Pre-Calculus: Course Study Guide

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❖ Prerequisites: Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Algebraic Expressions and Real Numbers
● Natural Numbers: positive numbers
● Whole Numbers: number without fractions
● Integers: whole numbers and their opposite
● Simple Fraction: integer/natural
● Absolute Value: distance from 0
● Evaluate -> Expressions
○ 2x+3; when x=3
● Solve -> Equations
○ 11= 2x+3
● Intersection (∩): in both brackets at the same time
○ Ex: 𝐴 = {1,3,4}𝐵 = {3,4,5,6}= A∩B: {3,4}
● Union (∪): joining of things, join what’s inside
● { }: empty set; ⊘: “null set” = no values

Radicals
● Radical: the main/primary root of what’s underneath
○ √36 = square root
3
○ √8 = cube root
■ √4𝑥 2 = 2|𝑥|
● the absolute value keeps the x from becoming negative
● IMPORTANT: The only time you need the absolute value is
when you take an even root of an even power and get an odd
result. (EEO)
○ Examples

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
 ■ √49𝑥 2 𝑦 4 =7|𝑥3 |𝑦2
3 3 3
■ 2 √5+ √5= 3 √5
Factoring Formulas
● (a+b)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
○ 49𝑥 2 + 126𝑥 + 81 = (7𝑥 + 9)2
● (a+b)(a-b) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 (difference of 2 squares)
● 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = sum of 2 squares (can’t factor) = prime
● 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏) (𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )= can never factor further than this!
● 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 =sum of 2 cubes
○ (a+b) (𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
Rational Expressions
● Simplifying Rational Expressions
○ 1) Factor the numerator and denominator completely
○ 2) Divide both the numerator and denominator by any common factors

𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 𝑥 2 (𝑥+1) 𝑥 2 (𝑥+1)
■ Ex. = = - cancel (x+1)
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 (𝑥+1)
● = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≠ −1
● Multiplying Rational Expressions
○ 1) Factor all numerators and denominators
completely
○ 2) Divide numerators and denominators by
common factors
○ 3) Multiply the remaining factors in the
numerators and multiply the remaining factors in
the denominators
● Dividing Rational Expressions
○ 1) Find the answer by inverting the
second divisor and multiplying using
the steps above
● Adding/Subtracting Rational Expressions

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 That Have Different Denominators
○ 1) Find the LCD of the rational expression
○ 2) Rewrite each rational expression as an equivalent expression whose
denominator is the LCD.
○ 3) Add/Subtract numerators by placing the resulting expression over the LCD.
○ 4) If possible, simplify.
Finding Domain
(𝑥−3)(2𝑥+1) 2𝑥+1
● Ex. = =Domain = (-∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞)
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−3) 𝑥+1
Equations
● Linear Equation: an equation that is written in the form ax+b=0 where a and b are real
numbers and a≠ 0
● Solving Linear Equation
○ 1) Simplify both expressions
○ 2) Group all variable terms on one
side and constant terms on the
other
○ 3) Isolate the variable and solve
● Solving Rational Equations
○ 1) Find the least common denominator
○ 2) Use the distributive property and divide out common
factors
○ 3) Simplify
● Solving Equation Involving Absolute Value
○ Isolate absolute value
○ Split into 2 different equations
○ Solve for both
● Square Root Property
○ If 𝑢2 = 𝑑, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢 = √𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 = −√𝑑
● Solving Radicals Containing nth Roots
○ 1) Arrange terms so one radical is isolated on one side of the equation.

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
 ○ 2) Raise both sides of the equation to the nth power to eliminate the nth root.
○ 3) Solve the resulting equation.
○ Check all solutions in the original equation.
■ Ex. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒: √2𝑥 − 1 + 2 = 𝑥
■ Step 1: √2𝑥 − 1 + 2 = 𝑥 → √2𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥 − 2
2 2
■ Step 2: (√2𝑥 − 1 ) = (𝑥 − 2) → 2𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4
■ Step 3: 2𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4
■ 0 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 → 0 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 5) → 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 5
Linear Inequalities and Absolute Value Inequalities
● Interval Notation: represents subsets of real numbers
○ Open Interval: (a.b) represents the set of real numbers between, but not including
a and b
○ Closed Interval: [𝑎, 𝑏]represents the set of real numbers between, and including a
and b
○ Infinite Interval: (𝑎, ∞)represents the set of numbers that are greater than a
○ Infinite Interval: (−∞, 𝑏] represents the set of real numbers that are less than or
equal to b
● Graphing Intersections and Unions
○ 1) Graph each interval on a number line
○ 2A) To find the intersection, find the
set of numbers on the number line
where both graphs have the set in
common
○ 2B) To find the union, take the
portion of the number line
representing the total collection of
numbers in the two graphs
● Solving an Absolute Value Inequality

