurrence of vestigial organs.
starch, chlorophyl in plants and haemoglobin haemocycin Examples.
and chlorocruorin in animals show different ancestral 1. Development of present day long-necked giraffes from
origin. short- necked ancestral forms.
6. COMPARATIVE SEROLOGY. • Originally, all giraffes had short necks and fed on grass
• Analysis of blood proteins and antigens reveal and other short shrubs. When low growing plants became
phylogenetic/ evolutionary relationships. scarce, the giraffes started to stretch their necks to reach
• Organisms that are closely related contain more similar taller plants and feed on leaves to avoid competition with
blood proteins. other browsers. Their necks stretched and became long
Example. and the long necked trait was passed on to the
• If human serum is injected into a rabbit, the protein in the offspring.
serum will act as antigens and the rabbit will produce 2. Appearance flightless birds e.g. ostrich, kiwi.
antibodies against human proteins. • The functionless wings resulted from their disuse in an
• When the blood with antibodies is drawn from the rabbit environment not requiring flight.
and mixed with serum from other animals antigen- B. CHARLES DARWIN'S THEORY OF NATURAL
antibody will take place leading to a SELECTION.
precipitate/agglutination. • Natural selection is the process through which nature
• The greater the amount of precipitate/agglutination selects those individuals/ organisms which are well
formed the closer the ancestral relationship e.g. apes and adapted and allows them to survive and rejects those that
chimpanzee produce a lot of precipitate due to antigen- are poorly adapted. Favorable/advantageous
antibody reaction hence closer evolutionary relationship. characteristics are called adaptations.
• Main features of natural selection theory:
1. It is observed that variations occur within members of a
population. These variations arise by chance and from
within the individual.
• Through sexual reproduction these characteristics are
transmitted to offspring/ inherited.
• Some of those variations offer an advantage to the
individuals while others are disadvantageous.
2. The offspring outnumber the parents but only a few
survive to adulthood and reproduce.
• This is due to environmental pressure e.g. predation,
diseases and competition for food and breeding sites.
Therefore the numbers of population remain relatively
constant.
• This means that the members of the population are
constantly competing with each other in an effort to
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION. survive. This is called struggle for existence.
• The following theories explain how evolution occurred: • In the struggle for existence, individuals with
A. Lamarck's theory- Developed by Jean Baptise de Lamarck advantageous variations are well adapted to the
in 1809. environment. Since they are suited to the environment,
B. Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection- developed they are selected hence survive and reproduce. Those that
in 1859. are poorly adapted perish and do not transmit their
A. LAMARCK’S THEORY. characteristics. This is called survival for the fittest.
• It is based on the following principles: Advantages of natural selection.
1. Use and disuse of structures—he proposed that 1. Elimination of disadvantageous traits/characteristics and
when the environment demanded the need or use of a perpetuation of beneficial ones.
particular structure in an organism, the organism 2. Better adapted organisms are able to survive adverse
developed that structure in response to the demand. conditions in the environment while poorly adapted
2. Acquired traits/characteristics are inherited- organisms are eliminated.
traits that are acquired by an individual during its lifetime How natural selection leads to emergence of new
were transmitted to their offspring and subsequent species.

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• There is no natural selection without genetic variations.
Individuals of the same species/population show
variations/genetic differences.
• These variations are caused by genes/mutations and arise
by chance and from within the individual.
• Individuals with beneficial variations are better adapted to
compete for resources within the environment. They
survive, reproduce and transmit these variations to their
offspring.
• Those individuals with disadvantageous variations are
poorly adapted hence not able to compete favorably
hence are eliminated. The gradual accumulation of small
variations from generation to generation leads to
emergence of new species.
Example
• Variation existed in the giraffe in neck length. The long
necked giraffes were favored as they were able to reach
higher branches while the short necked starved and died
and became extinct.
Role of variation in evolution.
 Variation are raw materials for evolution i.e. they give
direction to natural selection. Advantageous variations
are selected for and are hence transmitted from one
generation to the next. Over a long period of time,
accumulation of such variations in the population lead to
emergence of new species, hence evolution.
Role of mutation in evolution.
• Mutation brings about variations in a species. Some of NATURAL SELECTION IN ACTION.
those variations are favorable/ advantageous making 1. The peppered moth (Biston betularia)(Industrial
organisms survive in struggle for existence. These melanism).
organisms reproduce and pass on the favorable mutations • This is found in Britain and they are of two types:
to the offspring. Speckled white and black melanic.
Role of sexual reproduction in evolution. • Before industrial revolution, the white speckled form was
• Meiosis leads to new recombination and crossing well camouflaged against tree trunks with similar pattern
over/exchange of genetic materials resulting in variations and colouration.
which are hereditary/inherited. • The white speckled moths/ forms were not easily seen
Study question. and eaten by predatory birds hence their population
Distinguish between struggle for existence and increased while the melanic forms were easily seen and
survival for the fittest. eaten by predatory birds hence their population
Struggle for existence. decreased in population.
• This is a situation where organisms tend to produce more • Therefore the white colour was an advantageous
offspring than the environment can support hence they characteristics/ trait/ adaptation hence it was transmitted
struggle to exist. to the offspring leading to increase in number/
• Individuals/organisms with favorable characteristics will population.
have a better chance of survival in the struggle for food, • After industrialization the tree trunks was darkened by
breeding sites, mates, struggle against predation, soot. This caused the melanic forms to blend well/
diseases. camouflage well with the background than the lighter
Survival for the fittest. forms.
• This is a situation where individuals with advantageous • This led to increase in population of melanic forms while
traits/ characteristics /variations survive and reach the lighter forms were easily seen and eaten by predatory
reproductive maturity and pass the traits to the young leading to decrease in population. Therefore dark colour
ones while those poorly adapted die young and are became an advantageous characteristic/ trait/ adaptation
eliminated. which was passed to the offspring.

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e) Some strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis that cause TB
have developed resistance to the commonly used
antibiotics against TB.
 This has made it difficult to cure and eradicate TB in the
population. This is because the mutant bacteria live long,
reproduce and multiply.
f) The tick population has different strains. Some strains
have a gene that makes them neutralize the effects of
acaricide.
 This gives them a selective advantage which enables them
to survive, reproduce and transmit the gene to their
offspring. Overtime, the population of the resistant strain
iincreases.
3. Sickle cell trait- there is high frequency of this mutant
gene in places where malaria incidences is high.
 It has an advantage because individuals have natural
immunity against malaria because plasmodium parasite
does not survive well in sickle celled red blood cells.
Study questions.
1. Why are some bacteria able to resist the effect of
antibiotics? Why is it considered as an example
of the process of evolution?
• They have a gene for resistance/acquire it through
mutation. The gene leads to production of an enzyme
which neutralize the antibiotic. The resistant forms
survive the antibiotics hence transmit their advantageous
genes to the offspring. From these few, a new population
of resistant strains is established. Accumulation of these
variations over many generations may result in
emergence of new species/ speciation.
2. Using examples, explain how natural selection
takes place.

- Variations among living organisms can be advantageous or

2. Resistance to drugs, pesticides and antibiotics.
disadvantageous. Organisms with advantageous variations
• Drugs, antibiotics, and pesticides are chemicals used to enable them to better exploit the environment. Those
kill pathogens and pests respectively. organisms grow to maturity, reproduce passing on
• Within the population some individuals possess the gene beneficial variations to their offsprings hence offsprings
for resistance or acquire it through mutation hence produced are able to survive.
survive the chemical. - Organisms with disadvantageous variations are less
• Those that survive transmit this characteristic (resistance adapted and therefore not able to exploit the
to chemicals) to their offspring thus establishing a new environment. Therefore are not able to grow, reproduce
population of resistance forms. and transmit their characteristics hence they are
• The attempts of man to control various species of eliminated.
pathogens and pests has resulted in evolution. This - For example, some strains of plasmodium parasites have
evolution has been brought about by natural selection. a gene that makes them resistant to some antibacterial
Examples. drugs. So these strains survive, reproduce and transmit
a) If mutation occurs in a population of bacteria, the mutant the gene to the offspring.
bacteria produce an enzyme that breaks down penicillin. - This causes an increase in the population of the drug
Hence the continued use of penicillin fails to cure resistant strain. However, the strains without the gene for
bacterial diseases. resistance are eliminated by the antimalarial drug and do
b) Mosquitos have a gene which make them synthesize an not survive to reproduce.
enzyme against DDT (an insecticide that kills mosquitos) - This way, natural selection allows advantageous
hence making DDT ineffective in controlling such insects. variations to propagate, while disadvantageous variations
c) Control of malaria has become difficult hence ever are eliminated.
changing drugs for malaria treatment. 3. Explain how the process of evolution may lead to
- This is because malaria causing pathogens/ plasmodium formation of a new species/adaptation of species
become resistant to some malaria drugs over time. to the environment.
- This is due to gradual change in the genetic constitution  Organisms that give rise to new offsprings will always
due to mutation which with time results in the evolution produce offsprings which outnumber their parents; the
and eventual perpetuation of the new strains of offsprings will have many variations; which arise from
pathogens.

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genetically inherited material; or mutation; these TOPIC 3: RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND
variations are either advantageous; or disadvantageous to CORDINATION.
the offspring; Definition of terms.
 In the environment there are scarce resources e.g. 1. Reception- Art of receiving signals of changes through
sunlight, oxygen, water and the individual will compete various organs.
for these scarce resources; 2. Stimulus (plural-stimuli) - this is a condition in the
 Individual with advantageous traits/ variations will environment which produces a change in the activity of
compete/ struggle better for the resources; survive to part or the whole organism.
reproductive maturity and pass on the advantageous trait 3. External stimuli-condition in the external
to the young ones which are better adapted to the environment (surrounding of the whole organism) which
environment; produces a change in the activity of part or the whole
 This is repeated for several generations; leading to organism e.g. temperature, light, pH, humidity, mineral
accumulation of favorable/ advantageous traits/ salt concentration, population density, absence/
variations; presence of predators.
 The individuals now present are well adapted/ suited to 4. Internal stimuli-condition in the internal environment
the environment than the original parents; (surrounding of the cells) which produces a change in the
 Individuals with disadvantageous traits/ variations will activity of part or the whole organism e.g. accumulation
die and perish/ wiped out by nature; of wastes, concentration of gases, presence of internal
parasites, changes in temperature and glucose
concentration.
5. Response- change in an activity of an organism.
6. Irritability/Responsiveness/Sensitivity- Ability of
an organism to detect and respond to changes in the
environment/ stimulus.
7. Receptors –parts of the body which receive the
stimulus.
8. Effectors- parts of the body which bring about response.
9. Co-ordination- This is the working together of
different parts of the body in an orderly manner to bring
about better performance of physiological, physical or
metabolic actions of the body.
Types of responses.
A. Tropisms/tropic responses/movements.
B. Taxis/tactic responses/movements.
C. Nastisms/nastic responses/movements.
A. Tropic responses/ tropisms.
- Tropism refers to a growth curvature in response to
unidirectional external stimulus. Tropic responses are
controlled by auxins hence they are usually slow.
- Growth response towards a stimulus is called positive
tropism while growth response away from the stimulus
is called negative tropism.
Types of tropisms/tropic responses
1. Phototropism- this is growth curvature in response to
unidirectional light.
• Growth towards light is called positive phototropism
e.g. shoots are positively phototropic. Growth away from
light is called negative phototropism e.g. roots are
negatively phototropic.
2. Chemotropism- this is a growth curvature in response
to chemical concentration e.g. growth of pollen tube
towards chemical secreted by the embryo sac hence it is
said to be positively chemotropic.
3. Geotropism/gravitotropism- this is growth
curvature in response to gravity e.g. root tips/radicles are
positively geotropic while shoot tips/plumules are
negatively geotropic.
4. Hydrotropism- this is growth curvature in response to
water/moisture e.g. roots are positively hydrotropic.
5. Haptotropism/thigmotropism- this is growth
curvature in response to contact e.g. tendrils are

