momentum

4.2 radiation various

interacts, consists
light, frequency electromagnetic
other
order components,
ofElectromagnetic form
waves.
experimentally In
electromagnetic
through
ropagates Introduction 4.1 4
A The frequencies and
WAVESDDDDDDE
ELECTROMAGNETIC predicted
equations
of Maxwell's
wave ultraviolet
organisms of
carries of energy
space
through
wave increasing
that radioperpendicular
of
with f(z,0) its which
is
radiation,
called and thatverifiedwaves
a a
equation
absorption energy sense
waves, radiation
disturbance may wave.
fixed oscillateexhibits it
frequency
a
be -the to has. the and
sometimes microwaves,
small The electromagnetic general
shape imparted X-rays the
Vt Fig.a of visibleelectromagnetic is inbothgeneration its
of electromagnetic and direction wave-like
at and andclassified phase propagation.
a somewhat
called
electric
constant spectrum.
to gamma infrared
continuous decreasingperpendicular
matter ofbehavior and
f(z,t) radiant energy and existencethe
according
velocity. radiation,
variable rays. spectrum, detection
radiation.
Electromagnetic magnetic Heinrich
with
medium radiation
as isa
energy wavelength, The propagation.
it
For which window
eyes to
Z visible in to travels eof
thHertz
- each field
the that and the the of
it of
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
187
186
ELECTRODYNAMICSI Sincethe distortion ofithe string is not too great 6and ' are
mathematical representation let us consider a wave
'v' alongadvanci
a ng in
verysmall. Then,
the positive z-direction with a velocity point on the stretche AF = Ttan -tan 0)
each
is,
string as shownin the fig.a. Thatf(z,
shifts a distance vt in time t. Let waveform
t) be the displacement of
the
string at the point zat atimet. The initial displacement (at t =0)
of the string at z is given by, f(z, 0) = g(Z). Evidently the wave Z+Az
point z - vt when
the point z at time t would have been at the
0. Thus, since the wave has a fixed shape, of
AF ) dz Z+Az dz
f (z t)= f(2-v, 0) = g(2-v) 4.1 lim T lim
Az-0
Az’0 AZ Az
Eqn.4.1 represents the essence of the wave motion. f(z, t) gives
the wave variable of a propagating wave of fiXed shan
travelling in the z-direction at a speed v. Some examples are, •Fdf
. dz?
f (2, t) = Ae-te 4.2
AF
f,(z, t) = Asinb(z--v)} a
A If u is the mass per unit length of the string, the mass of the
f,(2 t) = segment,
b(z-vt) + l o e 0 0 m = uAZ
All the above functions represent waves, but the shapes are Then by Newton's law,
different, of course. 4.3
Imagine a stretched AF = ma =
f
string. It is displaced
slightly by plucking it at its Byeqns.4.2 and 4.3, we get,
centre. Consider the portion TAz= Az
AB of the string in between
Z and z + Az. Let and 9 Fig.b 44
T#
be the angles with which
the string at A and B Z+Az Z
at 4.5
respectively makes with the IT
z axis. Let T be the tension on the string. The net transverse where, y
force on the segment of the string is given by, the wave throughthe string.
ol E H is the speed of propagation of
AF = Tsin - T sin
 188 ELECTROMAGNETICWAVES 189
ELECTRODY
Eqn.4.4 is the classical wave equation. It admits all the 4.3Sinusoidal waves
functions of the form,
wave or sinusoid is a mathematical function that
The sine smooth repetitive oscillation. It occurs often in pure
f(z t)= g(z - vt)n describes a
mathematics, as well as physics, signal processing, electrical
Let, engineering and many other fields. It's most basic form as a
is,
du function of time (t)
Then, = 1
)
dz
Y() = Asin (ot t o
du
=-V occurs often in nature, including ocean waves,
This wave pattern to be
Of du soundwaves, and light waves. A cosine wave also is said
dg T
oz du dz du du "sinusoidal", because cos(x)=sin+x which is also asine
Odg ou n/2.
dz? dz oz du ds Joz
d'du²g wave with a phase-shift of
It can be shown that an advancing sine wave can be
Jf Jf Ju Of g represented by either,
=-V- =
dt du dt du du f(z,t) = Asin k(z-t)+p} 4.8a
dg \du
ot dt | du Jdt d'dug or, f(z.t) = Acos{k(z-)+ö} 4.8b

d'g where, = +8
du dz? 2
It can be shown that f(z, t)=h (z + vt)also is a Centralmaximum tf(z, 0)
solution of the
wave equation 4.4. h(z+ vt) represents a wave
advancingin A
the negative z direction. Thus the most general
by, solution is given
f(2 t) =g(z - ) +h(z+ ) 4.7
Since the wave equation is linear the linear
combinations of the
above solutions g(z -vt) and h(z+ vt) is also a solution of 4.9
the wave equation 4.4. Figure above shows the plot of the functions given by eqn.4.8 a
t= 0. A is the amplitude of the wave. The argument of the
 ELECTROMAGNETIU
AAMICS I|
function is called the phase and or p is called
the phase f(zt) = Acos{k(z-)+8} - Acos(kz-kvt+8)
constant. We can add any integral multiple of 2r to
any change of the function f(z, t). Corresponding to the withoutof
value = Acos (kz-ot+å) e 4.13

