What are Waves?

It is a way to transmit energy from one place to another.

Sound Energy is transmitted by wave motion of particles of
Medium i.e. air. Light energy is also a wave motion of
Electromagnetic Field propagating in medium or even
Vacuum. Most signals are transmitted in one or other form of
Electromagnetic Waves. It should be noted that only energy
is carried in wave motion while particles of medium oscillate
at their position. Like for a string wave, the energy is
transmitted from one end to another but particles of string
do not travel from one end to another.
 What are Waves?
On the basis of requirement of material medium for transfer
of energy in wave motion, the Waves can be divided into
Mechanical and Non Mechanical Waves. Some Waves require
material medium to propagate like sound which can’t travel
in vacuum. These are called Mechanical Waves. Non
Mechanical Waves like Light Waves do not require material
medium to propagate and can even travel in Vacuum.
 What are Waves?
On the basis of oscillation of Energy Carrying Entity like that
of air in Sound Waves or Particles of String in String Waves or
Electric & Magnetic Field in Electromagnetic Waves, the
waves can be classified into two categories viz. Longitudinal
and Transverse Waves. In Longitudinal Waves, the oscillation
of Energy Carrying Entity is along the direction of Wave
Propagation. Transverse Waves are such waves in which
oscillation of Energy Carrying Entity is Perpendicular to the
Direction of Propagation of Wave like String Waves and
Electromagnetic Waves.
 What are Waves?
For transverse waves to travel in medium, the particles are to be
disturbed perpendicular to wave motion which is possible only by
tangential forces producing shearing stress. Hence, transverse waves
can be produced in solids only like steel, string etc. However,
Longitudinal waves can be produced in both solids and fluids. The
speed of propagation of energy in waves is called velocity of wave.
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves travel in same medium with
different speeds. Also, wave speed depends on spacing of particles in
medium. Due to this, speed of sound is greatest in metals (≈ 5000
m/s) and least in Air (≈ 332 m/s). In water, speed of sound is
approximately 1500 m/s.
 Waves on String
Consider a string fixed at one end in which the free end is
oscillated to and fro once. As the end is oscillated, the
particles of string move with the oscillation. With passage of
time, the wave pulse produced near the end travels along
the string. The speed at which this disturbance travels along
the string is called Wave Velocity. If the free end is repeatedly
oscillated 3 times, we say that a wave train is produced.

Wave Pulse Wave Train/ Wave Packet

 Equation of Travelling Wave
Suppose, a string is along X-axis with one end at x = 0. This end is
oscillated along Y-axis a/c to the equation y = f(t) continuously. The
wave velocity is ‘v’ in positive x-direction i.e. disturbance produced
at x = 0 will reach x = x after time t0 = x/v. Hence if we have to find y-
coordinate of particle at x = x at time t = t, then it will be equal to y-
coordinate of particle at origin at t = t - 𝐱Τ𝐯. Hence, y(x,t) = f (t - 𝐱Τ𝐯).
It should be noted that for an equation to qualify as wave equation
𝐱
‘x’ & ‘t’ must be present in the equation in form (t - Τ𝐯).
 Equation of Travelling Wave
Hence, we can say that the equations y = A sin 𝛚(𝐭 − 𝐱Τ𝐯) ,
𝐱
𝐭−
− 𝐯
y=A𝐞 𝐓 are equations of Wave travelling in positive X-
direction. The waves represented by y = A sin 𝛚(𝐭 + 𝐱Τ𝐯) ,
𝐱
𝐭+
− 𝐯
y=A𝐞 𝐓 are travelling in negative X-direction. This form
of wave equation in which ‘x’ & ‘t’ appear in combination
(t - 𝐱Τ𝐯) represents phase of each and every particle of string
at a given time.
 Another Form of Equation of Travelling Wave
Consider a wave travelling in positive X-direction with
velocity ‘v’. If we define the shape of wave at t = 0 as y = g(x),
then at a later instant t = t, the x-coordinate x = x of string
will have y-displacement same as string having x-coordinate
‘x – vt’ at t = 0. Hence, y(x,t) = g (x – vt). From this equation
one can easily tell the shape of string at any instant ‘t’. For
wave travelling in negative X-direction, the equation will be
y(x,t) = g (x + vt).
 Equation of sine Wave travelling on String
A sine wave is created when the end of string is oscillated
according to the equation y = A sin(𝛚t). Sine wave travelling
on string can be represented by y(x,t) = A sin 𝛚(𝐭 − 𝐱Τ𝐯) .
We can find the velocity of any particle of string at any
instant by partially differentiating the function of
displacement wrt time. To find acceleration of particle, we
will have to again partially differentiate velocity wrt time.
Note that wave velocity and velocity of particle are different.
Equation of sine Wave travelling on String
 Wavelength
The minimum distance between particles of same phase is
called wavelength. It is also understood as distance between
consecutive crests or consecutive troughs and is denoted by
‘’ and has SI Unit of metre.