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positively thigmo/haptotropic and roots are negatively Differences between taxes and tropisms.
thigmo/haptotropic. Tropisms/tropic Taxes/tactic
Survival values/ importance of tropisms. responses responses
1. Phototropism exposes the leaves in position for
maximum light absorption for photosynthesis. 1. They are growth 1. They are
2. Hydrotropism enables the plant roots to seek for water. responses hence locomotory
3. Thigmo/haptotropism enables plants with weak stems more permanent responses
(herbaceous plants) to get support so as to expose leaves therefore are
to photosynthesis, flowers to pollination and fruits/ seeds temporary.
for dispersal. 2. They are slow 2. They are faster.
4. Gravito/geotropism enables plant roots to grow deep responses.
into the soil thus providing firm support/anchorage in the 3. They are brought 3. Are not influenced
soil and enables the shoot to grow upwards so as to expose about by growth by growth
leaves to sunlight for photosynthesis. hormones (auxins). hormones.
5. Chemotropism enables the growth of pollen tube towards Similarities between taxis and tropisms.
the embryo sac facilitating fertilization. i. Both are adaptive responses that enable organisms to
B. Taxis/Tactic responses/movements. survive better in their environment.
- It refers to the movement of the whole ii. Both are due to similar external stimuli e.g. light, water
organism/motile/mobile gamete in response to a and temperature.
unidirectional external stimulus. It is common in animals. iii. Both are directional and are due to unidirectional stimuli.
- Movement towards the stimulus is called positive taxis
while movement away from the stimulus is called c. Nastisms/nastic responses.
negative taxis. - These are non-directional movements of parts of plants in
Types of taxes. response to a diffuse stimuli.
1. Phototaxis-this is response to variation in light intensity - These movements are brought about by turgor pressure
and direction e.g. moth, euglena, chlamydomonas, changes in the leaf and petal changes of certain plants.
spirogyra and fruit flies move toward light hence are - The responses include:
positively phototactic. Earthworms, maggots, termites i. Folding of leaves in hot weather.
move away from light hence are negatively phototactic. ii. Opening and closing of flowers in response to light
2. Chemotaxis- this is response to variation in chemicals intensity.
e.g. male gamete swim towards the chemicals secreted by iii. Closing of leaves of Mimosa pudica when touched.
the ovum hence positively chemotactic. Mosquitoes fly Types of nastisms
away from insect repellants hence negatively chemotactic. 1. Haptonasty- Movement to touch as in Mimosa pudica
3. Aerotaxis- this is response to variation in oxygen whose leaves close when they or the stem is touched.
concentration e.g. amoeba moves from an area of low  Also in venus fly trap (Dionaea) which is an
oxygen concentration to an area of high oxygen insectivorous/ carnivorous plant which grows in a
concentration hence positive aerotactic. nitrogen deficient soil and gets nutrients by trapping
4. Thermotaxis- this is response to changes in temperature insect.
e.g. paramecium moves from a region of lower  The insect is attracted by colour/scent/ sugary baitsa and
temperature to a region of moderate temperature hence lands on the leaves causing the mid rib cells lose water
show positive thermotaxis. causing the leaves to close with spines thus trapping the
5. Osmotaxis- this is response to changes/ variation in insect which digested by proteases secreted by the insect.
osmotic pressure e.g. marine crabs burrow in sand to avoid 2. Nyctinasty- Movements in response to light intensity
dilution of body fluids hence show negative osmotaxis. and temperature of day and night as seen in sunflower.
6. Rheotaxis- this is response to variation in direction of - Examples of Nyctinasty include:
water and air currents e.g. fish moves against water i. Photonasty- Response to light intensity (flowers open
currents hence show negative rheotaxis. Butterflies and in the presence of light and close in absence of light).
moths flow into air/wind to detect the scent of flowers ii. Thermonasty- Response to temperature as in flowers
hence show positive rheotaxis). of some plants that open with increase in temperature and
7. Hydrotaxis- movement of whole organism in response close with decrease in temperature.
to moisture. 3. Chemonasty- Response to presence of certain specific
chemical substances e.g. urea and ammonium compounds
Importance/survival values of taxes found in insectivorous plants.
1. Enable organisms to escape from harmful stimuli e.g. - When the insect is trapped it provides mechanical
excessive heat/ dessication and predators. stimulus for the release of those chemicals/ proteases by
2. Enable organisms to seek favorable habitats and acquire the insect that digest the insect.
resources e.g. nutrients and mates. 4. Hydronasty- Response to changes in humidity as seen
3. Chemotaxis enables fertilization to take place. in Dandelion plant whose flowers close when air is
moist.

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Importance/survival value of nastisms.
i. It helps to protect the delicate parts of the flower.
ii. It helps to reduce transpiration.
iii. Helps to regulate temperature.
iv. Helps in obtaining some limited mineral nutrients.

Study question
 The diagram below represents a set up during an
experiment.

A. AUXINS AND PHOTOTROPISMS

1. Under uniform light distribution, auxins are produced at
the shoot tips then translocated evenly down the shoot
 This leads to equal growth hence normal increase in
height of a shoot upwards.

a) Name the type of response investigated.

 Hydrotaxis.
b) What was the experiment investigating?
 How ants respond to moisture/water.
c) State the likely identity for substance K.
 Drying/ dehydrating agent/ silica gel/ anhydrous
calcium chloride.
d) Explain your answer in c) above.
 The colour of cobalt (II) chloride remained blue/
there was no moisture/ water in the flask to change
the colour of cobalt (II) chloride. 2. When a shoot tip/ plumule is exposed to unidirectional
e) Account for the observation made in flask 2. light, light stimulus causes auxins to migrate to the darker
 More ants moved/ were attracted into the flask side causing higher concentration of auxins on the darker
because of the presence of moisture/ water vapour. side.
 The higher concentration of auxins on the darker side
CO-ORDINATION IN PLANTS. stimulates faster growth (than lit side) hence a shoot
 Plant growth responses are co-ordinated by plat tip/plumule curves/bends towards the source of light.
hormones e.g. auxins, gibberelins, cytokinins and
florigens. Tropisms are influenced by auxins.
 Role of auxins (e.g. Indole acetic acid) in
tropisms.
 Auxins are produced at the tips of the roots and shoots
(apical meristems).
 They diffuse away from the tips to the region of cell
elongation where they bring about growth in the region
of cell elongation.
 The concentration/amount of the auxins present
influence how the shoots and roots grow.
 The concentration that stimulates growth in the shoots is
higher than the concentration that influences growth in 3. When the shoot tip is cut, auxins are removed hence
the roots. there light cannot cause unequal distribution of auxins.
 In shoots, the high auxin concentration stimulates faster
growth up to a given optimum while low auxin
concentration has little effect on the growth.
 In roots, low auxin concentration stimulates rapid/ faster
growth while high concentration inhibits growth.

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 It enables the plants/ seedling to grow faster to expose
leaves to sunlight for photosynthesis and stems grow
taller so that leaves can search for light.

4. If the shoot apex is covered with an opaque object, the tip

does not sense light stimulus because the opaque object Study question
prevents the light from causing uneven distribution of 1. In an experiment, students treated seedlings as illustrated
auxins. below.
- The auxins are therefore distributed evenly at the tip
hence the tip continues to grow upwards as shown below.

a) Account for the observations made in seedling I. (3mks)

 The tip bends towards light/ positive phototropism.
Light causes migration of auxins produced at the tip
to the darker side of the shoot. This causes faster
division cells/ elongation/ growth on the darker/
opposite side.
5. If the shoot apex is cut and the synthetic auxins (e.g. agar b) Explain the similarity in the end results made in seedlings
block), auxins will diffuse into shoot tip. II and III. (2mks)
 Light stimulus will cause the auxins to migrate to the - Both seedlings remain upright/ erect. Seedling II
darker side. does not have a tip that produces auxins while in
 Higher concentration of auxins on the darker side will seedling III the tip has been covered by an opaque
stimulate faster growth (on the darker side) hence the material preventing light from causing unequal
shoot tip will bend/ curve towards the source of light. distribution of auxins/ causing equal/ even
distribution of auxins.
c) State the likely treatment that would make seedlings II
and III respond like seedling I. (2mks)
 Fitting an ager block treated with auxins at the
decapitated/ cut end of seedling II.
 Removing the opaque material covering the tip of
seedling III/ replacing the opaque cap with a
transparent one.

B. AUXINS AND GEO/ GRAVITOTROPISM

 If a seedling is placed horizontally on the ground, the
following observations are made after few days:
i. The shoot tip (plumule) will curve/ bend upwards hence
negative geotropism).
6. If the seedling is grown in total darkness, more auxins are ii. The root tip (radicle) will bend/ curve downwards
formed in the dark causing faster growth (elongation). (hence positive geotropism).
 The seedling will grow tall, thin, with weak stem and  This is because the force of gravity will cause auxins to
small pale/ yellow leaves. This is because seedlings/ migrate to lower side of the seedling.
plants lack light hence it fails to form chlorophyll.  Higher concentration of auxins on the lower side of the
 This phenomenon is called etiolation. shoot stimulates faster growth (than the upper side) hence
Significance of etiolation the shoot tip bends/ curves upwards.

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 Higher concentration of auxins on the lower side of the
root inhibits growth on the lower side (than on the upper
side) hence root tip bends downwards.

a) Which response was being investigated?

 Geotropism/ gravitotropism
b) Account for the observation in seedling A after 24 hours.
 Force of gravity caused auxins to migrate to the lower
side of the root tip. Lower concentration on the upper
side stimulates faster growth hence the root tip bent/
curved downwards.
c) Explain why the root of seedling B continued growing
straight down.
 Force of gravity was acting uniformly on the root tip
hence there was no unequal distribution of auxins.

C. AUXINS AND THIGMOTROPISM/

HAPTOTROPISM.
Study question 1 - When a tendril/ a climbing stem comes into contact with
 The photographs below show three bean seedlings that a solid hard object, contact causes auxins to migrate from
are of the same age but were grown under different the side of contact to the opposite side.
environmental conditions. - Higher auxin concentration on the outer/ opposite side
stimulates faster growth than on the point of contact
hence the shoot tip coils/ grows around the support
structure.

a) Based on external appearance of the seedlings, suggest the

conditions under which each of them was grown.
Q-with unidirectional/ one sided light.
R- In full light/ adequate/ enough light.
S- In the dark.
b) State the term used to describe the phenomenon
exhibited by specimen S and state its significance.
 Etiolation. It enables the plants/ seedling to grow
faster to expose leaves to sunlight for photosynthesis.
c) Explain how the response in specimen S took place.
 More auxins are synthesized in the dark which
stimulate faster growth.

Study question 2
 The photographs below show an experiment that was set
up to investigate a certain response in bean seedlings.
Examine them and answer the questions that follow.

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ii. Wind or other external factors which may shift the
alignment of plant seedlings.
iii. Pests and other insects which may damage the seedlings
thus interfere with the responses.
3. Study the diagram below and answer that questions that
follow.

STUDY QUESTION
Form 4 students set up an experiment as shown below
using enclosed seedling.

a) Name the type of germination shown above.

Epigeal germination.
b) Give a reason for your answer.
The cotyledon is brought above the soil.
c) Name the type of response exhibited in diagram a.
Positive geotropism.
d) Explain the response named above.
- Gravity pulls the auxins downwards. Higher
concentration of auxins on the lower side
hinders/inhibits growth on the lower side than
on the upper side. This causes the hypocotyl to
curve/bend downwards.