the phase is zero and f(z, t) is a

Z= vt
k maximum, calle Ifthe wave
advances in the negative z-direction (left),
'central maximum. If 8 = 0, the central maximum is
obtainofed at
Z=0 (origin) at t = 0. The distance &k is the distance f(z.t) = Acos (-kz -ott8)= Acos-(kz+ot-8)}
central maximum from the origin. Or, it is the distance
the central maximum is delayed. 'k is called the
by whithech Acos (kz+ot - 8) 4.14
wave number.
It isrelated to the wavelength by the equation, Since cosine function is even.toe
2 Central maximum
k =
e4.10 V sbecod
The time for which any point on the string undergoes one ful A
cycle is called the time period. The number of vibrations of
pointon the string per second is called the any
frequency. Period and
frequency are related as,
2
V kv 4.11
Complex notation: Using Euler's formula,
A more convenient unit used in the case of waves is the angular e = cos0 + i sin
frequency o defined as the number of radians swept out in one
second. In physics, angular frequency o (also referred to by f(z, t) = Acos(kz+ot--8) = Re Ae)
the terms angular speed, radial frequency, circular where, Re stands for the real part of the complex quantity. Thus
frequency, orbital frequency, and radian frequency) is a the wave function in the complex form is
scalar measure of rotation rate. Angular frequency (or
angular
speed) is the magnitude of the vector quantity angular velocity. f (z. t) = Aele-u) 4.15
The term angular frequency vector öis sometimes used as a The phase constant is absorbed in the complex amplitude
synonym for the vector quantity angular velocity]. Since one A = Ae" 4.16
revolution is equal to 2 radians, The actual wave function is

) = 2Ty =
2v
= ky 4.12
f(2,t) = Acos (kz+ot-8) =Re f(z t) 4.17

The advantage of using complex notation is that the exponentials

We usually write the sinusoidal wave in terms of o. are much easier to manipulate than sines and cosines.
That is,
192 ELECTROMAGNETICWAVES
ELECTRODYNAMICS | 193
Linear combinations of sinusoidal waves: The most
2. The reflected wavethrough the first string itself and is
solution of the wave equation can be expressed as general a given by,
combination of sinusoidal waves.
inear i, (z.t)= A,e for, z<0. 4.20
ie. i(2) = transmitted
4.18 3. The wave through the second
Here o is afunction of k. The k value is allowed to represented as, string which is
run th
waves goingthinrough
both positive and negative values to include
the directions. both i,(z.)= for, z>0. 4.21
4.4Boundary conditions: Reflection and Allparts of the two strings vibrate with the same
Now we see what happens when the
transmission determined by the source from
on the two strings
which the frequencyBut
wave is originated.
the waves have different
reaches a boundary. The boundary may bewavea through the string velocities vË and v2.
string is connected to another string of joint at which the ie. VË = V and v = V
different linear 4.22
may be a knot on the density It
us assume, for our same string, or it may be a fixed end. Iet
at z =0. convenience, that the boundary (knot) occurs k, 4.23
Io the string-1 there is
Incident wave f‘ waves. Therefore, superposition of incident and reflected
i(z.t) = ;for z <0 4.24

String-1, or medium-1 And, (z.t) = ; for, z > 0. 4.25

String-2, or medium-2 Since there is no break on the strings,
must be continuous everywhere on the
mathematically, f(z,t)
two strings. Let 0 is the
zero when we approach from left and 0' is
the 0 when
tReflected wave approaches from right. Then,
There are three waves in the Transmitted wave
1. The
incident wave string. They are,
through the string-1, which
F(o.) =F(°.) 4.26
represented as, is Moreover, if the knot (boundary) has negligible mass, the first
i(z) = derivative of f(z.t) must be continuous. That is,
(The bar symbol is used for, z<0. 4.19
general complex). since the wave variable is in 4.27
 ELECCTROMAGNETICWAVES
194
ELECTRODYNAMICS
If the knot has a mass there is a force on the knot and
has acceleration. In such a case the first derivative will hence A, = A, = 4.31b
continuous. not be, ¯'sing eqn.4.23,
•f
oz ozo 4.28
2
Eqns.4.26 and 4.27 are the boundary conditions. Applying A, = |A, |A
boundary conditions to eqn.4.24 and 4.25, we get, these And,
1+
A,+A = A, 4.29
k, ( = k, 4.30 4.32b
Using eqn.4.29 in 4.30, we get, V,+v,
k,(A, - = k,(A, + The real amplitudes and phases are related by,
(k,+k,)A, (k,-k,)A, A = Ape 4.31c
V,+Vi
Ag = k-k,
k,+k, 4.31a A = A,e = 2v 4.32c
Using eqn.4.31 in eqn.4.29,
If the second string is lighter than the first string (i.e. the linear
A, = A, + k,-k
k, +k, density u2 <u)so that v2 > V1. [Velocity v= L1 Then, there
2k 4.32a is nosign change in eqn.4.3lc. Thus the incident and reflected
k,+k, waves have no phase change. All the three waves, incident,
Eqn.4.31a can be written as reflected and transmitted waves have the same phase and the
corresponding amplitudes are,
k,-k, k, A= 4.31d
= k, +k,
A,
V,+V,
-+1