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 ○ If X is an algebraic expression and c
is a positive number
■ 1) The solutions of |𝑋|< c are
the numbers that satisfy -c <
X<c
■ 2) The solutions of |𝑋| >
𝑐 are the numbers that satisfy
X < -c or X > c

❖ Graphs and Functions

Graphs and Graphing Utilities

● X- axis: horizontal number line

● Y- axis: vertical number line
○ Each point corresponds to an ordered pair (x,y)
Basics of Functions and Their Graphs
● Relation: any set of ordered pairs
○ Set of first components is the domain (to find the domain, look for all inputs on
the x-axis that correspond to the points on the graph). The set of second
components is the range (to find the range, look for all the outputs on the y-axis
that correspond to points on the graph
● Vertical Line Test: if any vertical line intersects the graph in more than one point, the
graph is not a function
● Zeros of a function: values of x for which f(x) = 0
○ A function can have more than one x-intercept, but at most one y-intercept

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
 𝑓 (𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
● Difference Quotient: ,ℎ = 0
ℎ
● Piecewise Function: defined by two (or more) equations over a specified domain

● Relative Maximum: the “peak” of the graph

● Relative Minimum: the “bottom” of the graph

● Even Function: f(-x) = f(x); symmetric to the y-axis

● Odd Function: f(-x) = -f(x); symmetric to the origin
Linear Functions and Slope

𝑦 2 −𝑦 1
● To find slope: 2
𝑥 −𝑥 1
● Point Slope: y-𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
● General Form: Ax + By + C = 0
𝛥𝑦 𝑓(𝑥2 )−𝑓(𝑥)
● Average Rate of Change: =
𝛥𝑥 𝑥2 −𝑥1
Transformations of Functions

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● Vertical Shifts
○ The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐is the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)shifted c units up.
○ The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑐is the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)shifted c units down.
● Horizontal Shifts
○ The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐)is the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)shifted left c units.
○ The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑐)is the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)shifted right c units.
● Vertically Stretching and Shrinking Graphs
○ In the graph 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑓(𝑥), if
𝑐 > 1the graph of 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥)is vertically stretched by
multiplying each of its y-
coordinates by c.
○ In the graph 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑓(𝑥), if
0 < 𝑐 < 1, the graph 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) is vertically shrunk by
multiplying each of its y-
coordinates by c.
● Horizontally Stretching and Shrinking
○ In the graph 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑐𝑥), if 𝑐 > 1the graph
of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)is horizontally shrunk by
dividing each of its x-coordinates by c.
○ In the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑐𝑥), if 0 < 𝑐 < 1,
the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)is horizontally
stretched by diving each of its x-
coordinates by c.

Inverse Functions
● f(g(x)) = x and g(f(x)) = x, the function g is the inverse of function f which means f and g
are inverses of each other

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● Finding a Function’s Inverse
○ Switch x and y, then solve for y
● Horizontal Line Test: If function 𝑓 has an inverse that is a function 𝑓 −1 , if there is no
horizontal line that intersects the graph of the function 𝑓at more than one point.

Distance and Midpoint Formulas: Circles

● Distance Formula: 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
● Midpoint Formula: ( , )
2 2

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● Standard Form of Circle: (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
● General Form of Circle Equation: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

❖ Polynomial and Rational Functions

Complex Numbers
● Imaginary Unit 𝑖is defined as 𝑖 =
√−1, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 2 = −1
● In 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, 𝑎 is the real part and 𝑏is the
imaginary part
● Complex Numbers: real numbers a and b,
and i, the imaginary unit
● Pure Imaginary Number: imaginary
number in the form of 𝑏𝑖
● Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers
○ (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) + (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎 + 𝑐) + (𝑏 + 𝑑) 𝑖
■ Add complex numbers by adding the real parts, adding the imaginary
parts, and expressing the sum as a complex number
○ (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) − (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎 − 𝑐) + (𝑏 − 𝑑) 𝑖
■ Subtract complex numbers by subtracting the real parts, subtracting the
imaginary parts, and expressing the sum as a complex number
● Multiplying and Dividing Complex Numbers
○ For multiplication, FOIL, first,
outer, inner, last, then solve.
○ For division, multiply the
numerator and the
denominator by the complex
conjugate of the denominator.
Use the FOIL method.
Combine any imaginary terms,
then combine real terms.