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

IN ANIMALS.
- Animals detect changes in the external and internal
environment/ receive the stimulus through receptor
a) What type of response is exhibited by the organs that have special cells called receptor/ receptor
seedlings in this experiment:? cells.
 Geotropism - Receptor organs include: Eyes, Ears, Nose, Tongue,
b) State the observations made in experiment I and Skin and Hypothalamus.
II - The eyes have photoreceptors that detect light.
 In experiment I the shoot and the root grow horizontally - The skin has thermoreceptors that detect
straight. temperature, mechanoreceptors that detect pressure.
 In experiment II, the shoot tip/plumule bends/curves - Ears have receptors that detect sound, gravity and
upwards and the root tip/radicle bends/curves orientation of the body.
downwards. - Hypothalamus has osmoreceptors that detect osmotic
c) Account for the observations made in pressure.
experiment I and II - Response in animals is brought about by organs called
 In experiment I, the clinostat rotates causing the auxins effectors.
to be uniformly distributed in the shoot and root tips. - Effectors/effector organs include:
 This stimulates uniform growth in the root and the shoot. a) Glands e.g. salivary glands.
 In experiment II, gravity causes auxins migrated to the b) Muscles e.g. skeletal muscles.
lower side of the root and shoot tips. - The receptors and effectors are linked by a co-ordinating
 A higher concentration of auxins on the lower side of the centre.
shoot tip stimulates faster growth on the lower side hence - The co-ordinating centre consists of:
the shoot tip/ plumule bends/ curves upwards. A. Nervous system.
 Higher concentration of auxins on the lower side of root B. Endocrine system.
tips/ plumule hinders growth on the lower side hence the A. NERVOUS SYSTEM
radicle/ root tip curves/ bends downwards. - This is a system consisting of specialized cells called
d) Give a reason why seedlings were enclosed. nerve cells/neurons for transmission of electrical
 Helps to prevent exposure to: impulses.
i. Wind which may increase the rate of water loss. - The neurones are linked to one another and to the
receptors and effectors.

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- An electrical impulse is an electrical signal - The sensory neurones which transmit impulses from the
transmitted within the nerve cell fibre/axon. internal/visceral organs e.g. lungs and heart are called
Parts of a neurone visceral sensory neurones.
A. Cell body/centron- has a cytoplasm enclosing a - The sensory neurones which transmit impulses from the
nucleus. skin, skeletal muscles, joints and bones are called
B. Dendrons- they are extensions that arise from the cell somatic sensory neurones.
body and they transmit impulses towards the cell
body.
C. Axon/nerve fibre- this is the longest dendron which
arises from the cell body and it transmits impulses
from the cell body.
D. Dendrites- they are extensions that arise from the
dendrons.
- The axon contains a cytoplasm called axoplasm which
extends from the cytoplasm of the cell body.
- It is also covered with myelin / medullated sheath-
which insulates it and enhances the speed of 2. Motor neurone/efferent neurone.
impulse transmission. - It transmits the impulse from the CNS to the effectors.
- The myelin sheath is constricted to form junctions - It has two or more dendrons arising from the cell body
called nodes of ranvier- which propagate and hence said to be multipolar.
promote faster transmission of impulse. - The cell body is located at the end of the axon (the
- On the outer part of the myelin sheath are cells called longest dendron) but within the CNS.
schwann cells- which give rise to the myelin - The terminal dendrites of the axon are located within the
sheath. The schwann cells have a membrane called effectors e.g. muscles.
neurilemma
N/B. Several axons and dendrons joined together form
a nerve.

Structural adaptations of the neurone to enable

it carry out its functions.
1. It has long axon to transmit/conduct impulses.
2. The axon is enclosed by a myelin sheath which insulates
the axon and for faster transmission of impulses. 3. Relay neurone /intermediate neurone/
3. The myelin sheath has junctions called nodes of ranvier to interneuron.
enhance the speed of conduction of the impulse. - It transmits the impulse from the sensory neurone to the
4. It has schwann cells for secretion of myelin sheath. motor neurone.
5. It has numerous dendrites which receive/ deliver - It lacks the myelin sheath.
impulses from neighboring neurones through synaptic - It is found within the CNS.
connections. - It has two dendrons that arise from the cell body hence
6. The cell body has a nucleus for transmission of impulses. said to be bipolar.

TYPES OF NEURONES
1. Sensory/afferent/receptor neurone.
2. Motor/efferent/effector neurone.
3. Relay/intermediate neurone.
1. SENSORY NEURONE/ RECEPTOR NEURONE/
AFFERENT NEURONE.
- It is joined to the sense organs e.g. eyes, skin, nose,
tongues and carries impulses from the
receptors/receptor cells/ sense organs to the central
nervous system (CNS).
- It has one dendron which arises from the cell body to
form axon hence said to be unipolar.
- The cell body is situated along but off the axon and
outside the central nervous system (CNS). PARTS/COMPONENTS OF THE NERVOUS
- The dendron transmits impulse from the receptor to SYSTEM.
the cell body and the axon transmits the impulse from - They include:
the cell body to the CNS. 1. The central nervous system (CNS).
- The receptor dendrites are located in the sense organ 2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS).
and the terminal dendrites are located in the CNS. The
cell body is closer to the CNS.

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 It has many folds on its outer layer to increase the
surface area for packing of neurones.
 If the plasmodium parasite enters the brain and affects the
cerebrum, it causes cerebral malaria.
Functions/roles.
i. It controls learning, imagination, thinking, personality,
hearing, vision and taste.
ii. It controls voluntary body movements/ controls
contraction of skeletal muscles e.g. walking, dancing,
movement of lips/ chewing, movement of the neck/
nodding and movement sideways.
2. Cerebellum- It is found below and behind the
cerebrum.
Functions.
i. Maintenance of body balance and posture.
ii. Ensures dexterity in fine movements e.g. playing a piano,
1. THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) sewing, typing e.t.c.
- It receives and interprets the impulses hence called a 3. Medulla oblangata- It is located below the
coordinating centre. cerebellum and connected to the spinal cord.
- It consists of: Functions.
A. The brain i. Controls involuntary responses e.g. breathing, heartbeat,
B. Spinal cord and associated nerves coughing, sneezing, swallowing, vomiting, salivation.
ii. Controls dilation and constriction of the blood vessels
A. THE BRAIN hence influencing blood pressure.
- This is the anterior part (towards the head) of the 4. Hypothalamus- It is found below the thalamus and
central nervous system. closely associated with the pituitary gland.
- It is enclosed by protective membranes called  It controls the autonomic nervous system which transmits
meninges. impulses from the internal organs.
- The meninges include: Functions.
i) Dura matter- the outermost layer covering the brain i. Controls appetite, sleep, wakefulness.
and spinal cord. It is composed of connective tissue and ii. It controls homeostasis (thermoregulation, osmo-
rich network of capillaries. regulation)
ii) Pia matter- the innermost layer covering the brain 5. Thalamus- It integrates the sensory impulses from the
and spinal cord. eyes, ears and the skin and then sends them to the
- The infection of the meninges causes meningitis. cerebrum.
- The space between the dura and pia matter is called Function.
Arachnoid layer which is filled with a fluid called - It contains receptors for pain and pleasure.
cerebrospinal fluid which is secreted by blood. 6. Pituitary gland- It is attached to the hypothalamus and
- It contains oxygen and nutrients e.g. glucose/blood projects downwards.
sugar, amino acids. Functions/ roles
i) It is the master gland and secretes various hormones e.g.
Functions/ roles of the cerebrospinal fluid. oxytocin, prolactin, follicle stimulating hormone,
i. It supplies oxygen and nutrients to the brain cells. luteinizing hormone.
ii. It removes waste products from the brain cells. ii) Controls other endocrine glands.
iii. It maintains pressure of the brain. 7. Pons- They work together with the medulla oblangata to
iv. It acts as a shock absorber/protects the brain from control involuntary activities.
shock/mechanical damage. 8. Corpus callosum- It is composed of the axons/ nerve
cells that connect the left and right hemispheres of the
PARTS OF THE BRAIN. brain.
- The brain is made up of two halves called hemispheres
i.e. right and left hemispheres.
- The two hemispheres are interconnected by a group of
nerves called corpus callosum.
- The left hemisphere controls the activities of the right
side of the body while the right hemisphere controls
the activities of the left side of the body.
- The innermost part of the brain and spinal cord is called
grey matter and the outer part is called white matter.

1. Cerebrum- This is the largest part of the brain it is

divided into the left and right hemisphere.

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B. SPINAL CORD 2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

- This is the posterior/back extension of the CNS from the - This is the system of nerves that connect the CNS and
brain to the tail. other parts of the body.
- It is enclosed by the meninges that protect it against - It consists of Cranial nerves and Spinal nerves.
mechanical damage. 1. Cranial nerves- They transmit impulses from the sense
- It is also protected by the vertebral column/back organs and muscles of the head and neck. They arise from
bone. the brain and innervate organs such as ears and eyes.
- It is made of the grey matter the white matter. Examples of such nerves include:
- There is a narrow canal called the central canal which i) Optic nerves- which innervate the eyes.
runs down the spinal cord. ii) Olfatory nerves- which innervate the nose.
- The central canal is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. ii) Auditory nerves- which innervate the ears.
- The grey matter is H-shaped and is surrounded by the 2. Spinal nerves- They are nerves that arise from the
white matter. spinal cord and innervate the surrounding parts of the
- It is grey/dark in colour because it consists of the cell body such as hands, legs, ribs, abdomen e.t.c.
bodies of the motor and relay neurones, dendrites
and synapses. Parts/ components of the peripheral nervous
Functions of spinal cord. system (PNS)
i. Coordinates some automatic responses/reflex actions. a) Voluntary (somatic) nervous system- It consists of
ii. It links the nerves of the peripheral nervous system and nerves that control voluntary activities of the body e.g.
the brain. raising of the leg, nodding the head e.t.c.
b) Involuntary (autonomic) nervous system- It
- The white matter surrounds the grey matter and consists of nerves that control involuntary activities of the
consists of the axons of the sensory and motor neurones. body e.g. beating of the heart, secretion of hormones and
- The myelin sheaths/ medulated sheath/ myelinated enzymes, gut movements e.t.c.
sheath of neurons/ axons which are made up of fats that
make it a shiny appearance. Parts/ components of the involuntary/
autonomic nervous system.
SYNAPSE 1. Parasympathetic nervous system- Its stimulation is
- This is a gap between two adjacent neurons aimed at energy conservation activities e.g. Slowing of
- The substance that transmits the impulse within the the heartbeat, Stimulation of the digestive tract/gut,
synapse/from one synapse to the other is called Decreased force of muscle contraction.
acetylcholine which is broken down by enzyme 2. Sympathetic nervous system- Its stimulation
acetylcholinesterase/cholinesterase/ produces effects that prepare the animal for emergency
acetylhydrolase into acetic acid and choline. e.g. Increased heartbeat rate to supply enough blood
containing oxygen to the muscles and remove carbon (IV)
oxide from the muscles, Increased blood pressure for
faster movement of blood, Dilation of the pupil to locate
the enemy, Closing of the sphincter muscles of the anus
and bladder and conversion of glycogen into glucose in
the liver.

REFLEX ACTION.
 This is a rapid/ faster and automatic/ involuntary
response to a stimulus.
 It is processed in the spinal cord not in the brain.

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 It helps protect the body before the brain knows B. CONDITIONED REFLEX ACTION
what is going on. - Conditional reflex actions e.g. salivation of a
Types of reflex action dog/humans/students in response to sound, is an
a) Simple reflex action. automatic response evoked from an animal by unrelated
b) Conditioned reflex action. stimulus, substituted for the one which normally elicits
the response.
A. SIMPLE REFLEX ACTION. - It develops from past experience, and involves
 Simple reflex actions e.g. withdrawal of finger from a hot modification of behaviour/learning.
or sharp object, is an automatic response to a specific - It weakens with time, and must be reinforced by
stimulus. repeating the related original/primary stimulus.
 During simple reflex action, an impulse passes through a - Dogs/Students salivate when the bell for meals rings
reflex arc. because they have learned to associate the ringing of the
 A reflex arc refers to the path taken by the impulse bell at meal time with food, every time it rings, they are
during a reflex action. offered food.
 A reflex arc consists of sensory, intermediate and motor
neurons.
 When a finger touches a sharp/hot object, the stimulus/
heat/ pain is detected by temperature/
thermoreceptors/ pain receptors in the skin/ dermis.
 An impulse is generated which is transmitted along the
sensory neurone to the grey matter/ central nervous
system/ spinal cord.
 The chemical transmission of impulse is done across a
synapse to relay neurone and through another synapse to
motor neurone and across another synapse to muscles/
effectors/ biceps muscles.
 The biceps muscles contract and the hand is withdrawn.

Transmission of the nerve impulse.