Ar = 2v, 4.32d
v,+v,
 ELECTROMAGNETICWAVES
196
ELECTRODYNAMICS i 197

If the second string is heavier than the first string M2 AR = tA, ; A =0 4.38
>. T
V2 < V|.
Then Thereis no transmitted wave in
completely reflected back.
this case. The incident wave
gets
A = Ae
4.5 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum
In vacuum (free space) there is no charge or current. That is.,
p=0and J = 0. In this topic we mainly study the wave
A,et) equations for E and B, their plane monochromatic solutions and
433 energy and momentum of electromagnetic waves.
A, = A,e 2V A5.1 The wave equation for E andB in vacuum
434 In vacuum p = 0and J = 0. Then the
Maxwell's equations
From eqns.4.33 and 4.34, we get, become,
&T = V.D = s,V.E =0
Egn.4.35 shows that the reflected wave in this 4.35
phase with the incident wave. But the case is out of i.e. V.E = 0
transmitted wave is in 4.39
phase with it. The phase term of the V.B = HV.H =0
written as, reflected wave can also he
i.e. V.H = 0 3
cos(-k,z-ot +ôg) =cos(-k,zot + 8, +n) 4.40
OB
= -cos(-k,zot +ð) 4.36 VxE
That is the reflected wave is 'upside à t a i t aitotooso 4.41
the reflected and down. The amplitudes of OD OE
transmitted waves are given by, dt 4.42

Ag
V,
A
Taking curl of eqn.4.41,
4.37a

Ab = 2v,
Vx(VxE) = (VxB) = dt Ho JE
A 4.37b
i.e.
If the second string is
fixed boundary, v) =0. infinitely massive or the V(VxE)-(V.V)E = -Ho à
Then, from eqn.4.31d andstring ends at a
4.32d, we gel, E =o0
'E
4.43
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAUES 199
198

Taking curlof eqn.4.42, ELECTRODYNAMICS plane

monochromatic wave solution of eqns.4.43 and 4.44 are
givenby,
Vx(VxB) = Ho(VxE)= -He, •OB
dt dt E(z. t) = E,ek-a)
4.47

B(Z. t)= B,ekz-o)

4.48
ie. Baa
V(VXB)-(V.V)B = -Hoo àr? And
complex fields.
.wbere. E, and Bo are constant
J'B
VB = HoE0 pifferentiating eqn.4.47 with respect to time we
get,
4.44 OE
Comparing eqn.4.43 or 4.44 with standard three = -ioEekz-or) = -ioE
wave equation, dimensional Jt
instead of time
V²f = Therefore, for functions of type 4.47 or 4.48
4.45 differentiation we can use the operator,
= -i) 4.49
1
we get, V = dt
V4nx10x8.85x10-12
Taking divergence of eqn. 1.63,
= 3x10 m/s
4.46 V.E = .E,ee-a)
This is same as the velocity of light c' in free space. Thus the dx dz
Maxwell's theory reveals that light is an electromagnetic wave o =i(|k).E,e(-o)
4.5.2 Monochromatic plane waves in vacuum 4.50
= ik.E
In this section we consider the plane wave solutions of
Therefore, for functions of type 4.47 or 4.48 the operator
Maxwell's equations in an infinite, isotropic, homogenous non 4.51
conducting medium without sources (i.e. p = 0 andJ = 0). A V= ik
plane wave is one whose phase is same, at the given instant, at iDA
all points in each plane perpendicular to some specified By eqn.4.39, ,V.E = 0
4.52
direction. For example if Z direction is the specified direction, i.e. ie,k.E = 0
then the electric field E must have the same phase at all points k.D, = 0 4.53
that have the same z value (i.e. any plane parallel to X-Y plane). i.e. k.E, = 0 ;Or,

Such a plane wave has no x or y dependence. Plane waves with Similarly from eqn.4.40, 4.54
same frequency are called plane monochromatic waves. The ik.B = 0
 200

i.e.
k.B, =0 :Or. ELECTRODYNAMICs
k.H, = 0
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
201

By eqn.4.41 VXE = OB 4.55 But by eqn.4.56, B'

E?

Using eqns.4.49 and 4.51 Then, u = [,E

ikxE = ioB The real part of E = E,ee-o) is given by,
i.e. kxE = OB E = E, cos
4.56
(kz-ot +8)
Or, kxE, = oB, = H,oH, Thus, u = E, cos
(kz- ot +8) 4.62
2rC 4.57 The energy flux density (energy passing
In free space, = kc
4.58
second) by the
vecto, electromagnetic field is through unit area in one
given by the Poynting's
By eqn.4.57, B, = S= ExH=
-(EXB)
4.59
B, = E, 1 -&E, cos
Or,
C
4.60
(kZ 0t +8)xùNHE,E, cos(kz- ot +8)
Similarly we can show that eqn.4.42 also gives the same
Since k.E, = 0and k.B, =0 both
results 0E cos' (kz-ot+5)
electric and
fields are perpendicular to- the propagation vector k. magnetic
electromagnetic wave is transverse. Also eqn.4.59 showsThus the
=
ie'eE, cos (kz-ot+8) =cuâ 4.63
that the That is, the energy transported by the
magnetic field is perpendicular to both propagation vector and through unit area in one second is uc. electromagnetic wave
electric field. Hence electric and magnetic Thus the
fields are
perpendicular. Thus, k, E and B (in that order) formmutually transported by the electromagnetic wave through an area energy
Ain a
aright time ðt secondsis ucAÑt
handed orthogonal set.
Electromagnetic waves not only carry energy but also carry
4.6 Energy and momentum in momentum. It can be shown that the momentum density
waves
electromagnetic (momentum per unit volume) stored by the electromagnetic
waves in free space as,
The energy density (energy per unit volume) of the 4.64
Pem =
electromagnetic field is
4.65
Ug + uM 4.61 Using eqn.4.63, Pem C
Ho
202 FLECTROMAGNETICWAVES
ELECTRODYNAMIC^ l 203

