EGS 2416 GEODESY II [45 Hours]

Lecture 2 notes

By Daniel Nyangweso

Course Description
Co-ordinate transformations. Positioning in 3-D on the ellipsoid: Reductions of
observations onto the reference ellipsoid. Geoid heights. Normal sections and geodesics.
Angular and linear differences between normal sections. Laplace equation: Spherical and
ellipsoidal triangles. Computation of geodetic positions. Direct and inverse geodetic problem.
Solution. Implementation in MATLAB and FORTRAN. Applications. The Earth’s gravity field
and its potential: Fundamentals of gravitation and potential. Level surfaces and plumblines.
Gravity field of the Earth, normal gravity field, anomalous gravity field. Geodetic Reference
Systems (GRS). Overview of boundary value problems. The geodetic boundary value problem:
Formation, solution, Laplace’s equation of potential theory, Stoke’s formula. Acquisition of
gravity data: Measurements, reductions, interpolation. Modern methods for gravity data
determination. Fundamentals of geoid determination: Methods; astro-geodetic, gravimetric,
satellite only, satellite altimetry, combined methods. Applications of the geoid. Height systems:
Height datums; geopotential numbers; orthometric; dynamic and normal height systems. Geo-
magnetism: Geomagnetic elements, main dipole field, magnetic, measurements, secular variation,
reversals of the field.

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Co-ordinate transformations.

Positioning in 3-D on the ellipsoid: Reductions of observations onto the reference ellipsoid.

Geoid heights.

Normal sections and geodesics.

Angular and linear differences between normal sections. Laplace equation: Spherical and
ellipsoidal triangles.

Computation of geodetic positions. Direct and inverse geodetic problem.

Solution.

Implementation in MATLAB and FORTRAN. Applications.

The Earth’s gravity field and its potential: Fundamentals of gravitation and potential.

Level surfaces and plumblines.

Gravity field of the Earth, normal gravity field, anomalous gravity field.

Geodetic Reference Systems (GRS).

Established by triangulation, these national surveys provided control points for mapping, which
remain the basis for many national geodetic reference systems today (TORGE 1997). Geodetic
reference systems provide numerical values for the parameters of a geodetic earth model.
The systems are recommended by the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
(IUGG) and represent the best parameter values for a designated epoch. The systems
generally serve as a standard over a long time span for geodesy and related disciplines such
as astronomy, cartography, geophysics, engineering, and navigation. Actual best values are
determined at shorter time intervals and published by the International Association of
Geodesy, All reference systems are supposed to be geocentric, with the Z-axes coinciding
with the earth's axis of rotation and the direction of the A"-axis pointing to the Greenwich
meridian. While the earlier reference systems may have large deviations from the geocentric
system, recent reference systems agree at the "cm"-order. The orientation of geodetic
systems with respect to the earth is described by the "Geodetic Datum".
Geodetic reference systems based on the theory of the level ellipsoid were first
introduced in 1924/1930. At the IUGG General Assembly in Madrid 1924, Hayford's
ellipsoid was introduced as the International Ellipsoid, with the parameters
a = 6378388m, / = 1/297.0. (4.75a)

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The General Assembly in Stockholm (1930) adopted the gravity formula established by G.
Cassinis for Hayford's ellipsoid:
Y0 =9.780 49(1 + 0.005 2884sin>-0.000 0059sin2 2φ) ms'2. (4.75b)
This corresponds to the normal gravity formula (4.57), assuming a level
ellipsoid. The geometric parameters a and/were calculated by J. F. Hayford (1909) from
astrogeodetic observations in the U.S.A. W. A. Heiskanen (1928) determined the equatorial
gravity from an adjustment of isostatically reduced gravity values. The international
reference system of 1924/1930 is thus defined by the four parameters a,f,ya ,ca. The
corresponding ellipsoid has been applied in numerous geodetic surveys; also, the normal
gravity formula has found broad acceptance.
At the General Assembly of the IUGG in Luzern (1967), the 1924/1930 reference system
was replaced by the Geodetic Reference System 1967 (GRS67), see IAG (1971). It was
defined by the following parameters:
α = 6 378160m, GM = 398603xl09mV, J2 =1082.7x10^. (4.76a)
The angular velocity of the earth's rotation
ɷ = 7.2921151467xlO-5rads-1, not mentioned in the IUGG resolution, was adopted as the
fourth parameter.
The reference ellipsoid corresponding to this definition was declared a level
ellipsoid.

The calculation of the semi major axis was based on astrogeodetic observations collected
over the entire earth, which were transformed into a uniform system by the inclusion of
gravimetric data.
Observations of space probes yielded the geocentric gravitational constant, which includes
the mass of the atmosphere. The dynamic form factor was derived from the orbit
perturbations of artificial satellites, and the angular velocity was adopted from astronomy.
The GRS67 has been used especially for scientific problems and for a number of recently
established geodetic networks.
At the IUGG General Assembly in Canberra (1979), the Geodetic Reference
System 1980 (GRSSO^) was introduced. It is also based on the theory of the
geocentric equipotential ellipsoid, with the defining constants (MORITZ 2000):

a = 6378137 m equatorial radius of the earth

GM = 398 600.5x10 m s" geocentric gravitational constant of the earth (including the
atmosphere) J2 = 1082.63 x 10"6 dynamical form factor of the earth, (4.77a)

(excluding the permanent tidal deformation)

ω = 7.292 115 χ 10"5 rad s"1 angular velocity of the earth.
With Mm = 0.88x 10"*M, we have GM^ =0.35xl09mV.
The system is consistent with the 1976 IAU system of astronomical constants,

With respect to the orientation, it is stated that the minor axis of the reference ellipsoid be
parallel to the direction defined by the Conventional International Origin and that the
primary meridian be parallel to the zero meridian of the BIH adopted longitudes.