 A nerve impulse is an electrical wave arising from changes
in ionic concentration across the membrane of the nerve
fibre/axon.
 The metallic ions involved are sodium ions (Na+) and
potassium ions (K+). It occurs in two phases:
(i) Resting phase/potential- It is the non-conducting
phase in the nerve fibre.
 Sodium (Na+) ions which are more are on the outside the
nerve fibre/ axoplasm than potassium [K + ) ions which
are more inside the nerve fibre.
 There are also more negative charges (anions) within the
axoplasm.
 As a result the outer side of nerve fibre acquires a relative
positive charge while the inner side acquires a relative
negative charge.
 The nerve fibre is said to be polarized.
 During resting potential Sodium ions are actively pumped
out while potasium ions diffuse freely in and out of the
axoplasm.

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(ii) Action phase/potential- The membrane becomes B. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
permeable to the sodium (Na+) ions that diffuse inwards and the - It consists of glands which are ductless that produce
potassium {K+) ions diffuse outwards. hormones.
 Also negative ions diffuse out of the axoplasm and the - Hormones are organic compounds which are either
inside becomes positively charged while the outside protein or steroids in nature secreted by ductless glands
becomes negatively charged hence the nerve fibre is and shed into the blood stream.
depolarized. - They are produced in small quantities and transported
 An action potential is in form of a wave along the nerve by blood to other parts of the body/ target organs where-
fibre. It takes place in milli seconds. they cause a response.
- In animals, hormones regulate growth and
development, control the behavior during breeding and
control proper performance of cells.
- Secretion of hormones is controlled by the nervous
system.
- The main glands include:
Transmission of the impulse across a synapse/
A. Pituitary gland.
neuro-Junction.
B. Adrenal gland.
- A synapse- is a junction between the dendrites of two
C. Thyroid gland.
adjacent neurones.
Function- allows transmission of nerve impulses from
A. PITUITARY GLAND
neurone to neurone.
- When an impulse reaches the synaptic knob, it causes the  It secretes the following hormones:
synaptic vesicles to move to the pre-synaptic membrane. 1. Thyroid stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)- which
stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine
- The vesicles attach to the membrane and discharge the
transmitter substance called acetylcholine into the hormone.
2. Gonadotropins e.g. FSH and LH.
synaptic cleft.
- The acetylcholine diffuses across the membrane and 3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-which
stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce adrenaline.
attaches to the post-synaptic membrane. Here it causes
depolarization of ions (sodium and potassium ions). 4. Growth hormone (somatotrophin).
5. Antidiuretic hormone-which enhances the re-
- Sodium ions move from the cleft to the post synaptic knob
through the post- synaptic membrane causing an absorption of water in the kidney tubules.
6. Oxytocin- which stimulates the contraction of muscles
action potential and the nerve impulse is generated in the
adjacent neuron. of uterus during birth and muscles of milk ducts to allow
milk let-down.
- An enzyme Cholinesterase/ acetylcholinesterase/
acetyl hydrolase present at the synapse breaks down 7. Prolactin-stimulates milk production and is responsible
for maternal instinct.
acetylcholine into acetic acid/ ethanoic acid/
vinegar and choline.
B. ADRENAL GLANDS.
- These substances are absorbed actively into the knob and
used to re-synthesize acetylcholine using energy in - It is located above kidneys. It consists of adrenal cortex
(on the outside and adrenal medulla (on the inside).
form of ATP.
Significance/ importance of breakdown of - Adrenal cortex secretes aldosterone- which
stimulates the reabsorption of sodium ions.
acetylcholine.
- To re-polarise the pre-synaptic membrane for the next - Adrenal medulla receives nerve impulse from the
brain and secretes adrenaline.
impulse propagation/ transmission to avoid merging/
joining successive nerve impulse from neurone to - Adrenaline is secreted during anxiety,
excitement/emergency hence called fight/flight
neurone.
hormone.
Effects of adrenaline.
1. Increases heartbeat, increasing the rate of blood
circulation.
2. Stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the
liver hence increasing blood sugar level.
3. It increases metabolic rate.
4. It causes constriction of arterioles to the skin and digestive
system.
5. Breathing rate becomes faster and deeper.
6. Fats are converted into fatty acids which are made
available for muscle contraction.
7. It stimulates the skeletal muscles to contract and relax
causing movement.

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Effects of over secretion of adrenaline. • It is controlled by surgical removal of a part of thyroid
1. Hypertension/high blood pressure. gland and use of ant thyroid drugs.
2. Severe headache.
3. Racing heart.
4. Sweating.
5. Faintness.
6. Aging of major body organs e.g. kidney, heart and liver.
Effects of undersecretion/ underproduction of
adrenaline.
1. Reduced metabolism.
2. Decreased heart beat rate.
3. Reduced rate of breathing.
4. Reduced activity of the animal.

C. THYROID GLAND
- It is stimulated by thyroid stimulating hormone to
secrete thyroxine.
- Thyroxine is a complex organic compound that contains
iodine.
Functions of thyroxine. Similarities between endocrine and nervous
1. Controls basal metabolic rate by increasing glucose system.
oxidation. 1. Both provide a means of communication and coordination
2. Enhances the effect of growth hormone (somatotrophin) within the body of an organism.
ensuring normal growth and mental development. 2. Both involve response to a stimulus.
3. Works together with adrenaline to control involuntary 3. Both bring about survival response.
activities e.g. increased blood circulation. 4. In both chemical transmission is involved.
Effects of under-secretion of thyroxine 5. The target organs of hormones are like the effector
/hypothyroidism. organs.
 Under-secretion of thyroxine may be due to insufficient DRUG ABUSE
iodine in the diet or defective enzymatic reactions  A drug- this is a chemical substance which when taken
concerned with iodine production. Iodine is a component has psychological and physiological effects in the body.
of thyroxine. Drugs taken to cure diseases are called medicinal
 Under-secretion leads to Cretinism in children and drugs.
Myxoedema in adults.  Drug addiction-This is the state of being mentally and
1. Cretin children have the following characteristics: physically dependent on drugs. Addiction requires
i. Poor mental development/ low intelligence. increase in dosage to experience the desired feelings.
ii. Deformed legs.
 Drug abuse- This refers to use of the drug for the
iii. Dry leathery skin.
purpose not meant for it to bring about
iv. General body sluggishness.
physical/physiological effects which are not curative.
v. Large tongue.
Classification of drugs.
2. Myxoedema causes goitre / swelling of thyroid gland.
A. Hallucinations.
This is due to overworking of thyroid gland in an attempt
B. Stimulants.
to synthesize enough thyroxine.
C. Depressants.
3. Reduced metabolic rate shown by reduced heartbeat,
D. Narcotics.
reduced breathing rate and low body temperature.
E. Inhalants.
4. Individuals are mentally and physically sluggish which can
lead to obesity and oedema (swelling of feet).
A. Hallucinations
 Under-secretion is controlled by use of balanced diet - They cause one to have hallucinations i.e. to see
supplemented by iodinised salt and administration of something imagined/not present.
iodine tablets. - Examples include:
a) Bhang (Cannabis sativa).
Effects of over-secretion of thyroxine/ 1. Causes euphoria or pleasurable relaxation
hyperthyroidism 2. Causes depressed hearing, lowered eye and skin
• Overproduction of thyroxine may result from sensation.
defective enzymatic activity. 3. Causes acute pain and anxiety.
i. Increased body temperature. 4. Causes depressed mental ability.
ii. Increased breathing rate.
iii. Increased body metabolism leading to body weight loss.
iv. Excessive energy production.
v. Extreme can lead to heart failure (thyrotoxicosis).

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b) Lysergic acid diethylamide. GENERAL EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE
1. causes hallucinations and dilated pupil 1. Reduced appetite and poor feeding leading to emaciation.
2. Leads to increased body temperature, heartbeat, blood 2. Poor absorption of vitamin K and E leading to sterility and
pressure and sweating blindness.
3. Causes lack of appetite and sleep 3. Lowered nervous co-ordination leading to loss of posture
4. Causes anxiety and helplessness and balance hence poor performance in sports and manual
5. Causes mental confusion and impaired memory activity.
6. It causes dry mouth and muscle shaking. 4. Irritation of lungs and respiratory tracts leading to
frequent coughs and infections.
c) Miraa (khat). 5. It may lead to cancer of lungs, throat and urinary bladder.
1. Causes increased blood pressure, body temperature and 6. It may lead to stomach ulcers.
respiratory rate. 7. Damage to the heart and liver leading to heart attack and
2. Reduces sexual potency. liver cirrhosis.
8. Interference with temperature regulation leading to
B. Stimulants- They stimulate the central nervous system excessive heat loss.
i.e. causes the CNS to increase the rate of chemical 9. Damage to the brain causing sleeplessness (insomnia),
reactions/physiological activities of the body hallucinations, madness and loss of memory (amnesia).
- They include: 10. Poor foetal development and pregnancy complications in
a) Cocaine women.
1. Causes increased hear beat. 11. Damage to vital body organs leading to death.
2. Causes vomiting. 12. Impaired/ poor judgment leading to accidents and
3. Causes convulsions and respiratory failures. infections e.g. HIV/AIDS
b) Amphetamines.
1. Causes euphoria (pleasurable relaxation). - Effects of drugs on the society include:
2. Causes hallucinations. 1. Marital conflict.
3. Causes panic. 2. Violence.
C. Depressants- They suppress the CNS causing decreased 3. Theft to sustain the habit.
rate of physiological activities of the body. 4. Reduced productivity at work.
 They include: 5. Loss of jobs/income.
a) Alcohol 6. Misuse of family resources.
1. Causes impaired physical and mental functioning of the
body. Study questions
2. Can cause brain damage. 1. Explain how drug abuse exposes one to the
3. It causes poor judgment, memory and perception. dangers of HIV/AIDS infection.
4. Can cause liver cirrhosis hence liver destruction. Answers.
5. Increased incidences of cancer and heart attack.  Drugs impair reasoning hence heightening sexual arousal.
 Drugs impair judgment leading to indiscriminate sex.
D. Narcotics- They are drugs used to cause insensible  Impaired judgment leads to engaging in unprotected sex.
condition in the body. They can be used in surgical  Intoxicated persons are likely to engage in sexual
operations. perversions e.g. rape and homosexuality.
- They include:  Intoxicated persons may lose strength and become
a) Opium. victims of sexual abuse.
1. It depresses the nervous system.
2. Can cause confusion and convulsions. 2. Discuss the socio- economic problems associated
b) Morphine. with drug abuse.
1. Causes restlessness and sleeplessness. Answers
2. Can cause watery eyes and running nose. a) At family:
3. Can cause nausea (feeling of sickness in the stomach).  Wastage of family resources and theft to acquire drugs.
4. Can cause diarrhoea and vomiting.  Lack of family care including poor care of children and
5. Causes raised body temperature (fever) and respiration. spouses.
6. Can cause abdominal and muscle cramps.
 Family break-up due to tensions, poverty and lack of love.
7. Can cause dehydration and loss of body weight.
b) In schools:
 Lateness, indecent behavior, poor study habits and failure
E. Inhalant- They are inhaled.
in examinations.
- Example is glue which:
1. Damages the nervous system, kidney and liver.  Violence against students, teachers and community.
2. Reduces mental and physical capabilities.  Riots and strikes.
3. Causes fatigue and weight loss. c) Increased crime.
4. Can cause excitation. d) Premature termination of careers and other professions