By egn.4.62, the instantaneous energy density is given by, momentum transferred by the wave over a surface of
case the
u= &,E, cos* (kz-ot +8) ina time ðt seconds is given by,
area A
SP = Average momentum densityxvolume
Then the average energy density over a complete cycle is,
= (P)Acõt 4.69
(u)=Ej cos (kz-ot +ö)dt Therefore, the radiation pressure, which is defined as the
the eilectromagnetic wvave over unit
average force exerted by
given by
area ofa surface, is
T

GoEo cos (kz-

ot+õ)dto PR absorption A
1((P)Acôt
St

2 4.66 (Pem.)c 4.70

T Using eqn.4.68 and4.67
Since fcos' (kz ot +8) dt = 2
PR absorption =
2c E,xc =,E,
2 C
4.71

Now we define the intensity of the electromagneticwave a In the case of perfect reflection the direction of the
the average power per unit area transported by the wave. Or, it is electromagnetic wave getsS reversed and hence the momentum
the average of the Poynting's vector over a complete cycle. By change is twice that of in the case of perfect absorption. Thus the
eqn.4.63,
radiation pressure in the case of perfect reflection is,
Intensity, I=(s) =Je,E; cos't(kz- wt+8)dt PR reflection = 2X PR absorption= &,E)
21
C
4.72

cE,E,2 4.67 The reason for the radiation pressure is explained as follows.
2 Suppose the electromagnetic wave advances in the positive Z
From eqn.4.65 we get the average momentum density, direction. If the electric field of the wave is in the X direction,
the magnetic field will be in the Y direction. The electric field of
the incident wave drives the electrons of the surface in the X
direction, eventually these electrons are exerted by the Lorentz
direction on all
1
4.68 force in the Z direction. The net force in the Z
Using eqn.4.66, 2c
,Ej2 charges in the surface produces the pressure.
dissipation. Hence the
During the perfect absorption by a surface, the electromagnetic During absorption there is energy is greater than that of
radiation pressure Itduring perfect reflection
wave delivers its momentum completely to the surface. In such a twice that of perfect absorption.
perfect absorption. is
 ÉLECTROMAGNETIC
204

ELECTRODYNAMICS =
4.79

4.7 Propagation of electromagnetic waves in

media with no Sources linear V=
- 1
n
4.80
In a source free medium there are no free charges weget,
currents. That is p =0 and J = 0. Then the Maxwell's and
become, equations 1 = 3x10 m/s
V.D = 0 where,
C
4.73
V.B = 0
4.74 4.81
OB n =
V×E = and, VVHo&o
dt 4.75 material is non-
index of the medium. If the
VxB =
•D
isthe refractive
magnetic, H,=1. Hence,
dt 4.76 4.82
ns
In homogeneous linear medium, also
the relative permittivity of the medium. It is
D = eE = 8,8,E where, &, is K
medium and some authors use
the
called dielectric constant of Since [, is greater than 1,
B= H= H the dielectric constant.
to represent
through matter than vacuum.
Taking curl of eqn.4.75, light travels more slowly get all the
replacing £o ’ , lo ’ land c ’ v we
By
the previous section.
equations that are obtained in
Vx(VXE) = XB) 4.83
à D Energy density u =
V(V.E)-(V.N)E =adt 4.84
Poynting vector S =
4.77 4.85
E
B- 4.86
Similarly taking curl of eqn.4.76,
=kv
4.87
d 4.78
V'B = uE I= (S) =2
ot Intensity
Comparing eqns.4.77 and 4.78 with standard wave equation,
 206
AECTROMAGNETICwWAVES
207
4.8 ELECTRODYNAMICS L
Polarization
The
of
electromagnetic waves We havemedium
homogeneous
already seen that, for a linear,
non-conducting,
the plane wave solutions of the form,
waves that travel down a
longitudinal. In the case of string may be E,ek-an)
the particles of the string transverse waves the transverse . E(z,t)= 4.93
is
propagation of the wave, whereasperpendicular displacement
to the direction
of
is along the direction offor longitudinal waves the
ot B(z, t) = LkxE =kxE =usk xE
displacement
through air are longitudinal waves andpropagation. Soundwave
as we will see later, are transverse. electromagnetic waves H(z. t)= kx E,e 4.94
Because the electromagnetic waves are transverse, the
electric field vector is always L, = 0 = KB, 4.95
propagation. The electric fieldperpendicular to the where,
vector can have anydirection
of have any direction
perpendicular theto direction can
Y4
any direction can be propagation vector k. The electric field in
resolved into two mutually perpendicular perpendicular k, and B, will
components, say E, and Ey if the wave advances along 7 be perpendicular to both E, E
direction. Thus there are two possible directions given
for a given propagation direction. or polarizations and k. Thus for a Incidnt|
propagation directionk, there wave
The electric field vector in any direction, k
sayâ, is given by are two possible directions or B
polarizations with.respect to
4.88 the given co-ordinate system,
(Remember the bar above the letter symbol stands for complex
quantities). This can be resolved into two components, say along for E,. (Components of E,
X and Y directions, along X and Y directions. Any E, can be resolved into two
components along X and Y directions). So in general we write,
E, = E,eu-g 4.89 4.96
E, = E, +E,0
E =E,eeg 4.90
The two unit vectors and ùnow describe the two
orthogonal
Because the electromagnetic waves are transverse the polarization directions (X and Ydirections).
polarization vector â, which defines the plane of polarization, is 4.97
perpendicular to the propagation vector k . Thus, and are, in
oscillating
â.k = 0 The two components E, and E, are
4.91 E, and E, in polar form as
The angle between the electric field and the X axis is known as general, complex. Thus we write
polarization angle. In terms of polarization angle , follows. 4.98
EJe
â= ]cose + ýsin® 4.92
, =EJe and E, =
208 209
ELECTROMAGNETICWAVES