This equation is valid for any wave like sound or light waves.
 Angular Wave Number
The equation of sine wave travelling on a string can also be
written as y(x,t) = A sin 𝛚(𝐭 − 𝐱Τ𝐯) = A sin 𝛚𝐭 − 𝛚𝐱Τ𝐯

Hence, Angular Wave Number ‘k’ is defined as phase angle

difference between two particles separated by unit length.
 Wave Number
It is defined as number of wave pulses per unit length of
𝟏
wave and is denoted by ത (= ).

Q) A wave going in a solid
a) must be longitudinal
b) may be longitudinal
c) must be transverse
d) may be transverse
Q) A wave moving in a gas
a) must be longitudinal
b) may be longitudinal
c) must be transverse
d) may be transverse
Q) A sine wave is travelling in a medium. A particular particle
has zero displacement at a certain instant. The particle
closest to it having zero displacement is at a distance
a) λ/4 b) λ/3 c) λ/2 d) λ
Q) A sine wave is travelling in a medium. The minimum
distance between the two particles, always having same
speed, is
a) λ/4 b) λ/3 c) λ/2 d) λ.
Q) A sine wave is travelling in a medium. The minimum
distance between the two particles, always having same
velocity, is
a) λ/4 b) λ/3 c) λ/2 d) λ.
Q) The displacement of a particle of a string carrying a
travelling wave is given by
y = (3 cm) sin [2{(0.5 cm-1)x − (50 s-1)t}]
where, ‘x’ is in cm and ‘t’ is in second. Find the amplitude,
wavelength, frequency & speed of wave.
Q) Figure shows a plot of the transverse displacements of the
particles of a string at t = 0 through which a travelling wave is
passing in the positive x-direction. The wave speed is
20 cm s–1. Find
i) the amplitude, ii) the wavelength, iii) the angular wave
number and iv) the frequency of the wave.

y (mm) 2–
1–

2 4 6 8 x (cm)
 Velocity & Power of Sine Wave on String
The velocity of wave ‘v’ on string depends on Tension in
String ‘T’ and mass per unit length of string ‘μ’. The relation is
𝐓
given by v =
𝛍
Power Transmitted = 22μvA22
where, ‘A’ is amplitude and ‘’ is frequency.
It should be noted that Power is proportional to square of
Amplitude. It will be used frequently in chapters sound
waves and light waves.
Q) Two strings ‘A’ and ‘B’, made of same material, are
stretched by same tension. The radius of string ‘A’ is double
of the radius of ‘B’. A transverse wave travels on ‘A’ with
speed ‘vA’ and on ‘B’ with speed ‘vB’. The ratio vA/vB is
a) 1/2 b) 2 c) 1/4 d) 4

HW Ans : (a)
Q) A transverse wave propagates on a stretched string having
a linear mass density of 1.2 × 10–4 kg m–1. Find the tension in
the string if the equation of wave is given by
y = (0.02 m) sin[(2.0 m−1) x + (60 s−1)t]
Q) A uniform rope of length 12 m and mass 6 kg hangs
vertically from a rigid support. A block of mass 2 kg is
attached to the free end of the rope. A transverse pulse of
wavelength 0.06 m is produced at the lower end of the rope.
What is the wavelength of the pulse when it reaches the top
of the rope?
Q) The speed of a transverse wave, going on a wire having a
length 50 cm and mass 5 grams is 80 m/s. The area of cross
section of the wire is 1 mm2 and its Young modulus is
1.6 x 1011 N/m2. Find the extension of the wire over its
natural length.

HW Ans : (0.2 mm)

Q) A 200 Hz wave with amplitude 1 mm travels on a long
string of linear mass density 6 g/m kept under a tension of
60 N.
i) Find the average power transmitted across a given point
on the string.
ii) Find the total energy associated with the wave in a 2.0 m
long portion of the string.
 Interference of Waves
If two waves on a string interfere, the net displacement of a
particle can be given by Principle of Superposition of Waves.
Principle of Superposition states that when two or more
waves pass through a point, the disturbance at the point is
given by the sum of the disturbances each wave would
produce in absence of other wave(s). However, this principle
is valid only for waves with small displacements.
 Interference of Waves
Consider two wave pulses
(i) moving on a string in opposite
directions as shown in figure.
Both of them have particle’s
(ii) displacement in same plane.