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SENSE ORGANS. nutrients and oxygen (nourish the eye) and remove
A. THE EYE metabolic wastes.
 This is a sense organ for sight.  It has pigmented/ black cells to prevent reflection of light
 It is spherical in shape and located within the socket in in the eye
the orbit found within the skull. 5. Retina- It is the innermost layer of the eye ball.
 It has photoreceptors stimulated by light from the object.  It contains photoreceptors/ cones and rods to perceive
 The image of the object is formed inside the eye, light/ where the image is formed/ focused/ image
transmitted to the brain as an electrical impulse through formation.
the optic nerve where it is interpreted.  It has cones for colour vision, bright light vision, colour
perception and rods for dim light vision.
External structure. 6. Fovea centralis-Has numerous cones only for accurate
 It consists of the following parts: vision/ visual acuity.
1. Eyelids. 7. Blind spot- It lacks photoreceptors / cones and rods to
Adaptation to function. allow passage of blood vessels and for exit of optic nerve.
i. They are made of folds of skin covering the eye ball 8. Optic nerve-it has sensory neurons/ nerve cells that
protecting it against mechanical /physical damage. transmit impulse to the brain.
ii. Have sweat glands and sebaceous gland for oily secretions 9. Lens.
that keep the eye moist.  It is biconvex to refract/ focus light rays onto the retina.
iii. Have eye lashes that trap dust particles preventing them  It is transparent to allow light pass through.
from entering the eye.  It is elastic to allow adjustment of the shape of lens.
2. Tear/Lachrymal glands. 10. Ciliary body.
Adaptation to function-They secrete tears that clean,  It is made up of ciliary muscles that contract and relax/
moisten, lubricate the eye, wash foreign materials out of are contractile to change the shape of the lens during
the eye. Tears also have lysozyme hormone that protect accommodation.
the eye against infections / bacteria/diseases.  It is glandular/has secretory cells to produce/ secrete
3. Eyebrows- are thickly covered with hair to prevent aqueous humour.
sweat and dust from entering the eye. 11. Suspensory ligaments- They are inelastic and hold the
lens in position to the ciliary body.
Internal parts of the eye. 12. Iris- This is the coloured part of the eye.
 It has radial and circular muscles to control the size of the
pupil.
 It has melanin to absorb strong light and prevent blurred
vision.
13. Pupil-This is an opening on the iris through which light
passes into the eye.
14. Aqueous humour- It the fluid found at the front
chamber of the eye
 It is jelly like which maintains the shape of the eye ball.
 It contains oxygen and nutrients for the cornea and the
lens.
 It is transparent to allow light to pass through and refract
it onto the retina.
15. Vitreous humour- This is a clear fluid at the back of the
eye.
 It is jelly-like to maintain the shape of the eye ball.
1. Conjunctiva.  It is transparent to allow light to pass through and refract
it onto the retina.
 It is a thin epithelium to protect the cornea.
 It is transparent to allow light pass through.
PHOTORECEPTORS.
 It is glandular/ has goblet cells which secrete mucus for
 They are sensitive to light stimulus. They include Cones
lubrication.
and Rods.
2. Sclerotic layer/sclera layer- It contains tough fibres/
a) Cones- They contain a photochemical pigment called
inelastic collagen fibres/ it is fibrous to maintain the shape
iodopsin which perceives light of high intensity,
of the eyeball and protect inner parts of the eye/ eye ball.
perception of fine details and for colour vision.
3. Cornea.
 Cones are highly concentrated on the fovea centralis.
 It is transparent to allow light pass through.
 When strong light rays from the object strike the
 It is curved to refract/ bend light rays onto the retina.
iodopsin it is broken down to iodine and opsin thus
4. Choroid layer.
initiating a nerve impulse.
 It is rich in blood vessels/ highly vascularized/ has
 The nerve impulse is then transmitted to the brain for
numerous capillaries to supply the retina/ eye with
interpretation through the optic nerve.

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 Iodopsin is resynthesised by the energy produced by the
mitochondria in the photoreceptors.
 Each cone has its own bipolar neurone which in turn links
it with the optic nerve fibre i.e. lack retinal
convergence.
 This enables them to have high visual acuity (ability of
the eye to distinguish objects that lie close to each other).
 We shift our eyes when observing objects so that the light
rays from the object can fall on the fovea for them to be
clear.
b) Rods.
 They are used for vision under light of low intensity. They
have a pigment called rhodopsin which is sensitive to
light of low intensity.
 When light of low intensity strikes the rod, rhodopsin
splits into opsin and retinine thus initiating an impulse. Advantages of having two eyes in human beings/
 The impulse is transmitted to the brain through the optic binocular vision.
nerve for interpretation. Retinine is a derivative of 1. Clarity of vision/better focus/ improved visual acuity.
vitamin A whose lack leads to night blindness. 2. Three dimensional vision/ more accurate assessment of
 The broken down rhodopsin is re-synthesised slowly in distance, depth, height and width of an object.
the dark light for continued photochemical reactions in 3. Larger visual field.
the rods. 4. If one eye is damaged the human being is not blinded.
 This is experienced when one enters a dimly lit room
from bright light. RESPONSE TO LIGHT INTENSITY.
 At first the room looks dark and nothing is visible but  It is brought about the iris that controls the size of the
gradually things start becoming visible. pupil.
 Rods have retinal convergence i.e. several rods  The iris has circular and radial muscles that are
converge/ joined to one neurone therefore they antagonistic i.e. do not contract and relax at the same
have low visual acuity hence cannot distinguish fine time.
detail. a) In bright light.
 Retinal convergence also enables any little stimulation of  The circular muscles in the iris contract and the radial
several rods to initiate/generate an impulse. muscles relax.
 Rods are in greater concentration round the periphery of  As a result the pupil becomes smaller in size/ constricts
the retina and are absent in the fovea centralis. preventing excess light from entering which can destroy
 At night is possible to see an object clearly when looking the retina.
from the corner of the eye.
 This is because when one looks at the object directly the
light rays falls on the fovea centralis which has cones only
which are operational at light of strong intensity.
 Nocturnal animals e.g. cat, owl have are capable of seeing
at night because of;
i) High concentration of rods than cones in the retina that
are sensitive to low light intensity.
ii) Retinal convergence of rods to enable any little
stimulation of rods to generate an impulse.
 At night the low light intensity is not able to activate the
cones.
 By looking from the corner of the eye the light rays from b) In dim light.
the object fall on the periphery of the retina outside the  The circular muscles in the iris relax while the radial
fovea. muscles contract.
 The periphery contains only rods which are sensitive to  As a result the pupil becomes larger to allow more light
light of low intensity hence enabling one to see the object into the eye.
clearly.

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ACCOMMODATION OF THE EYE. IMAGE FORMATION.
 Eye accommodation is the ability of the eye to focus both  The image is formed on the retina when the
near and distant objects on the retina or photoreceptors are stimulated.
 It is the adjustment of the eye structures to bring the  The light rays from the object pass through the
image from a near or far objects into sharp focus on the conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous humour, pupil, lens,
retina. vitreous humour and finally onto the retina.
 This is achieved by adjusting the curvature or the shape of  The image formed on the fovea centralis is small, upside
the lens and size of the pupil. down and virtual (not real).
a) Eye accommodation to far/distant objects.  The photoreceptors are stimulated by light rays, initiating
 When light rays from a distant object strike the eye, the a nerve impulse which is sent to the cerebrum part of the
following events take place: brain through optic nerve for interpretation.
i. Ciliary muscles relax.  The brain interprets the image as being upright, real and
ii. Suspensory ligaments become taut/pulled. allocates its actual size.
iii. Lens decrease in curvature/ becomes thinner and long  Impulses from the right eye are transmitted to left side of
increasing focal length. the brain and those from the left eye to the right side of
iv. Radial muscles of iris contract and circular muscles relax. the brain.
v. The pupil size increases/ dilates.  The colour of the object is interpreted by the brain and it
vi. Light rays from distant objects are refracted onto the depends on the wavelengths of light stimulating the
retina. cones.

EYE DEFECTS AND THEIR CORRECTION

b) Eye accommodation to near objects. 1. Short-sightedness (myopia)
 When light rays from near object strike the eye, the - This is a condition in which light rays from a distant object
following events take place: are brought to focus in front of the retina/ are blurred/
i. Ciliary muscles contract. not clear while those from near objects are focused on the
ii. Tension in suspensory ligaments reduces. retina/ become clear.
iii. Lens curvature increases/lens becomes thicker - It is caused by long eyeball or high refractive power of the
decreasing focal length. eye lens.
iv. Radial muscles of iris relax and circular muscles contract.
v. Pupil reduces in size/ constricts.
vi. Light rays from a near object are refracted onto the retina.

Correction
 It is done by use of/ wearing spectacles with biconcave
Study question lens to diverge the light rays from the distant objects
 Imagine you are sitting outside in the shade of a tree hence they are refracted onto the retina.
reading a book, and you look up to a distant sun-lit
aeroplane in the air and then you look down to the book
again. Tabulate the sequence of events in your eyes as the
two actions take place.

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2. Long-sightedness (hypermetropia) B. MAMMALIAN EAR.
 This is a condition in which light rays from a near object
are not clear/ are not brought to focus while those from
a distant object are clear/ focused on the retina.
 It is caused by short aye ball or weak lens system.

Correction
 It is done by use of/ wearing spectacles with biconvex lens to
converge light rays from nearby objects onto the retina hence near - It performs the following functions:
objects are seen clearly. i. Hearing.
ii. Maintenance of balance and posture.
 It is composed of three main parts:
A. Outer ear.
B. Middle ear.
C. Inner ear.

A. Outer ear
- It consists of:
1. Pinna- It is large and funnel shaped to collect and
3. Astigmatism- This is a congenital defect whereby the concentrate sound waves to the external auditory meatus
curvature of the cornea is uneven/not smooth. /canal/ tube.
 Light rays are refracted differently leading to blurred 2. Auditory canal/meatus/tube- It is tubular to direct
vision. It is corrected by use of spectacles with even sound waves into the ear drum/tympanic membrane.
lens/astigmatic lens. - It also has hairs to trap solid particles preventing them
4. Squintedness- this is a condition where external from entering the ear.
muscles of the eye do not co-ordinate hence the eye balls - It has wax secreting cells which secrete wax that traps
face different directions affecting accommodation. The dust and prevents entry of solid particles. Wax also
defect is difficult to correct. maintains the flexibility of the ear drum.
5. Old sight/presbyopia- This is a defect where the - It has sebaceous gland that secrete sebum which softens
ability of the lens to change its thickness is affected which the canal/keeps it supple.
affects aye accommodation. - Sound velocity is highest/fastest in the auditory canal.
 This is caused by hardening of the lens. It is corrected by B. Middle ear
use of bifocal lens (containing both convex and concave - It consists of:
lens. 1. Ear drum/tympanic membrane- It is a thin
6. Cataracts- This is a defect whereby the lens becomes membrane consisting of connective tissue which vibrates
stiff and opaque as a result of damage by the ultraviolet and transforms sound waves into vibrations.
rays from the sun.  It then transmits the vibrations to the ear ossicles.
 The defective lens is called a cataract which causes 2. Ear ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes)- They are
blurred vision/blindness. It is caused by old age, eye bony structures attached to each other and suspended in
injury or diabetes mellitus. the cavity by the muscles.
 It is corrected by surgical replacement of the defective  The muscles prevent excessive vibrations which could
lens. damage the inner delicate parts.
7. Color blindness- this is a genetic defect in which  They form a system of levers which amplifies and
individuals are not able to distinguish colors e.g. red and transmits the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to
green colors. the oval window.
 This is because the retina lacks cones with pigments that 3. Oval and round window- They are membranes that
respond to red and green colors. cover the small holes that lead to the inner ear.
- They vibrate and transmit sound vibrations to endolymph
and perilymph of the cochlea.
4. Eustachian tube- This is the tube that connects the
pharynx/nasal cavity and the middle ear. It is normally