where, E and E are the

E, respectively.
ELECTRODYNAMICS|J
amplitudes of the complex E
E
E, = 0
E, -= 1 4.105
Let Thus,
Now let us consider different
cases. 4.99 Eqn.4.105represents an ellipse in the Ex-Ey plane with the semi-
Case-1: Suppose a = 0. ie az = aj Then,
from eqn.4.93. majoraxis and semi-minor axis E.The tip of the vector
E, +E, = (E, +E, Jeka-a)
E=E,X+E,ù, traces out this ellipse in a counterclockwise
Using eqn.4.98
direction for a +- and in clockwise direction for a = - 2
E, = sE,leete-u) =E,e-tre) 2
left-handed
E, =,lee-aa) These two cases, respectively, are known as
4.100 ellipticalpolarization and right handed elliptical polarization.
The real part of eqn.4.100 is Using the technique of co-ordinate transformation, we can
E, =Eos (kz -ot +a,) show that a general value of a also corresponds to elliptic
4.101 polarization with the axis of the ellipse rotated by an angle 0.
Similarly, E = E,cos(kzot +a)o 4.102 Circular polarization: When a = (2n+1),where, n=0, 1, 2,
E, = 0
4.103 the equation for
From eqns.4.101 and 4.102,
3..and E, =E. then eqn.1.90 becomes
Ey = E, 4.104 circle. Thus the emergent light in this case is circularly
E polarized.
The eqn.4.104 describes a straight line with a slope in the
E
Ex - E, plane. Hence this situation is called Linear Polarization.
.=0 O<a<n/2
Case -2: Suppose a = t , then, d = a t* U(a)A (b) (c) (d)
o2
E, = E,| cos (kz-ot +a,)
Similarly, E, = E, cos (kz- ot +a,)
,=312
(h)
E cos kz-ot ta, F (e) )

Figures (a) & (e) inear polarization, (b), (c) & (d) left elliptic
= E sin (kz - öt +a,) polarization and (), (g) & (h) right elliptic polarization.
210 FLECTROMAGNETICWAVES 211

ELECTRODYNAMICS | direction
4.9 Reflectionand refraction at a plane representsthe incident wave polarized in any
Firstteerm Z direction and the second term
between two dielectric media: Normal interface incidence
travelling in the +ve
wave in the -ve Z direction in region-I.
representsthe reflected wave in the +ve Z
Interface medium-2there is oniy transmitted
In
Incident wave directiongiven by,
Reflected wave+ ekz-u) for z>0 4.109
Z<=0 +Transmitted waye E(r, ) = ê, E,
vectors êi, e, and ê; are the polarization vectors,
Z<0 where, the unit
Medium-l
Z>0 perpendicular to the direction of propagation, of the incident,
Medium-2 reflected and the transmitted waves respectively
and ê, is a unit
Consider two semi-infinite slabs of dielectric (non Then.
vector in the Z direction.
conducting) materials with their dielectric constants [, and & 4.110
Let the medium-1 lies in the region z s 0, and medium-2 lies in ê,.ê, =¿,ê, = 2.ê, =0
the region z > 0. We consider only the non-magnetic materials. n,o 4.111
So that, u = H2 Also, kË =
lo, Also we assume that there are no surface C C

charges or currents on the interface. We are interested in the Refractive indexes of the two non magnetic media are given by,
following physical situation. A plane electromagnetic wave
incident from left (medium-1 or z < 0) and parallel to the Zaxis 4.112a
n =
impinges on medium-2 producing a trans1mitted wave in
medium-2 (z > 0) and a reflected wave in medium-1. All the
waves must satisfy MaxXwell's equations as well as the Jeg=K, 4.112b
appropriate boundary conditions, namely, (the electric and
magnetic fields are continuous at the boundary) where, K and K2 are the dielectric constants of medium-1 and
Din = D2n, ; Bin = Bzn (for normal components) 4.106 medium-2 respectively.
The equations for incident. reflected and transmitted
E = Ex,; Hn = H¡ (for tangential components) 4.107 magnetic fields are given by,
Let Eo, E, and E be the amplitudes of the incident, B; = -(é, XE) = (e XE,) 4.113a

reflected and transmitted waves respectively. We consider only

the case of normal incidence. The electric field in medium-1 is, 4.113b

E(r, t) = Electric field of incident wave

+ Electricfield of reflected wave 4.113c
for, z<04.108
B=e,XE,) = (,xE,)
= êE,eu)+¿E, )
 ELECTROMAGNETICWAVEs 213
212
ELECTRODYNAMICcS I|
In the case of normal
no normal
incidence electric and magnetic fields have
components but only have tangential componente A= A.i + Ayi = (A.i)i+(Aj)i
(tangential to the interface). By boundary condition given by = JA||Î|cosai +|A| 11 cos(90 a)4.
eqn.4.107, Ei, = Ez. Put z=0 in eqns. 4.108 and 4.109, then unit vector
DividingbyJA, we get,
get, â = cosa i + sin a
,E, + é¿E, = ,E, 4.114 Substituting eqns.4.1 16a and 4.116b in eqn.4.114 we get,
Using eqns.4.113 we can write equations for H(r, t) similar to
eqns.4.108 and 4.109. Als0 H=M2 =Ho. ê,Eo +fcosaê, +sina (ê,xê, )}E,
In medium-1, H(r, t) = Magnetic field of incident wave
+ Magnetic field of reflected wave
fcosßê, +sinß (e,x, )}E,
Equating the coefficients of ê1, we get,
H(r, t) =B(r, t)
Eo + E, cosa = E, cosß 4.117