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● Complex Conjugate of the number 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖is 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖
● Principle Square Root: for any positive real number 𝑏, the principal square root of the
negative number −𝑏is defined by √−𝑏 = 𝑖√𝑏

Quadratic Functions
● Quadratic Function is of the form: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎 ≠ 0
● Standard Form of Quadratic Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘, 𝑎 ≠ 0
○ Vertex: (h,k)
● Maximum and Minimum of Quadratic Functions
○ Function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑏
■ If 𝑎 > 0, then f has a minimum that occurs at 𝑥 = − 2𝑎, minimum
𝑏
value 𝑓(− )
2𝑎
𝑏
■ If 𝑎 < 0, then f has the maximum that occurs at 𝑥 = −
2𝑎, maximum
𝑏
value 𝑓(− )
2𝑎

Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs

● Polynomial Function: a function comprising more than one power function where the
coefficients are assumed to not equal zero. The term with the highest degree is the
leading term.

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● Even multiplicity: the graph touches the x-axis and turns around at r
● Odd multiplicity: the graph crosses the x-axis at r
● Graphing a Polynomial
Function
○ 1) Use the Leading
Coefficient Test to
determine graph’s end
behavior
○ 2) Find x-intercept by
setting f(x) = 0 and
solving the resulting
polynomial equation.
○ 3) Find the y-intercept by computing f(0)
○ 4) Use symmetry, if applicable to help draw the graph.
■ Y-axis symmetry: f(-x) = f(x)
■ Origin symmetry: f(-x) = -f(x)
○ 5) Use the fact that the maximum number of turning points of the graph is n-1 to

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 check whether its drawn correctly
● Intermediate Value Theorem: If f is a polynomial function and f(a) and f(b) have
opposite signs, there is at least one value of c between a and b for which f(c) = 0.

Dividing Polynomials
● Division Algorithm
○ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥) ∗ 𝑞(𝑥) +
𝑟(𝑥)
○ f(x) = dividend
○ d(x) = divisor
○ q(x) = quotient
○ r(x) = remainder
● Long Division of Polynomials
○ 1) Set up long division
○ 2) Divide the 1st term of
the dividend with the
divisor
○ 3) Multiply by the divisor
○ 4) Write the answer and subtract
○ 5) Bring down the next number to the right
○ 6) Repeat Step 2
○ 7) Write final answer
● Remainder Theorem
○ If the polynomial f(x) is divided by x-c, then the remainder is f(c).
● Factor Theorem
○ Let f(x) be a polynomial
■ a) If f(c) = 0, then x-c is a factor of f(x)
■ b) If x-c is a factor of f(x), then f(c) = 0

Zeros of Polynomial Functions

● Rational Zero Theorem

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● Number of Roots
○ If f(x) is a polynomial degree n ≥1, counting multiple roots separately, the
equation f(x) = 0 has n roots.
● Descartes’s Rule of Signs
○ The number of positive real zeros of f equals the number of sign changes of f(x)
or is less than that number by an even integer. The number of negative real zeros
of f applies a similar statement to f(-x).

Rational Functions and Their Graphs

● Arrow Notation
○ 𝑥 → 𝑎+ : x approaches a from the right

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 ○ 𝑥 → 𝑎− : x approaches a from the left
○ 𝑥 → ∞: x approaches infinity
○ 𝑥 → −∞: x approaches negative infinity
● Vertical Asymptote
○ If f(x) increases or decreases without bond as x approaches a
● Horizontal Asymptote
○ If f(x) approaches b as x increases or decreases without bond
𝑝(𝑥)
● Graphing Rational Functions 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑞(𝑥)
○ Determine whether the graph has symmetry
■ f(-x) = f(x): y-axis symmetry
■ f(-x) = -f(x): origin symmetry
○ Find the y-intercept by evaluating f(0)
○ Find the x-intercept by solving the equation p(x)=0
○ Find any vertical asymptotes by solving the equation q(x) = 0
○ Find the horizontal asymptote by using the rule for determining the horizontal
asymptote of a rational function.
○ Plot at least one point between and beyond each x-intercept and vertical
asymptote.
○ Use info above to graph the function between the asymptotes