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closed but opens during swallowing, yawning and MAINTENANCE OF BALANCE AND POSTURE.
chewing.  Balance and posture are brought about by the 3 semi-
Function circular canals and vestibule. The 3 semi-circular
i) The Eustachian tube can provide passage of canals and vestibule are collectively called vestibular
pathogens from the pharynx to the middle ear apparatus.
causing ear infections.  The 3 semi-circular canals are cavities filled with
ii) It equalizes the air pressure between the inner endolymph and lie at right angles to each other.
ear and the outer ear/ atmosphere to prevent  Each semi-circular canal has a swelling called ampulla at
distortion of the ear drum. one end containing sensory hair cells projecting out to
 For example, if you go higher up in an aeroplane, the form cupula.
atmospheric air pressure outside falls below that of the  The hairs are disturbed by the fluid/ endolymph.
middle ear. This causes the ear drum to bulge outwards.  The 3 semi-circular canals maintain body balance and
The condition is rectified by yawing or swallowing. This posture in relation to change in position of the head.
opens the Eustachian tube to equalize the pressure on  Change of head position causes the movement of
both sides of ear drum. endolymph which stimulates the sensory hairs initiating a
C. Inner ear. nerve impulse which is transmitted to the brain for
- It consists of 3 semi-circular canals, Cochlea and Auditory interpretation.
nerve.  The brain sends impulses the muscles of the body to
1. Semi-circular canals- They are 3 tubular cavities restore the body balance.
containing the fluid and located at right angles to each
 The vestibule consists of utriculus and sacculus which
other.
contain chalky granules called otoliths attached to the
 They open into the utricule/utriculus which in turn fine sensory hairs of sensory cells.
opens to the saccule/sacculus then the succulus opens
 The vestibule (sacculus and utriculus) maintain body
into the cochlea.
balance and posture in relation to gravity.
 The utricule and saccule are collectively called
 The change of body posture disturbs the chalky granules
vestibular apparatus/ vestibule.
causing stimulation of the sensory hairs.
 The vestibule and 3 semi-circular canals are used
 This initiates a nerve impulse which is transmitted to the
to maintain balance and posture. These cavities in the
brain for interpretation.
inner ear are filled with fluids called perilymph and
 The brain interprets the impulse according to the position
endolymph.
of the body in relation to gravity.
 The fluids conduct sound vibrations from the middle ear
 The brain then sends impulse to the muscles through
to the cochlea for hearing. The displacement of fluids in
motor neurone to restore the correct posture.
the vestibule and 3 semi-circular canals leads to
restoration of body balance.
DEFECTS OF THE EAR.
 The fluids also absorb mechanical shock hence protect the
1. Deafness. - Deafness is a hearing defect in which an
delicate sensory structures.
individual is unable to perceive sound. This may be
2. Cochlea- This is a coiled tube consisting of canals,
temporary/partial or permanent.
membranes and sensory cells. The canals are filled with
 Partial deafness is caused by:
endolymph and perilymph which transmit sound
i. Blockage of external auditory canal by a layer of wax or
vibrations.
foreign objects which can be corrected by removal of the
 It is highly coiled to increase the surface area for
wax or foreign object.
attachment sensory cells for hearing. The sensory
ii. Damage to eardrum by injection, perforation using sharp
receptors/cells are sensitive to sound waves, generate
objects or its thickening which causes rigidity.
impulse which is transmitted to the brain through
iii. Abnormal growth of connective tissues (fibrosis) in the
auditory nerve.
ear ossicles which interferes with their movement.
3. Auditory nerve- It is made up of several nerve cells to
- Partial deafness can be corrected by surgery or by using
transmit impulses to the brain for interpretation.
hearing aid.
- Permanent deafness results due to damage of the cochlea.
THE PROCESS OF HEARING.
- This may be due to overdose of the antibiotics or
 The pinna concentrates sound waves into the ear canal/ exposure to loud sounds.
meatus. - This damages the sensory cells in the cochlea. The
 The sound waves strike the ear drum causing it to vibrate individual can be assisted by use of sign language.
and transform sound waves into vibrations. 2. Vertigo- This is a condition where an individual has a
 Vibrations from the eardrum are transmitted to the problem with maintenance of balance and posture. It may
malleus which amplifies and transmits to the incus up to be as a result of infection to the vestibular apparatus or
the stapes. receiving many impulses on balance and posture. It is
 The stapes vibrates, amplifies and passes the vibrations to corrected through proper medical care.
the oval window. 3. Absence of pinna- This is a hereditary defect where the
 From the oval window the vibrations are transmitted to child is born without the pinna. It is corrected by fitting
the perilymph of the cochlea. artificial pinna.

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4. Tinnitus. This is a defect characterized by TOPIC 4: SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN
hissing/ringing sound of the ear which leads to distortion PLANTS AND ANIMALS
of sound perception. 1. Support- the ability of organisms to bear their weight
 It is caused by infections of the outer and middle ear. and maintain their shape.
 It is corrected by use of hearing aids and treatment of ear 2. Movement- change of position of part or whole of an
infections. organism’s body.
5. Presbycusis- This is loss of hearing due to old age which 3. Locomotion- movement of the whole organism from
results from wearing out of the cochlea hairs and ossicles. place to place.
 It is corrected by use of hearing aids. Examples of movement in plants.
i. Swimming of male gametes to the female gametes in
bryophytes and pteridophytes.
ii. Growth of pollen tube down the style.
iii. Growth movements/tropisms.
iv. Nastisms/nastic movements.

Necessity/ Need for support and movement in

plants.
1. Movement enables plants to adjust adequately to the
environment.
2. Tropic and nastic movements enable plants obtain
resources e.g. light, water and nutrients from the
environment e.g. insectivorous plants.
3. Movement enables plants to escape/avoid harmful stimuli
e.g. high temperature.
4. Support exposes fruits and seeds for dispersal and flowers
for pollination.
5. Support helps the plants to resist breakage due to their
own weight and weight of other organisms.
6. Growth of pollen tube in bryophytes and pteridophytes
and swimming of male gametes bring about fertilization.
7. Support enables stems and branches to be held in position
to allow leaves to be spread out to trap maximum light
and for efficient gaseous exchange necessary for
photosynthesis.

Ways through which plants compensate for their

inability to move.
1. Plants show various responses to external stimuli such as
nastisms and tropisms.
2. Green plants are autotrophic (make their own food)
making them independent hence do not need to move in
search of food.
3. Plants have parts that respond and grow extensively
towards growth requirements such as water and light.
4. Plants have mechanisms for dispersal of seeds, spores and
fruits.
5. Plants show various mechanisms of cross-pollination.

SUPPORT TISSUES IN PLANTS.

- They include; Parenchyma tissue, Collenchyma tissue,
Sclerenchyma tissue and Xylem tissue (vessels and
tracheids).
1. Parenchyma tissue/cells.
 Are large an unspecialized cells used for packing. They are
spherical or elongated. Are found at the cortex and pith.
 The cells have large vacuoles that dissolve substances that
increase osmotic pressure.
 The cells draw in water through osmosis becoming
turgid/hard/ rigid hence providing mechanical support
(e.g. in herbaceous plants).

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2. Collenchyma tissue. SUPPORT IN STEMS OF WOODY PLANTS.
 Are elongated cells found beneath the epidermis of stem - Stems of young woody stems contain parenchyma cells
and leaf petiole. which absorb water through osmosis and they become
 The collenchyma cell walls are thickened with cellulose turgid which makes the tissues firm and rigid providing
making the cells rigid/ hard thus providing mechanical mechanical support.
support.  The stems of mature woody plants contain
 They are elongated. Collenchyma cells are thickened with cellulose to give
 Its cells contain a living protoplasm and their walls are not mechanical support.
lignified.  Have sclerenchyma tissue with ligni
 It provides mechanical support in leaves, herbaceous  They also have Xylem (vessels and tracheids) with
plants and young woody plants. lignified walls to provide mechanical support.
3. Sclerenchyma tissue.
 It is found on the outside of phloem tissue/within the Study questions.
vascular bundle. 2. On a hot sunny day the shoot of herbaceous plant
 It consists of dead cell walls thickened with lignin wilts and droops. Explain this observation.
making it hard/rigid thus providing mechanical support.  The parenchyma cells lose water through osmosis and
4. Xylem tissue (vessels and tracheids). become flabby/ flaccid (hence cells lose turgor pressure).
 They perform the following functions: 3. The shoot of a woody plant is less droopy of hot
a) Transport of water and mineral salts. sunny day. Explain this observation.
b) Mechanical support.  The plant has support tissues that provide mechanical
 Their cell walls tubular and are thickened with lignin to support.
provide strength and mechanical support the plant. 4. Some herbaceous stems have very little
strengthening tissues yet still remain upright.
Study questions. Suggest how they are able to do this.
(a) What happens when a wilting young plant is well  They have parenchyma tissues. When these tissues are
watered? turgid they provide mechanical support.
 Root cells absorb water by osmosis, cells of the plant
become turgid, and leaves become firm /spread out plant
become firm / upright.
(b) State three ways in which support is brought
about in a leaf.
 The rigid midrib holds leaf out away from the stem;
 Network of veins have lignified xylem which supports
leaf enabling it spread out.
 Turgidity in spongy mesophyll/ palisade cells support
the leaf to remain open.

SUPPORT IN STEM OF HERBACEOUS PLANTS

 Herbaceous plants lack vascular cambium hence do not
have secondary thickening/growth.
 The cells are soft and are easily crushed and the plants are SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS.
usually small and do not grow tall. Importance/ necessity of support and movement
Ways through which herbaceous plants get in animals.
mechanical support. 1. Movement enables animals to look for food, shelter and
1. Their stems twine/ coil around support structures. mates.
2. Use of hooks and tendrils which twist around other 2. Movement enables animals to escape from harmful
support objects. stimuli/ unfavorable conditions.
3. Turgidity/ turgor pressure of parenchyma cells/ tissue. 3. Support holds the body organs in position.
- They have parenchyma tissue/ cells which draw in water 4. Support helps to bear weight of the animal body.
through osmosis and become turgid thus providing 5. Support gives the body its form and shape.
mechanical support. 6. Support provides a surface for attachment of muscles to
- During hot conditions the cells lose water/turgidity due facilitate movement.
to transpiration hence the plant wilts, bends and may
collapse.

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SKELETON. 4. Bone marrows produce the blood cells.
 This is a supportive frame work in animal’s body. The 5. Bones act as a reservoir of calcium and phosphate ions in
types of skeleton include: the body which cause hardening of the bone tissue.
A. Hydroskeleton/hydrostatic skeleton.
B. Exoskeleton.
C. Endoskeleton.

A. Hydrostatic skeleton- It is made up of supportive

fluid under pressure surrounded by muscles.
 It is found in soft-bodied organisms e.g. earthworms.
B. Exoskeleton- It is found on the outside of the body of
arthropods.
 The exoskeleton is made up of chitin. Chitin is secreted
by the epidermal cells and when still soft it allows for
growth of the insect.
 When chitin comes into contact with the air it hardens
hence limiting growth.
 The exoskeleton limits growth hence to allow growth it
is shed periodically in the process called moulting/ MECHANISM OF LOCOMOTION/ HOW
ecdysis. LOCOMOTION OCCURS IN FINNED FISH/
 Chitin is not evenly distributed round the body but it is ADAPTATION OF FISH TO LOCOMOTION IN
thin/flexible at joints to allow for movement. ITS HABITAT/ WATER e.g. Tilapia.
 Chitin can be pigmented for camouflagation but it is 1. It has streamlined body to reduce resistance to enable
transparent at the eyes to allow entry of light. it move easily through water.
2. It has inflexible head which enables fish to maintain
Functions of exoskeleton. forward thrust.
1. It is hard/ rigid to provide protection to internal body 3. It has scales that overlap and point backwards to reduce
organs. friction/ resistance during movement.
2. Provides support.  Overlapping of scales prevent wetting of the skin.
3. Provides a surface for muscle attachment to bring about 4. It secretes mucus which covers the body and reduces
movement. friction during movement.
Adaptation of the exoskeleton to its functions. 5. It has flexible backbone with muscle blocks (called
1. It hard to provide a surface for attachment of muscles myotomes) which contract and relax to bring about side
which facilitates movement and protect internal organs to side (undulating) movement.
against mechanical damage.  The side to side movement creates forward thrust and
2. It is water proof preventing excessive water loss from propels the fish forward.
body tissues through desiccation. 6. It has lateral line system along the length of the body
3. It is light and modified into wings / has low density for for sensitivity (i.e. enable it detect vibrations and changes
flight and can be modified to form hand jaws / of pressure in water) enabling it to respond suitably.
mouthparts for biting/piercing /sucking / gliding. 7. It has a swim bladder (between the vertebral column
4. It is pigmented/ colored for camouflagation. and the gut) which provides it with buoyancy and enable
5. It can be transparent at some places allowing entry of light it to adjust its vertical position.
into the eyes and for camouflagation in water.  When the swim bladder is filled with air the body density
is lowered hence it occupies a higher level in water.
C. Endoskeleton.  When air is expelled from the swim bladder, the density
 It is found inside the body of vertebrates and surrounded of fish increases hence fish sinks to lower level.
by muscles. 8. It has paired fins (pectoral and pelvic fins) for
 Endoskeleton is made up of living tissues (i.e. bones and maintaining balance, braking, changing direction and
cartilage). preventing pitching (i.e. upward and downward
 These living cells grow within the animal and do not limit movement of fish) during movement.
growth.  When changing position, the paired fins act as pivots
 A bone is a rigid structure made up of living cells, and around which the fish turns rapidly.
inorganic compounds.  When braking, maintaining balance and preventing
 A cartilage is a flexible connective tissue. pitching, the paired fins extend rapidly outwardly at right
angles to the body.
Functions of endoskeleton/ bones. 9. It has unpaired fins (dorsal, anal and caudal fins)
1. It protects internal delicate organs (e.g. heart, lungs and to prevent rolling (rocking from side to side), prevent
brain) from mechanical injury. yawing (lateral deflection of the body.
2. It supports the body weight and gives the body its shape.  The caudal fin propels the fish forward and steers the fish
3. It provides a surface for attachment of muscles which while in motion.
contract and relax to bring about movement.