(iv)

(iii) (v)
 Interference of Waves
(i) If the pulses were inverted
wrt each other initially, then
interference will take place as
shown in figures.
(ii)
(iv)

(iii) (v)
Interference of sine Waves going in Same Direction
Consider two sine waves going in X-direction viz.
y1 = A1 sin[𝛚t – kx] & y2 = A2 sin[𝛚t – kx + Φ]. The
interference of these waves will be similar to that of two
SHMs along same direction with phase difference ‘Φ’.
Hence, ynet = Anet sin[𝛚t – kx + 𝛅]

A2 sinΦ
A2

Φ
𝛅 Φ
A1 A2 cosΦ
 Reflection of Waves
When a wave pulse meets a rigid wall, it is acted upon by
forces of the wall which reflects the pulse inverted compared
to the original one. If the pulse meets a movable boundary
like for a string connected with ring constrained to move
along a line, the reflected pulse is not inverted.
 Transmission of Waves
Consider two strings connected to each
other. If a wave pulse is sent on one
string, then at the junction, a part of it
is reflected and a part of it is
transmitted. If a wave enters a region of
low wave velocity, the reflected wave is
inverted. If it enters a region of large
wave velocity, the reflected wave is not
inverted. The transmitted wave has
same frequency & is never inverted.
Q) Two wave pulses identical in shape but inverted with
respect to each other are produced at the two ends of a
stretched string. At an instant when the pulses reach the
middle, the string becomes completely straight. What
happens to the energy of the two pulses?

Ans : Energy is totally in the form

of kinetic energy of string.
Q) A wave pulse, travelling on a two-piece string, gets
partially reflected and partially transmitted at the junction.
The reflected wave is inverted in shape as compared to the
incident one. If the incident wave has wavelength λ and the
transmitted wave λ′,
a) λ′ > λ b) λ′ = λ c) λ′ < λ
d) nothing can be said about the relation of λ and λ′.
Q) Two sine waves travel in the same direction in a medium.
The amplitude of each wave is ‘A’ and the phase difference
between the two waves is 120°. The resultant amplitude will
be
a) A b) 2A c) 4A d) 𝟐A

HW Ans : (a)
Q) Two waves represented by y1 = A sin(ωt − kx) and
y2 = A cos(ωt − kx) are superposed. The resultant wave will
have an amplitude
a) A b) 𝟐A c) 2A d) 0
 Standing Waves
Suppose, one end of a string is fixed to a tuning fork and other
end to a rigid support. As the fork vibrates, wave is set up in the
string. The wave when reflected back from the rigid support gets
inverted. This inverted wave is again reflected back at fork end
with inversion in shape again. This twice reflected wave will
interfere with the freshly produced wave by fork. Under suitable
conditions, if the interference is constructive i.e. Amplitudes add
up, then the amplitude of wave increases. The amplitude will
increase in resonance and will attain a finite value in presence of
damping forces. Similar thing happens for waves travelling
towards the fork reflected by the rigid support.
 Equation of Standing Waves
If the amplitude of waves from both sides attain a resonating
value of ‘A’ we can write,
y1 = A sin[𝛚t – kx] & y2 = A sin[𝛚t + kx + Φ]
 Equation of Standing Waves
At all times one end of string will be fixed. If we let x = 0 for
fixed end, then at all times for x = 0, y must be zero.
 Equation of Standing Waves
Now, in the equation y = 2A sin(kx) cos(𝛚t), for a given ‘x’ the
value 2A sin(kx) will remain constant. Hence, the motion of
particle at that point will be SHM with amplitude 2A sin(kx). At
points where sin(kx) is zero, there will be no oscillation of string.
These points are called nodes. At points where sin(kx) is  1, the
amplitude is maximum and is ‘2A’. These points are called
antinodes. It should be noted that between two consecutive
nodes, there is always an antinode and between two
consecutive antinodes, there is always a node. All the particles
between two consecutive nodes always oscillate in same phase.
 Standing Waves on String fixed at Both Ends
If the length of string is ‘L’, then in the equation
y = 2A sin(kx) cos(𝛚t), at x = L, y = 0 at all times.