❖ Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Exponential Functions
● Parent Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 , where b is base and b > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1
● Natural exponential function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

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 1
● Irrational number (natural base): 𝑒 ≈ 2.7183, 𝑒is the value that (1 + 𝑛)2

Logarithmic Functions
● Logarithmic Functions: for x>0 and b>0, b≠ 1

Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

● Exponential equation: equation containing a variable in an exponent
● Solving Exponential Equations by Expressing Each Side as a Power of the Same
Base
○ If 𝑏 𝑀 = 𝑏 𝑁 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀 = 𝑁
● Using Natural Logarithms to Solve Exponential Equations
○ 1) Isolate the exponential expression
○ 2) Take the natural logarithm on both sides of the equation
○ 3) Simplify using one of the following
■ 𝐼𝑛 (𝑏 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 (𝑏) 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥
○ 4) Solve for the variable
● Using the Definition of a Logarithm to Solve Logarithmic Equations
○ 1) Express the equation in the form 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑀 = 𝑐.
○ 2) Use the definition to rewrite the equation in exponential form 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑀 =
𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑏 𝑐 = 𝑚
○ 3) Solve for the variable.

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❖ Trigonometric Functions
Angles and Radian Measure
● Angle: two rays with a common endpoint called the vertex
● Quadrantal Angle: angle with its terminal side
on the x-axis or the y-axis
𝑠
● Radian Measure: 𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
● To convert from degrees to radians, multiply
𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
by
180∘
● To convert from radians to degrees, multiply
180∘
by
𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
● Coterminal Angles: angles with the same initial and terminal sides
● Length of a Circular Arc: 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
The Unit Circle
● Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions in Terms of a Unit Circle
○ If 𝑡 is a real number and 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦) is a point on the unit circle that corresponds
to 𝑡, then

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡 = ,𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥
1 1 𝑥
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑡 = ,𝑦 ≠ 0 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡 = ,𝑥 ≠ 0 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑡 = ,𝑦 ≠ 0
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

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● Domain and Range of Sine and Cosine Functions
○ Domain to sine and cosine function (−∞, ∞), set of all real numbers
○ Range [−1,1]
● Even and Odd Trigonometric Functions
○ Even
■ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (−𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐(−𝑡) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡
○ Odd
■ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝑡) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡, 𝑡𝑎𝑛(−𝑡) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑡), 𝑐𝑠𝑐(−𝑡) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑡, 𝑐𝑜𝑡(−𝑡) =
− 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑡)
● Quotient Identities
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
○ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡

● Pythagorean Identities
○ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 = 1 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑡
● Periodic Functions: a function that repeats its values at regular intervals
○ Periodic Properties for Sine and Cosine (period 2𝜋)
■ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑡 + 2𝜋) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑡 + 2𝜋) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
○ Periodic Properties for Tangent and Cotangent (period 𝜋)
■ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑡 + 𝜋) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (𝑡 + 𝜋) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑡

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 Right Triangle Trig
● Right Triangle Definitions for Trig Functions

○
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑐 𝑐 𝑏
𝑐 𝑐 𝑏
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
● Cofunction Identities

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (90° − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (90° − 𝜃) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (90° − 𝜃)

𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (90° − 𝜃) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (90° − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (90° − 𝜃)

Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

● If 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is the distance from (0,0) to (x,y), the six trig functions of 𝜃are

𝑦 𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = ,𝑦 ≠ 0
𝑟 𝑦
𝑥 𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = .𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑟 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = ,𝑥 ≠ 0 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = , 𝑦 ≠ 0
𝑥 𝑦

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
● Reference Angle: positive acute angle between the terminal side and x-axis
● Find Reference Angles for Angles Greater
Than 360°( 2𝜋) or Less Than -360° (-2𝜋)
○ Find a positive angle𝛼 less than 360°
that is coterminal with the given angle.
○ Draw𝛼 in standard position.
○ Use the drawing to find the reference
angle for the given angle.
Graphs of Trig Functions

2𝜋
● The graph of 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)can be obtained using amplitude |𝐴|, period , and
𝑏
𝐶
phase shift 𝐵.
2𝜋
● The graph of 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐵𝑥 − 𝐶) can be obtained using amplitude |𝐴|, period , and
𝑏
𝐶
phase shift 𝐵.