(e, xe,)E,ek-u) (e, xë)E, e);for z < 0 Andequating the coefficients of (ê, xê,), we get,
E,sina = E, sinß 4.118
For medium-2, H(r, t) = "( , xê, )E,e"ke-o) ;for z > 0
Substituting eqns.4.1 16a and 4.1 16b in eqn.4.115 we get,
By boundary condition given by eqn.4.107, HË = H¡. To equae
the tangential components, put z = 0in the above equations. nê, x[eE, -{oosa è, +sina(ê, xê, )}E)
Then we get, n,ê, xfcosß, +sinß ($,x, )}E;
nê, x(e,E, -é(E,) = n, (, xê, )E; 4.115
ne,X,)E, -n,cosa(ë, xé,)E,-n sinaê, x(ê,xé,)E,
Now for our convenience we resolve e, and ê> into components
n,cosp(e, xê,)E, +n,sinß , x(e,x, )E;
=

along two mutually perpendicular directions êy and (è, xê,)

Equating the coefficients of (e,xê,), andê, x(exe, ), we get,
That is, ¿ = e cosa êj + e sina (ê, x ê)
n, (E, -cos aE, )= n, cos PE, 4.119
=cosa ê +sin a(e, xê,) 4.116a

since, e( =1 -n, sin aE = n, sin ßE, 4.120

And, ê, = cosß ê +sinp(ê, xê) 4.116b Using eqn.4.118 in 4.120, we get -n = This is not possible,
since the media are different. Also we assume that E,0and
 214 ELECTROMAGNETICWAVEs

E, # 0. Then the only possibility is eqns.4.1 18

ELECTRODYNAMICS I 215

Thus polarization in
require that sina = sinß = 0.This means that and
a=ß==0 or t. 4.120
E,| nË
4 E" this case is given by,
cosa =tl and, cosß = t1. We choose n > nË and cosa = Then,
cosß = +1. Then eqns.4.117 and 4.119 become, -l and Thus there is no
Ho" phase difference
Eo - E, = E, Hy E between incident and
ie. n, Eo - n E, = n E, reflected waves when
4.121 reflection takes place
at less
Fig.a: Reflection at the surface dense
a
n Eo+ n E, =. n,E,
4.122 of aless dense medium
medium. The above
rules for
Equating the L H Ss, and rearranging, we get, phase
difference are true for all n
sound E4
E, = n,n, E or E, = n,-n E,e, 4.123 sorts of waves like
waves, seismiC waves,
4Eo"
n,+n, n,+n,
On a string.
waves Hi
E,= 2n, |E or E = 2n Ee, 4.124
quantum mechanical
Ho
n,+n, n, + n, wave function (matter
waves) etc.
The physical situation requires that the polarization of the The ratios of the HÙ E'
reflected and the transmitted waves are given by, reflected and transmitted
wave amplitudes to the Fig.b: Reflection at the surface
¿ = -êi and êz = êi 4.125
of a more dense medium
incident wave amplitude
Thus the reflected wave experiences a phase change n, when the are called Fresnel
electromagnetic wave undergoes a reflection at a more dense coefficients. They are given by,
medium. Thus,
E, 4.127
E, = E,¿ = n,-D I=
E, n+n,
n+ n,
t= E 2n, 4.128
For a reflection at a less dense medium (n, < n) we find, E n+n,
They determine the intensity of the reflected and transmitted
E, = E¿,= waves.
n+ n, area in one
We can calculate the energy flux through unit transmitted
reflected and
4.126 second (Poynting incident,
vector) of
Or, E, = E waves Over one cycle as follows,
n,+n,
 217
ELECTROMAGNETICWAVES
216
ELECTRODYNAMICS | suggests that the sum of reflectance
By eqn.4.63 we have, energy conservation
The transmittance is equal to unity, which can be easily proved
and
S = eE E'cos (ot-Kr) asfollows.
(n, -n,) 4n,n = 1 4.133
R + T = (n,+n,) (n,+ n,)
the linear superposition of
Since the circular polarization is circular
above results are valid for
wo linear polarizations, the
2Vu polarization also.
n? Alternate method:
dielectric (non
But, [ = -,then, Consider two semi-infinite slabs of
dielectric constants [ and E,.
conducting) materials with their
S 0, and medium-2 lies in
S; = e, 4.129 Let the medium-1 lies in the region z
2uc We
the region z > 0.
For non-magnetic substance, we have, consider only the non E,
n2 AE"
magnetic materials, so
S; = ê, 4.130a that, uj =M2 = Mo. Also +ê,
we assume that there H"
And the reflected flux, S, =-@, nE4.130b are no surface charges Hy E'
currents on the H
interface. We are
Transmitted flux, S, = e,' 4.130c interested in the following physical situation. A plane
electromagnetic wave incident from left (medium-1 or z < 0)
Now we define the Reflectance (Reflection coefficient) and and parallel to the Z axis impinges on medium-2 producing a
transmitted wave in medium-2 (z > 0) and a reflected wave in
the Transmittance (Transmission coeficient) respectively as, medium-1. Let the X-Y plane coincides with the interface
between the two media. The incident wave, reflected wave and
R = E (n,-n,) 4.131
the transmitted wave are polarized in the X-direction. All the
S. E, (n,+n,) Waves must satisfy Maxwell's equations as well as the
n, appropriate boundary conditions, namely, (the electric and
T = = magnetic fields are continuous at the boundary)
S,n, JE,
Din = D2n; Bln = B2n (for normal components)
n, (2n,) 4n n, 4.132
=
Eit =Ez. ; H = H (for tangential components)
(n,+ n,)
 ELECTROMAGNETICWAVES 219