Hence, the length of string must be an integral multiple of .
𝟐
 Standing Waves on String fixed at Both Ends
 𝛑𝐱
For n = 1, L = . The equation becomes y = 2A sin( ) cos(𝛚t).
𝟐 𝐋
Since, x lies between ‘0’ to ‘L’, there is only one antinode at
x = L/2. The string vibrates as shown in figure with frequency
𝐯
0 = . This is called Fundamental Frequency & the string is
𝟐𝐋
vibrating in Fundamental A
Mode or First Harmonic.
N N
 Standing Waves on String fixed at Both Ends
𝟐𝛑𝐱
For n = 2, L = . The eqn becomes y = 2A sin( ) cos(𝛚t).
𝐋
There are two antinodes viz. x = L/4 and x = 3L/4. Also, there
is a node in between at x = L/2. The string vibrates as shown
𝟐𝐯
in figure with frequency 1 = in second harmonic. This
𝟐𝐋
frequency is also called A A
first overtone of vibration.
N N
N
 Standing Waves on String fixed at Both Ends
𝟑 n
𝟑𝛑𝐱
For n = 3, L = . The eq becomes y = 2A sin( ) cos(𝛚t).
𝟐 𝐋
There are three antinodes viz. x = L/6, x = 3L/6 & x = 5L/6.
Also, there is are two nodes in between at x = 2L/6 &
x = 4L/6. The string vibrates as shown in figure with
𝟑𝐯
frequency 2 = in third A
𝟐𝐋 A A
harmonic. This frequency
N N
is also called second N N
overtone of vibration.
 Standing Waves on String fixed at only One End
If the length of string is ‘L’, then the free end will be an
antinode. In the equation y = 2A sin(kx) cos(𝛚t), for x = L to
be an antinode, the value of sin(kL) must be ±1.
 Standing Waves on String fixed at only One End
 𝛑𝐱
For n = 0, L = . The equation becomes y = 2A sin( ) cos(𝛚t).
𝟒 𝟐𝐋
There will not be any node or antinode in the string except at
the ends. Fixed end of string is node and free end is
antinode. The strings vibrates as shown in figure with
fundamental frequency
𝐯 A
0 = in first harmonic.
𝟒𝐋
This Is called fundamental N
mode of vibration.
 Standing Waves on String fixed at only One End
𝟑 n
𝟑𝛑𝐱
For n = 1, L = . The eq becomes y = 2A sin( ) cos(𝛚t).
𝟒 𝟐𝐋
There will be an antinode at x = L/3 excluding the free end
and a node at x = 2L/3. The string vibrates with frequency
𝟑𝐯
1 = in third harmonic/first overtone. Note that only Odd
𝟒𝐋
Harmonics are possible A A
modes of vibrations or
N
allowed overtones for N
string free at one and.
 Standing Waves on String fixed at only One End
𝟓 n
𝟓𝛑𝐱
For n = 2, L = . The eq becomes y = 2A sin( ) cos(𝛚t).
𝟒 𝟐𝐋
There will be two antinodes at x = L/5 & x = 3L/5 excluding
the antinode at free end & two nodes at x = 2L/5 & x = 4L/5.
𝟓𝐯
The string vibrates with frequency 2 = in fifth harmonic.
𝟒𝐋
This frequency is also A A A
called second overtone
of vibration. N
N N
 Sonometer Wire Apparatus
This Apparatus is used to verify Law of Transverse Vibrations
of a string. There are three laws of transverse vibrations
which are as follows.
❑ Law of Length: According to this law, the fundamental
frequency is of transverse vibrations of string is inversely
proportional to length if tension and mass per unit length
of string are constant.
❑ Law of Tension: This law states that the fundamental
frequency of transverse vibrations of string is proportional
to square root of Tension given ‘L’ & ‘μ’ are constants.
 Sonometer Wire Apparatus
❑ Law of Mass: For a given length of string under a certain
tension, according to this law, the fundamental frequency
of string is inversely proportional to square root of mass
per unit length or mass of string.
These laws are used to determine length, tension and linear
mass density of Guitar and Sitar wires to produce
fundamental notes of music. Also, there are Frets or Bridges
in Guitar to tap on it so as to change the length of string and
thus produce multiple fundamental frequencies.
Q) A standing wave is produced on a string clamped at one
end and free at the other. The length of the string
a) must be an integral multiple of λ/4
b) must be an integral multiple of λ/2
c) must be an integral multiple of λ
d) may be an integral multiple of λ/2
Q) A tuning fork of frequency 480 Hz is used to vibrate a
sonometer wire having natural frequency 240 Hz. The wire
will vibrate with a frequency of
a) 240 Hz b) 480 Hz
c) 720 Hz d) will not vibrate.
Q) A tuning fork of frequency 480 Hz is used to vibrate a
sonometer wire having natural frequency 410 Hz. The wire
will
a) vibrate with a frequency of 410 Hz.
b) vibrate with a frequency of 480 Hz.
c) vibrate with a frequency of 820 Hz.
d) not vibrate.
Q) A sonometer wire of length ‘L’ vibrates in fundamental
mode when excited by a tuning fork of frequency 416 Hz. If
the length is doubled keeping other things same, the string
will
a) vibrate with a frequency of 416 Hz
b) vibrate with a frequency of 208 Hz
c) vibrate with a frequency of 832 Hz
d) stop vibrating.
Q) Mark out the correct option(s).
a) The energy of any small part of a string remains
constant in a travelling wave.
b) The energy of any small part of a string remains
constant in a standing wave.
c) The energies of all the small parts of equal length are
equal in a travelling wave.
d) The energies of all the small parts of equal length are
equal in a standing wave.
Q) A guitar string is 90 cm long and has a fundamental
frequency of 124 Hz. Where should it be pressed to produce
a fundamental frequency of 186 Hz?
Q) A sonometer wire supports a 4 kg load and vibrates in
fundamental mode with a tuning fork of frequency 416 Hz.
The length of the wire between the bridges is now doubled.
In order to maintain fundamental mode, the load should be
changed to
a) 1 kg b) 2 kg c) 8 kg d) 16 kg