● 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) + 𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐵𝑥 − 𝐶) + 𝐷 , the constant D can cause

vertical shifts. If 𝐷 > 0, you shift upward. If 𝐷 < 0, you shift downward.
Inverse Trig Functions

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
 𝜋
● Inverse Sine Function: inverse of the restricted sine function 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, − 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤
𝜋
which means 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥
2

● Finding Exact Values of 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥

○ 1) Let 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
○ 2) Rewrite 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 as 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 − 2 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2

○ 3) Use the table to find the exact values that satisfies 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥

● Inverse Cosine Function: inverse of the restricted cosine function 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤

𝜋which means 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 = 𝑥
● Finding Exact Values of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥
○ 1) Let 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑥
○ 2) Rewrite 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑥as 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑥, where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
○ 3) Use the table to find the exact values

● Inverse Tangent Function: inverse of the restricted tangent function 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤

𝜋 𝜋
𝜋which means 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥, − 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

● Finding Exact Values of 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥

○ 1) Let 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
○ 2) Rewrite 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑥 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 − 2 < 𝜃 < 2

○ 3) Use the table to find exact values

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
● Graphs of Three Basic Inverse Trig Functions

❖ Analytic Trigonometry
Verifying Trig Identities
● Fundamental Trig Identities
○ Reciprocal Identities

1 1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 =
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
1 1 1
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
○ Quotient Identities

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
○ Pythagorean Identities

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥

○ Even-Odd Functions

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (−𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (−𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (−𝑥) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

𝑐𝑠𝑐 (−𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (−𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (−x) = -cot x

● Principal Trig Identities

𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽

+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽

𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽

− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝛼 − 𝛽) =
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽

○ Product To
Sum Formula

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = 2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 − 𝛽) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 + 𝛽)]

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 − 𝛽)]
2
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 − 𝛽)]
2

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
 → 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑠

❖ Conic Sections
● The Ellipse: is the set of all points P in a plane the sum of whose distances from two
fixed points is constant
○ Foci: the two fixed points
○ Center: midpoint of the segment connecting the foci
● Standard Form Of Ellipse
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 2
○ 𝑎2 + 2 = 1 𝑜𝑟 2 + 𝑦𝑎2 = 1
𝑏 𝑏
● Standard Form of Equations for Ellipses

○
● The Hyperbola: a set of points in a plane the difference of whose distances from two
fixed points, called foci is constant

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
 ○ Vertices: line through the foci that intersects at two points
○ Standard Forms of the Equations of a Hyperbola
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 2
■
𝑎2 − 2 = 1 𝑜𝑟 2 − 𝑦𝑎2 = 1
𝑏 𝑏
○ Standard Forms of Hyperbolas Centered at (h.k)

■
● The Parabola: set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line.
○ Directrix: a fixed point
○ Focus: not on the line
○ Latus Rectum: line segment that passes through its focus, parallel to the
directrix, the endpoints are located on the parabola
■ Latus rectum is |4𝑝|
● Standard Form of the Equation of a Parabola
○ 𝑦 2 = 4𝑝𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 = 4𝑝𝑦

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
❖ Matrices and Determinants

● Augmented Matrices: has a vertical bar separating the columns of the matrix into 2
groups
● Row-Echelon Form: matrix with 1s down the main diagonal and 0s below the 1s
● Gaussian Elimination: process used to solve linear systems using matrix row operations
● Gauss-Jordan Elimination: reduced row-echelon form, the process for a matrix with 1s
down the main diagonal and 0s in every position above and below each 1 is found

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
● Matrix Addition and Subtraction: matrices of the same order are added or subtracted
by adding or subtracting.
○ Properties of Matrix Addition
■ 1) A+B = B+A
■ 2) ( A+B) + C = A + (B+C)
■ 3) A+0 = 0+A =A
■ 4) A + (-A) = (-A) + A = 0
● Scalar Multiplication: product of a real number and
a matrix
○ Properties of Scalar Multiplication
■ (cd)A = c(dA)
■ 1A=A
■ c(A+B) = cA+cB
■ (c+d)A = cA+dA
○ Properties of Matrix Multiplication
■ (AB)C= A(BC)
■ A(B+C)= AB+ AC
■ (A+B) C = AC + BC
■ c(AB) = (cA) B
● Finding Multiplicative Inverses for Invertible Matrices

● Finding the Determinant of a 2x2 Matrix

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
● Cramer’s Rule: method of using determinants to solve the linear equation

❖ Additional Topics in Trigonometry

● Law of Sines
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
○ = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶

○ Ambiguous Case: given information may result in one triangle, two triangles, or
no triangle at all
● Law of Cosine
○ 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴
○ 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵
○ 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
● Polar Coordinates: (𝑟, 𝜃)
● Rectangular Coordinates: (x,y)
● Multiple Representations of Points in the Coordinate System
○ If 𝑛is any integer, the point (𝑟, 𝜃)can be represented as (𝑟, 𝜃) = (𝑟, 𝜃 +
2𝑛𝜋) 𝑜𝑟 (𝑟, 𝜃) = (−𝑟, 𝜃 + 𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋)
● Relations between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates

○ 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
○ 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
○ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
𝑦
○ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥

● Converting a Point from Rect. to Polar Coordinates (𝑟 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋

○ 1) Plot the point (x,y)
○ 2) Find r by computing the distance from the origin to (x,y): 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
○ 3) Find 𝜃using tan 𝜃 = 𝑥with the terminal side passing through (x,y)
● Absolute Value of a Complex Number
○ Absolute value 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is |𝑧| = |𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
● Polar Form of a Complex Number
○ The complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖is written in polar form as 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 +
𝑏
𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃), where 𝑎 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑏 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, 𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ,and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑎.

■ Modulus: value of r
■ Argument: value of 𝜃
● Product of Two Complex Numbers in Polar Forms

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
 ○ Let 𝑧1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ), the product would be
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )].
■ To multiply 2 complex #s, multiply the moduli and add arguments.
● Quotient of Two Complex Numbers in Polar Form
○ Let 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ), the quotient would
𝑧
be 𝑧1.
2

● DeMoivre’s Theorem: formula for the nth power and multiplying the argument by n
○ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) be a complex number in polar form. If 𝑛is a positive
integer, then 𝑧to the nth power, 𝑧 𝑛 is 𝑧 𝑛 = [𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)]𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 +
𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃).
● Using DeMoivre’s Theorem for Finding Complex Roots

● Vectors: quantities that involve both a magnitude and a direction (usually denoted with
v)
● Scalars: quantities that involve magnitude, but no direction
● i and j Unit Vectors
○ i - direction is along the positive x-axis
○ j - direction is along the positive y-axis
● Adding and Subtracting Vectors in Terms of i and j
○ If 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑏1 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 = 𝑎2 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 + 𝑤 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )𝑖 + (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 )𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 −
𝑤 = (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )𝑖 + (𝑏1 − 𝑏2 )𝑗
● Scalar (k) Multiplication with a Vector in Terms of i and j
○ 𝑘𝑣 = (𝑘𝑎)𝑖 + (𝑘𝑏) 𝑗
● Properties of Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication
○ Vector Addition Properties
■ 𝑢+𝑣 =𝑣+𝑢
■ (𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤)

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 ■ 𝑢+0 =0+𝑢 = 𝑢
■ 𝑢 + (−𝑢) = (−𝑢) + 𝑢 = 0
○ Scalar Multiplication Properties
■ (𝑐𝑑)𝑢 = 𝑐(𝑑𝑢)
■ 𝑐(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑐𝑢 + 𝑐𝑣
■ (𝑐 + 𝑑)𝑢 = 𝑐𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢
■ 1𝑢 = 𝑢
■ 0𝑢 = 𝑢
■ ||𝑐𝑣|| = |𝑐|||𝑣||
● The Dot Product: is defined as 𝑣 ∙ 𝑤 = 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2
● Properties of the Dot Product
○ If 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤are vectors, and c is a scalar then,
■ 𝑢∙𝑣 =𝑣∙𝑢
■ 𝑢 ∙ (𝑣 + 𝑤) = 𝑢 ∙ 𝑣 + 𝑢 ∙ 𝑤
■ 0∙𝑣 =0
2
■ 𝑣 ∙ 𝑣 = ||𝑣||
■ (𝑐𝑢) ∙ 𝑣 = 𝑐(𝑢 ∙ 𝑣) = 𝑢 ∙ (𝑐𝑣)
● Alt. Formula for The Dot Product
○ 𝑣 ∙ 𝑤 = ||𝑣||||𝑤||𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
● Vector Projection of v Onto w
𝑣∙𝑤
○ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑤 𝑣 = 𝑤
||𝑤|| 2

***NOTE: We do not claim ownership of any images used in this study guide. Some
definitions, examples, and pictures were used from the following sources:
● Blitzer Precalculus (Third Edition)
● Onlinemathlearning.com
● Basicmathematics.com

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org
● Tes Tech
● Lumen Learning
● Technology UK
● Michael Van Biezen
● Mathwords

From https://simplestudies.edublogs.org