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The equatorial radius has been derived from laser distance measurements to satellites, satellite
altimetry, and Doppler positioning, with an uncertainty of ±0.5 m. The calculation of the
geocentric gravitational constant was based on space probes and lunar and satellite laser data
(±0.1xlO~9), while the value for the dynamic form factor was taken from global gravity models
(±5χ1(Τ).
Numerical values for derived parameters include (MORITZ 2000):
geometric constants.

b = 6 356752.3141 m semiminor axis

ε = 521 854.0097 m linear eccentricity
c = 6 399 593.6259 m
e2 = 0.006 694 380 022 90
e'2 = 0.006 739 496 775 48
1.003352810681 18
= 298.257 222 101
G = 10 001 965.7293 m
/ = (Κ
1/f = 29
(4.3)
polar radius of curvature (4.16)
first eccentricity (e) (4.1b)
second eccentricity (eO (4.1c)
flattening (4. la)
reciprocal flattening
meridian quadrant (4.21a)
(4.77b) physical constants, cf. [4.2.2]:
U0 = 62 636 860.850 m2 s'2
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J4 = -0.00000237091222
J6= 0.00000000608347
Jt = -0.00000000001427
m = 0.003 449 786 003 08
ya= 9.7803267715ms·2
Yb= 9.8321863685ms'2
= 0.005302440112
k= 0.001931 851353
normal potential at ellipsoid (4.40)
spherical harmonic coefficient (4.45)
spherical harmonic coefficient (4.45)
spherical harmonic coefficient (4.45)
(4.50)
normal gravity at equator (4.41)
normal gravity at pole (4.41)
(4.44)
(4.41b)
(4.77c)
Normal gravity can be computed by the closed formula (4.41) or the series
expansion
r0=r l+ 0.005 279 0414sin> +0.000 023 2718sin>
+ 0.000 0001262 sin> +0.000 000 0007 sin>
, (4.78a)
which is accurate to 10 3μηΐ5 2. The conventional series (4.57) has an accuracy
of only Ιμιη "2 : γ0 = 9.780327(1 + 0.005 3024sin>-0.0000058sin22p) ms"2. (4.78b)
Inserting the values for the GRS80 into (4.63) yields the change of normal
gravity with height: -4.3x10 (4.79) with h in km. A development accurate to lOnms"2 for
heights up to 10 km is given by WENZEL (1989).
According to the definition of GM, γ0 refers to the total mass of the earth including the
atmosphere. If normal gravity values are required on the ellipsoid, or within the range of
the atmosphere, the effect of the air masses above the calculation point must be
subtracted from γ0.

Overview of boundary value problems

The Problem of Geodesy

Based on the concept of geodesy defined previously; the problem of geodesy may be
described as follows:
"The problem of geodesy is to determine the figure and external gravity field of the earth and of
other celestial bodies as a function of time, from observations on and exterior to the surfaces of
these bodies."
This geodetic boundary-value problem incorporates a geometric (figure of the earth) and a
physical (gravity field) formulation; both are closely related.

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By the figure of the earth we mean the physical and the mathematical surface of the earth as well
as a geodetic reference earth, e.g., MORITZ (1990).
The physical surface of the earth is the border between the solid or fluid masses and the
atmosphere. The ocean floor is included in this formulation, being the bounding surface between
the solid terrestrial body and the oceanic water masses.
The irregular surface of the solid earth (continental and ocean floor topography) cannot be
represented by a simple mathematical (analytical) function. It is therefore described point wise
by the coordinates of control points. Given an adequately dense control network, the detailed
structure of this surface can be determined by interpolation of data from terrestrial topographic
and hydrographic surveying (KRAUS 1992/97, KRAUS and SCHNEIDER 1988/90, HAKE and
GRÜNREICH 1994, KAHMEN 1997). On the other hand, the ocean surfaces (70% of the earth's
surface) are easier to represent. If we neglect the effects of ocean

The geodetic boundary value problem: Formation, solution, Laplace’s equation of potential
theory, Stoke’s formula.

The geodetic boundary-value problem comprises the determination of the surface of the
earth and of its external gravity field from observations on or close to the earth's surface
(SANS and RUMMEL 1997). The surface to be determined is either the geoid (Stokes'
problem) or the physical surface of the earth (Molodenski's problem), SANS (1995).

Acquisition of gravity data: Measurements, reductions, interpolation.

Modern methods for gravity data determination.

Fundamentals of geoid determination: Methods; astro-geodetic, gravimetric, satellite only,

satellite altimetry, combined methods.

Applications of the geoid.

Height systems: Height datums; geopotential numbers; orthometric; dynamic and normal height
systems.

Geo-magnetism: Geomagnetic elements, main dipole field, magnetic, measurements, secular

variation, reversals of the field