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10. It has lateral flattened body shape to increase vertical A. Axial skeleton- It is made up of the following parts:
surface area of the body. 1. Skull.
 This prevents yawing, rolling and keeps the fish in upright 2. Rib cage.
position. 3. Vertebral column.

Displacements experienced by fish during

movement.
1. Yawing: This is the lateral deflection of the body.
 It is counteracted by dorsal, ventral/anal fins and the
lateral flattening of the body.

2. Rolling: This is rotation of the fish around its own axis.

 It is counteracted by dorsal and anal/ ventral fins which
increase the vertical surface area of the body.

1. The Skull.
  It consists of the cranium, upper jaw (maxilla) and
3. Pitching: This is plunging into the water headfirst
(nosediving). lower jaw (mandible).
 It is counteracted by the pectoral and pelvic fins.  The cranium is the part of the skull which protects the
brain, olfactory organs, middle and inner ear and the
eyes.
 The skull is made up of flattened bones (cranial and facial
bones) joined/articulated to form immovable/ fixed
joints called sutures.
 Sutures allow passage of blood vessels and nerves to and
from the brain.
Adaptation of sutures.
i. The bones interlock/ fit into each other forming strong
joints to protect the brain.
Tail power. ii. They are immovable/ fixed/ tightly holding for
 This is the percentage ratio of length between the tail tip protection of the brain.
and anus and the length between the tail tip and the mouth
tip.  The cranium and the upper jaw are fused but the lower
Tail power= length of the tail tip to anus x 100 jaw articulates with the cranium to form a movable joint.
Length from tail tip to mouth
 There is a large opening at the base of the cranium called
Importance/ significance of high tail power.
foramen magnum for the passage of the spinal cord.
 It enables fish to create a high forward thrust that propels
 There are two rounded projections on either side of the
the fish forward.
foramen magnum called occipital condyles with
smooth surfaces to articulate with the first neck bone
SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN MAMMALS e.g.
(atlas) to form a joint to allow nodding of the head.
man
Parts of mammalian skeleton
Functions of the skull.
A. Axial skeleton.
1. It protects the brain, inner parts of the ears, nose and eyes
B. Appendicular skeleton.
from mechanical damage.
2. Offers a surface for the attachment of the head muscles.
3. Provides mechanism for chewing.
4. Articulates with cervical vertebrae to allow movement of
the head.

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Functions of intervertebral discs.
1. They act as a cushion that absorbs shock and reduces
friction.
2. They make the vertebral column flexible by allowing for
certain degree of movement between the vertebrae.

STRUCTURE/ PARTS OF A VERTEBRA.

2. THE RIB CAGE.

 The rib cage encloses the thoracic cavity protecting
delicate organs e.g. heart and lungs.
 It consists of 12 pairs of ribs articulating with thoracic
vertebrae at the back/dorsal end and the sternum to
the front/ventral end by a cartilage. 1. Centrum- this is the solid structure of the vertebra
 The last two ribs are not attached to the sternum hence which supports the weight of adjacent vertebra.
called floating ribs. 2. Transverse processes / projections- they are two
 The sternum/breastbone is made up of small fused and project laterally and provide a site for muscle and
bones called sternbrae found at the ventral side of the ligament attachment.
chest. 3. Neural/spinal canal- it allows for the passage and
protection of the spinal cord.
 It supports the ribs and protects the organs in the thoracic
4. Neural spine- it projects dorsally and provides a site for
cavity.
attachment of muscles.
 In flying vertebrates it is modified to form a keel which
5. Neural arch- it is a curved part which arises from the
gives a large surface area for attachment of pectoral/
centrum and surround the neural canal.
flight muscles.
- Together with the centrum they protect the
spinal cord.
Functions of rib cage.
6. Articulating facets/surfaces- are used for-
1. Encloses the thoracic cavity and protects the delicate body
articulation with the adjacent vertebrae).
organs e.g. heart, lungs from mechanical damage.
- Those found on the anterior end are called pre-
2. Provides a site for attachment of intercostal muscles
zygapophyses. They face upwards and inwards.
hence brings about breathing.
- Those that are found at the posterior end are called post-
3. Floating ribs offer a site for attachment of back muscles.
zygapophyses. They face downwards and outwards.
-
TYPES OF VERTEBRAE
 They include:
A. Cervical/neck vertebrae.
B. Thoracic vertebrae.
C. Lumbar vertebrae.
D. Sacral vertebrae.
E. Caudal/coccygeal vertebrae.

A. CERVICAL VERTEBRAE.
 They 7 in number and are found at the neck region the
first cervical vertebra is called atlas, the second is axis
and the remaining five are called cervical vertebrae.

3. VERTEBRAL COLUMN/ BACKBONE.

 It protects the spinal cord.
 It is made up of small bones called vertebrae (singular-
vertebra). In man there are 33 vertebrae separated from
each other by cartilages called inter-vertebral discs.

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Adaptations.
1. It has broad (inward curved anterior) surfaces or
General adaptations of cervical vertebra. facets for articulation with the occipital condyles of the
1. It has vertebraterial canals which provide a passage for skull forming a joint which allows nodding of the head (up
the vertebral artery and nerves. and down movement of the head).
2. It has branched and broad transverse processes to 2. It has broad and wing-like transverse processes to
increase the surface area for attachment of muscles. provide large surface area for attachment of the neck
3. It has centrum and neural arch for protection of spinal muscles.
cord 3. It has a large/wide neural canal for the passage of the
4. It has short/reduced neural spine for the attachment spinal cord and to accommodate the odontoid process
of the neck muscles. of the axis to allow movement of the head.
5. It has a wide/large neural canal for the passage of the 4. It has vertebraterial canals for the passage of the
spinal cord. vertebral artery and nerves.
6. It has post- zygapophyses and pre-zygapophyses
to articulate with adjacent vertebrae. THE AXIS
7. It has large and thick centrum to provide support to  This is the second cervical bone.
the adjacent vertebrae.

THE ATLAS.
 This is the first cervical/ neck bone.

Adaptations.
1. It has a short and wide/broad neural spine that projects
forward to increase surface area for muscle attachment.
2. The centrum projects to the anterior end to form the
odontoid process which forms a peg that fits into the
neural canal of the atlas forming a joint.
 The joint formed allows turning/sideways/ rotary
movement of the head.
3. It has reduced/short transverse processes for
muscle attachment.
4. It has post zygapophyses for articulation with adjacent
cervical vertebra and also a facet (on the anterior end) to
articulate with the atlas.
5. It has vertebraterial canals for the passage of the vertebral
artery and nerves.

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B. THORACIC VERTEBRAE.
 They are 12 in number and found at the chest/thoracic
region of the vertebral column.
 They articulate with the ribs forming rib cage.
 The first thoracic vertebra articulates with the last
cervical vertebra.

Adaptations of thoracic vertebra.

1. It has long neural spine (which points towards the
posterior) to offer large or increase the surface are for
attachment of the thoracic/back muscles.
2. It has short/ reduced transverse processes for
attachment of muscles.
3. It has neural canal for passage of spinal cord.
4. The transverse processes have articular facets called
tubercular facets to articulate with the tuberculum
of the rib.
5. The centrum has articular facets called capitular
facets to articulate with the capitulum of the rib.
6. It has large/ thick centrum to support the other
vertebra/body weight.
7. It has anterior facets (pre-zygapophyses) and
posterior facets (post-zygapophyses) to articulate
with the adjacent thoracic vertebrae.
8. They have centrum and neural arch to protect spinal cord.

MAMMALIAN RIB
 It is located on the ventral end of rib cage or on thoracic
region.
 It articulates with thoracic vertebrae at capitular and
tubercular facets.

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Adaptations of the mammalian rib.

i) It has long shaft to provide a large surface area for
attachment of muscles.
ii) It has tuberculum to articulate with tubercular facet of
the transverse process of the thoracic vertebra.
iii) It has capitulum to articulate with capitular facet of the
centrum of the thoracic vertebra.

C. LUMBAR VERTEBRAE.
 They are 5 in number located in the abdominal/lumbar
region of the body.
 The first lumbar vertebra articulates with the last thoracic
vertebra.

Adaptations of lumbar vertebra.

1. It has broad neural spine to provide a large surface
area for attachment of powerful back and abdominal
muscles.
2. It has long transverse processes to increase the
surface area for attachment of powerful back muscles.
3. It has neural canal for passage of spinal cord.
4. They have centrum and neural arch to protect spinal cord.

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5. It has a large and broad centrum to support the Functions of girdles.
weight of the adjacent vertebra. i. Form a connection between the axial skeleton and limbs.
6. It has two metapophyses (on either side of the neural ii. Provide suitable surfaces for attachment of muscles that
spine), anapophyses (projecting dorsaly near the move the limbs.
transverse process) and hypapophysis (ventrally to the iii. They keep the limbs apart for stability.
centrum) to offer large surface area for attachment of 1. Pectoral girdle.
abdominal muscles.  It is found at the shoulder region and made up of two
7. It has curved post- zygapophyses and pre-zygapophyses halves i.e. right and left side.
for articulation with adjacent vertebrae and for muscle  It links the fore limbs to the axial skeleton and forms the
attachment. joints with the fore limbs to allow movement.
 It has two types of bones i.e. Scapula and Clavicle.
D. SACRAL VERTEBRAE (SACRUM).  The clavicle articulates with the sternum and the
Adaptations of sacral vertebra acromion of the scapula.
1. It consists of 4 of 5 vertebrae that are fused to make
it strong and firm to bear the weight of body and spread
it to the legs through pelvic girdle.
2. The first 2 sacral vertebrae (anterior vertebrae) are large
with wing-like transverse processes which are
fused to the pelvic girdle to provide a surface area for
attachment of the pelvic and back muscles.
3. The sacrum has a large base or short neural spine
for attachment of back muscles.
4. It has large and broad centrum to provide support.
5. There are openings called intervertebral foramen
which allow the passage of the spinal nerves.
6. It has pre-zygapophyses that articulate with the lumbar
vertebra.
7. It has narrow neural canal for passage of spinal cord.

E. CAUDAL/ TAIL/ COCCYGEAL VERTEBRAE.

 They are found on tail region. They are 4 in number fused
to form a bone called coccyx.
 The neural spines and zygapophyses are reduced.
 The neural canal and neural arch are absent hence the
entire bone is a centrum.

2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON.
 It consists of:
a) Girdles.
b) Limbs (attached onto girdles) Adaptations of pectoral girdle.
a) Limb girdles. a) The scapula
 They hold the limbs in position and include: 1. It has a glenoid cavity/ socket/depression which
1. Pectoral girdle (on the anterior end). articulates with the head of the humerus to form a ball
2. Pelvic girdle (on the posterior end). and socket joint to allow movement of the arm in all
directions.
2. Has broad/flat blade to increase the surface area for
attachment of muscles.