ELECTRODYNAMICS|
218
Magnetic field in medium-2
is,
Let E, E, and E, be the complex amplitudes of B'(2. t) = Eetg
incident, reflected and transmitted waves the
consider only the case of normal
respectively.
incidence. Electric
magnetic fields of the incident light are given by, Applyingthe boundary condition that, Ht = H2x at z=0.
4.140
E(2t) =Eettg 4.134a
E, -E, = HYE:
1 1 4.141
B(21) =2xE)
V =,e4.134b
V Or,
media are non-magnetic. That is | = 2 = Ho.
For reflected wave, the fields are, Since the two
E(z, t) E,e'% Adding eqns.4.139 and 4.141.
4.135a
1 2, =1+2 E
B() =ixE) = n,
For transmitted wave, the fields are, 2n, 4.142
E(z t) =E,et-g 4.136a i.e.

Substituting eqn.4.142 in eqn.4.139

B(21)=(axE) = Efes 4.136b

E, +E, = n,2n,
2
E
The electric field in medium-1is, +n,
E(r, t) = Electric field of incident wave

- ea)
+ Electric field of reflected wave

+ Ee-r) for,z<0 4.137

E, = 2n1
n,+n,
4.143

The real amplitudes are related by,

Electric field in medium-2 is 4.144
E, = E,
E(r, t) = E e g for z > 0 4.138 n, +n,
Applying the boundary condition that E= E, at z = 0. 2n, 4.145
E, = E
4.139
, +E, = E, n, +n,
amplitudes
The magnetic field in medium-1 is The ratios of the reflected and transmitted wavecoefficients.
wave amplitude are called Fresnel
B(z.t)+ B(zt) = E,etalgE,e(tag e Incident
V,
They are given by.
 221
220 ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES

E,
Eo
n, -n,
n,+ n,
ELECTRODYNA4.M1IC46S 4,10Solved problems
Checkthe following
functions satisfy the wave equation.
t= EE, 2n, 1.
= Ae-bl (b) f, (z, t) =Ae
n+n, 4.147 (a) (z.t)
They determine the intensity of the reflected and •f,of,-Ae-ten 2b(z-)
waves. For non-magnetic substance, the incident flux
by,
is transmitgiveenj (a) dz
f1-2b(e-n
o'f 2Abe
S; = ê,
2u,c
E 4.148a dz
di,= Aete 2b(z-vt)v
dt
Andthe reflected flux, S, =-ê, 4.148b
Transmitted flux, S, = ê, 4.148c
Nowwe define the Reflectance (Reflection coefficient) and That is,f, (z, t) satisfies the wave equation.
the Transmmittance (Transmission coefficient) respectively as,
(b) of,2b' Aze
dz
R E (n, -n,) 4.149
S, E, (n, +n,) =-2b'Ae a)(12b2)
dz?
S, n, Ef' -bVAe -b(be'v)
T = =

S, n E
d'T, h'y'Ae(orn)
n,(2n,) 4n,n, 4.150
n, J(n,+ n,) (n,+n, 1f , ' t ,
The energy conservation suggests that the sum of reflectance equation.
That is, f, (z, t) does not satisfy the wave
and transmittance is equal to unity, which can be easily proved
as follows, 2. Show that the standing wave f (z, t)=A sin (kz)cos (kvt)
express it as the sum of
(n, -n, ) -+ 4n,n, = 1c 4.151 satisfies the wave equation and
R+ T =
waves travelling to the left and right.
(n,+ n,y (n, +n,)
 ELECTROMAGNET

222 ELECTRODYNAMICS I| Case(a):

k= C
Wave vector C

dz
= kAcos (kz)cos (kvt) n=1for air or
free space.
Since vector â = z
= -k'Asin (kz)cos (kvt) Polarization (k.r-ot)
field, E(x, t)= îE, cos
Electric
z|)-ot
- 2E,cos(*+yÝ +
Of
-kvA sin (kz)sin (kvt)
= -kv'Asin (kz)cos (kvt) cos o

1 0f
=
Magnetic field, B (x, t)
That is, f (z, t) satisfies the wave equation.
Using the relation, l@*xAE, cos ot+
sin (a +B) +sin (a-B) = 2sina cosß
Asin (kz)cos (kvt)={sin(kz+kvt)+ sin (kz-kv)} =
C