HW Ans : (d)
Q) A heavy string is tied at one end to a movable support and
to a light thread at the other end as shown in figure. The
thread goes over a fixed pulley and supports a weight to
produce a tension. The lowest frequency with which the
heavy string resonates is 120 Hz. If the movable support is
pushed to the right by 10 cm so that the joint is placed on the
pulley, what will be the minimum 10 cm
frequency at which the heavy
string can resonate?
Q) A string, fixed at both ends, vibrates in a resonant mode
with a separation of 2 cm between the consecutive nodes.
For the next higher resonant frequency, this separation is
reduced to 1.6 cm. Find the length of the string.

HW Ans : (8.0 cm)

Q) A wire having a linear mass density 5 × 10−3 kg/m is
stretched between two rigid supports with a tension of
450 N. The wire resonates at a frequency of 420 Hz. The next
higher frequency at which the same wire resonates is 490 Hz.
Find the length of the wire.
Q) The equation for the vibration of a string fixed at both
ends vibrating in its third harmonic is given by
y = (0.4 cm) sin[(0.314 cm-1)x] cos[(600π s-1)t]
i) What is the frequency of vibration?
ii) What are the positions of the nodes?
iii) What is the length of the string?
iv) What is the wavelength and the speed of two travelling
waves that can interfere to give this vibration?

HW Ans : (i) 300 Hz (ii) 0, 10 cm, 20 cm, 30 cm

(iii) 30 cm (iv) 20 cm, 60 m/s
Q) The equation of a standing wave produced on a string
fixed at both ends is
y = (0.4 cm) sin[(0.314 cm-1) x] cos[(600π s-1)t].
What could be the smallest length of the string?
 Polarization of Waves
Consider Electromagnetic Waves travelling in a region. More
often it is seen that for different wave trains, the oscillations
though perpendicular to wave velocity are in different
directions. This type of wave is called unpolarized wave. In a
plane polarized wave, all oscillations are in the same plane.
By use of Polaroid, a Light Wave can be Polarized. We will
study about polarization of Light Waves in Class 12th. It
should be noted that only Transverse Waves can be
polarized. Longitudinal Waves like Sound Waves can’t be
polarized.
 Polarization of Waves
A string wave is travelling along X-axis and particles are
oscillating along Y-axis with Amplitude ‘A’. Suppose a thin
cardboard slit is placed in the path of wave such that wave
has to pass through it. If the slit is along Y-axis, the wave will
pass freely through the slit. If the slit is along Z-axis, no
oscillations will pass through slit and we can say that the
wave is completely blocked. However, if the slit is in Y-Z
plane but making an angle ‘’ with Y-axis, then a certain
amplitude ‘A cos’ will pass through the slit. We can say that
the cos2 fraction of power has transmitted through the slit.
 Polarization of Waves

Slit along Y-axis Slit along Z-axis

P0
P0 cos2 
Slit in Y-Z Plane
making ‘’ with Y-axis
 Polarization of Waves
If many wave trains are passing through the same slit, all the
oscillations after passing through the slit will be along same
axis as that of the slit and we can say that the waves are
polarized in a plane.
Q) Longitudinal waves cannot
a) have a unique wavelength
b) transmit energy
c) have a unique wave velocity
d) be polarized