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3. Has long spine to increase the surface area for attachment  Between the pubis and ischium there is a hole next to
of muscles. the socket called obturator foramen for the passage of
4. It is hard/ rigid to provide support. blood vessels, nerves and muscles.
5. Has a ridge or coracoid process to increase surface area Adaptations of the pelvic girdle.
for muscle attachment. 1. It has acetabulum to articulate with the head of femur
6. It has a cartilage (suprascapula) at the edge of the blade to to form ball and socket joint allowing movement of the
reduce friction. hind limb.
7. It has acromion for articulation with the clavicle and 2. It is made up of three bones which are fused together to
muscle attachment and metacromion for attachment of form a rigid structure to provide support.
shoulder and back muscles. 3. It has broad ilium to provide a large surface area for
attachment of thigh muscles.
b) Clavicle. 4. The ilium has a broad facets for articulation with the
1. It has long shaft to provide large surface area for transverse processes of the sacrum.
attachment of chest muscles and also helps in movement 5. It has obturator foramen for the passage of blood
of the arm. vessels, nerves and muscles.
2. It has acromial facet for articulation with acromion (of 6. It has pubis symphysis composed of flexible cartilage
scapula) and sternal facet for articulation with sternum. which allows widening of the females’ pelvic girdle when
3. It is hard and calcified to ensure firmness hence providing giving birth and acts as a shock absorber.
support and for attachment of muscles.
B. THE LIMBS.
 There are two types of limbs that occur in pairs and
include:
1. Fore limbs (found at the anterior end of the body and
connected to pectoral girdle).
2. Hind limbs (found at the posterior end of the body and
connected to pelvic girdle).
 Limbs of mammals/ vertebrates are pentadactyl limbs i.e.
have five fingers/digits.

1. Fore limbs
 They are two and each is made of the following bones:
i. Humerus.
ii. Ulna and radius.
iii. Carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.
 The pelvic girdle is found at the hip/pelvic region consists
of two halves of fused bones i) HUMERUS -It is found on the upper arm (between the
 The two halves are joined at the pubis symphysis which elbow and shoulder).
consists of a cartilage.
 In female it is flexible to allow widening of the pelvic
girdle during giving birth.
Functions of pelvic girdle.
1. Forms joints with the legs to make walking possible.
2. Provides a large surface area for attachment of muscles.
3. Offers support to the body weight.

 Each half of the pelvic girdle consists of 3 fused bones

namely:
1. Ilium- long and upward pointing/ above the
aceabulum to provide a large surface area for
attachment of thigh muscles.
 It also has a wide facet for articulation with the
sacrum.
2. Ischium- bone on the dorsal end that supports the body
on sitting position.
3. Pubis (pubic bone) - is found on the inside/ventral
side of the ischium.

 The pubis (pubic bone) has a socket called acetabulum

which articulates with the head of femur forming a ball
and socket joint (that allow movement in all planes).

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Adaptations of humerus. surface area for attachment of muscles and tendons and
1. At the proximal end, it has a large and broad also prevents overstretching of the forearm at the joint
rounded head that articulates with the glenoid when straightened.
cavity of the scapula to form a ball and socket joint. 3. At the distal end there is distal epiphysis for
2. It has long shaft to increase the surface area for articulation with the carpals to form gliding joint.
attachment of muscles. 4. They have long shaft to increase surface area for
3. The head of the humerus is covered with a cartilage to attachment of muscles.
reduce friction during movement. C. BONES OF THE HAND.
4. Near the head there is a rough surface called tuberosity  They include carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.
(greater and lower/lesser tuberosities) to provide  They are small bones provide a site for muscle
a surface for muscle attachment. attachment.
5. Between the tuberosities there is a groove called  Carpals are found at the wrist and articulate with distal
bicipital groove along which the tendon of the bicep epiphysis of ulna-radius to form gliding joint.
muscle passes.  Metacarpals are found/ located at the palm and articulate
6. At the distal end are two rounded structure called with each other to form gliding joints.
condyles to articulate with the sigmoid notch of the  Phalanges are found at the fingers and articulate with
radius and ulna to form a hinge joint (to allow movement each other to form hinge joints.
of the arm in one plane).
7. Between the two condyles is a groove called trochlea for 2. HIND LIMBS.
articulation with sigmoid notch radius and ulna to form - There are two hind limbs and each consists of the
hinge joint. following bones:
A. Femur.
B. ULNA AND RADIUS. B. Tibia and fibula.
 These are two curved long bones found on the lower arm C. Tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.
(between the elbow and the wrist). A. Femur.
 The radius lies on the upper side/ side of the thumb and  This is a thigh bone found between the hip and the knee/
ulna on the lower side/ side of the small finger of the on the upper hind limb.
lower arm.

Adaptations of femur.
1. It has a head (at the proximal end) that articulates with
acetabulum of the pelvic girdle to form ball and socket
joint.
2. The head of the femur is covered with a cartilage that
reduces friction during locomotion.
3. It has rounded condyles (at the distal end) which
articulate with the patella/ knee cap and tibia to form
hinge joint.
4. It has a long shaft to provide a large/ increase surface area
for muscle attachment and for support.
5. The femur has projections called greater and lesser
trochanters to provide a large surface area for muscle
attachment.
6. Between the condyles there is a groove called patella
groove which articulates with patella/ knee cap.
Functions of patella/ knee cap
Adaptations. 1. Provides a site for muscle attachment.
1. They have a sigmoid notch (at the proximal end) 2. Makes the knee joint flexible.
which articulates with (the trochlea and condyles of) the 3. Prevents overstretching of hind limb at the knee joint.
humerus to form hinge joint.
2. The ulna has (an extension beyond the sigmoid notch
called) olecranon process which provides a large

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B. TIBIA AND FIBULA. Components of a synovial joint.
 They are fused bones of the lower hind limb (between the 1. Bones- provide a site for attachment of muscles.
ankle and knee). They form shin bone. 2. Ligament- Attaches a bone to another bone.
 The thicker and longer bone is called tibia and the 3. Cartilage- acts as a shock absorber and reduces friction
shorter and thinner bone is fibula. during movement.
4. Synovial membrane- secretes and encloses synovial
fluid.
5. Tendon-connects a muscle to the bone.
6. Synovial fluid- Nourishes the tissue/supplies oxygen
and nutrients, lubricates the joint, acts as a shock
absorber, reduces friction and distributes pressure at the
joint.

Types of synovial joints.

A. Hinge joint.
B. Ball and socket joint.


Adaptations.
1. They have long shaft to increase surface area for
attachment of muscles and tendons and for support.
2. Tibia has articular facets (at the proximal end) for
articulation with condyles of femur to form hinge joint.
3. They have distal epiphysis which articulates with tarsals to
form gliding joint.

C. TARSALS, METATARSALS AND PHALANGES

 Tarsals are found at the ankle and articulate with distal
epiphysis of tibia to form gliding joints.
 Metatarsals are found at the sole and articulate with
each other to form gliding joints.
A. Hinge joint
 Phalanges are found at the fingers and articulate with
 In this type, one bone has a depression and the other has
each other to form hinge joints.
smooth condyles that fit and articulates in the depression.
JOINTS.  It allows movement in one direction/plane/through 180
degrees.
 A joint is a connection between two bones.
Examples of hinge joint.
 At the joint, a bone is connected to another bone by
i. Elbow joint- between the humerus and ulna & radius.
inelastic tissue called ligament.
ii. Knee joint- between the femur and tibia.
 At the joint a muscle is connected to the bone by inelastic iii. Joint between the phalanges.
tissue called tendon
Types of joints.
A. Fixed /immovable joints e.g. fused bones of the skull
and the pelvic girdle.
B. Gliding joints e.g. at the wrist (between ulna-radius
and carpals) and ankle between tibia and tarsals), between
the vertebrae in the vertebral column.
C. Pivot joints e.g. joint between the atlas and axis.
D. Movable joints e.g. ball and socket joint, hinge joint,
joints between phalanges.
- Movable joints with a synovial fluid are called synovial
joints e.g. ball and socket and hinge joints.
Functions of a joint.
1. Allows movement to occur between the bones.
2. Some joints allow passage of blood vessels and nerves.

SYNOVIAL JOINTS.
 They allow some considerable degree of movement.
 The head of the bones is covered by articular cartilage
and synovial fluid that reduce friction during
movement.

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BIOLOGY NOTES- FORM FOUR Page 59

 The muscle that brings about bending/ flexing of the limb
is called flexor muscle / biceps while the muscle that
straightens the limb is called extensor muscle
/triceps.
 Triceps and biceps are required when bending/
straightening the limb because they contract
antagonistically i.e. when one relaxes the other contracts.
 When bending/ flexing the limb, the flexor muscle/
biceps contracts while the extensor muscle/ triceps
relaxes.
 When straightening the limb, the biceps/ flexor muscle
relaxes while the triceps/ extensor muscle contracts.
B. Ball and socket joint
 In this type one has a rounded head and the other has a
cavity/socket into which the head fits/articulates.
 It allows movement in all directions/planes/through 360
degrees.
Examples of ball and socket joints.
1. Hip joint- between the femur and pelvic girdle.
2. Shoulder joint- between the humerus and scapula.

Study question.
Describe how nerve impulses to a muscle leads to bending
of a limb.
 The impulse excites the flexor muscle making it to
contract. The contraction creates a force which is
transmitted onto the skeleton by tendons pulling the
bones closer hence bending.

MUSCLES.
 A muscle is a specialized tissue for contraction and
relaxation to allow movement.
 The functional unit of a muscle is called myofibril which
MOVEMENT AT THE JOINT. has the ability to contract.
 At a movable joint, the bones are held together by an  The myofibril consists of proteins called myosin and
inelastic tissue called ligament. actin which facilitate contraction and relaxation.
 The ligaments restrain movement of the bones thus  Contraction of muscles requires sodium and calcium
preventing dislocation. ions.
 At the joint, the muscles are held to the bones by inelastic Types of muscles.
tissue called tendon. A. Skeletal/ striated muscles.
 Movement at the joint is brought about by muscles. B. Smooth/ unstriated/ visceral muscles.
C. Cardiac muscle.

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A. Skeletal muscles.
 They are located/attached to the bones/skeleton.
 They contract bringing about movement of limbs.
Characteristics of skeletal muscle.
1. Composed of long fibres and each fibre is composed of
numerous myofibrils that have multiple nuclei (it is
multinucleated).
2. It is cylindrical in shape.
3. The fibres are striated/ have striations.
4. Contraction is controlled by voluntary nervous system. C. CARDIAC MUSCLE
5. The muscle contracts faster and fatigue quickly/ easily.  This is a heart muscle / found on the heart.
6. The fibres contract antagonistically creating a force that is  Its contraction and relaxation brings about the heartbeat.
transmitted to the skeleton by tendon to bring about Characteristics
movement of limbs. 1. It has branched fibres which are striated but with
Adaptation of skeletal muscles intercalated discs.
1. Skeletal muscles have actin and myosin/contractile 2. Each muscle fibre consists of short cells with a single/ one
proteins which facilitate contraction and relaxation. nucleus (uninucleated).
2. Have numerous mitochondria provide energy for 3. It contracts continuously without fatigue.
contraction. 4. It is myogenic i.e. contraction originates from within
3. Have elongated fibres to allow change in length. itself without nervous/ hormonal stimulation.
5. Its contraction is controlled by autonomic/ involuntary
nervous system.
Adaptations of cardiac muscle
1. Cells are joined by intercalated discs that transmit
impulses rapidly throughout the heart.
2. It has more mitochondria (than skeletal muscles) to
provide energy for contraction.

B. SMOOTH/ VISCERAL MUSCLES.

 They are found along the walls of tubular internal/
visceral organs e.g. trachea, ureter, urethra, blood
vessels, alimentary canal/ gut, reproductive tract, blood
vessels.
 They are also found in the ciliary body, iris of the eye and
erector pili muscle.
 They bring about peristaltic movement of food materials,
blood and body fluids.
Characteristics of smooth muscles
1. They consist of short fibres.
2. Each fibre has one/ single nucleus (uninucleated)
3. They are not striated/are unstriated.
4. They are spindle shaped.
5. Contraction is controlled by involuntary nervous system.
6. They contract slowly and do not fatigue easily.

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