Case (b):
-sin
2 (kz +kvt)-sin
2 (kvt -kz) Unit vector in the direction
from origin to (1, 1, 1)
First term in the RHS represents a wave advancing in XÂ+ yù+ zî
the positive Z direction and second term represents a k=
Vx*+y'+z 3
wave advancing in the negative Z direction. One is the
incident wave and the other is the reflected wave. The
reflected wav undergoes a phase change also. This is the Wave vector k= eF+ù+2)
equation for astanding wave ina stretched string. in the X-Z plane. It is also
The polarization vector lies =45° with Z
3. Write down the real electric and magnetic fields for a perpendicular to k. So it makes an angle in the second
monochromatic plane wave of angular frequency o and possibilities one
and X axis. There are two
phase angle zero that is travelling (a) in the negative X quadrant and the other in the fourth quadrant. If we
direction and polarized in the Z direction and (b) from the choose the latter case, then,
origin to the point (1, 1, 1) with polarization parallel to X-Z
plane. Polarization vector â = cos 0X-sin 02 =
Angular frequency = )

Initial phase 80= itoE S

 ALECTROMAGNETICWAVES 225
224

ELECTRODYNAMICS| I
[For the former case â=-cos £ + sin 02 = A) f(zt)= Asin(k.z-ot)
(k.z-ot)
(B) f(z t)= Acos
Electric field, E(x, t) = âE, cos(k.r-ot) J2 Of(zt)= Acos (k.z- ot)+Asin (k.z -ot)
-E,cos(+j +2). (x*+yý +z2)-o (D *(2t) =[
of different materials are
strings of same diameter but
What will
E,co+y+)-a
Magnetic field, B(x, t)= -kxE
5. Two
ioined together. A wave is advancing along it.
remain constant?
(A)Frequency (B)Wavelength
(C) Velocity (D) k

E, cos oyxty+z)-o space.

6 Velocity of electromagnetic wave in free
1 (B) VHGe
(C) (D)
(A)
cv6
COS
lstytz)-ot(-i+29-) VHo

4.11 Model questions 7. Choose the correct relationship. ExB

(A) S=cuâ (B) S= ExH (C) S=
Objective type questions o
1. Radiant energy is the energy possessed by, (D)All of these
(A) Hot body (B) B-rays 8. Maxwell's relations predicted the existence of
(C) Electromagnetic waves (D) Magnetic field (A) Matter waves (B)Electromagnetic waves
(C) Both of these (D) None of these
2. Choose the equation that does not represent a wave.
(A)r(zt)=Asin b(2 vt)} (B)f(z.t)=Ae) 9. Intensity of the electromagnetic wave is
(A) the average power per unit area transported by thea
A
(C) f(2,t)= (D) f (z, t)=Ae- wave. (B) the average of the Poynting's vector over
b(z-v) +1 1 (D) All of these
complete cycle. (C) ce,Ei2
3. Time period T=......
2 l 1 10. In a source free region,
(A) 2rv (B) (C) kv (D) (B) J = 0
(A) p =0
(C) p=0 and J =0 (D) None of these
4. Pick out the most general solution of the wave equation.
 227
ELECTROMAGNETICWAVES
226

11. Velocity of electromagnetic wave in a medium is

1 1
ELECTRODYNAMICS|I 14.
Definethe intensity of the
Whatis radiationpressure?
electromagnetic wave.

(A) (B) 1 (C) 15. =Vc.

Prabsorption
16. Show that radiation pressure?
will you explain the reason for
12. Refractive index of amedium is 17. How I during perfect absorption is less
than
1 1 1 18 Why radiation preSSure
reflection?
(B) (C) : that during perfect
(A) Vhe
VH,E, (D) JH 19.Define
19. D
polarization vvector and polarization angle.
linear polarization?
13.Polarization vector defines 20.What do youmean by polarization?
(A) the plane of vibration (B) the plane of 21. What do youmean by ellipticalpolarization?
(C) the 22.What do you mean by
circular
polarization direction of propagation of wave handed and right handed
(D)None of these 23. What do you mean by left
polarization?
[1C, 2B, 3D, 4D,5A, 6A, 7D, 8B, 9D, 10C, 11A, 12D, 13Al when reflection and
24. Write down the field equations media for
Short answer type questions transmission takes place at the interface of two
normal incidence.
1. What do you mean by electromagnetic spectrum? reflection and
2. What is a wave? 25. Obtain the magnetic field equations when
3. What is a sinusoid? transmission takes place at the interface of two media for
normal incidence.
4. Show that the cosine wave also is sinusoidal. 26. What are Fresnel coefficients?
5. What do you mean by phase and phase constant?
27. Define reflectance (reflection coefficient) and transmittance
6. Define time period and frequency. What is the relationship (transmission coefficient).
between them? 28. Show that the sum of reflectance and transmittance is one.
7. Write down the most general solution of the wave equation.
8. Give the boundary conditions for a wave passes through a Short essay type questions
boundary. 1. Deduce the wave equation for E and B in vacuum.
9. In certain cases reflection causes a phase change whereas in 2. Show that the electromagnetic waves are transverse.
certain other cases it does not. Explain. 3. Show that the electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetic
10. Explain how Maxwell's theory reveals that light is waves are mutually perpendicular.
electromagnetic waves. 4. Show that the Poynting's vector S= cuz, where c is the
11.What do you mean by plane monochromatic waves? velocity and u is the energy density of the electromagnetic
wave.
12. What do you mean by energy density of the electromagnetic J. Calculate the average energy density over a complete cycle.
field?
13.What is the energy flux density of the electromagnetic fiela:
 andperpendicular. reflectance equation. about P
earthsunlight 42x10,
reflector?
and transverse lA and satisfy.] +T=l
radiation normal
Calculate
4. wave (zt)
elliptical out transmiss
find of the t)= f not by perfect R
that
forout
and and
aremutually transmission
media
(z [Ans.does theexertedatmospheric
the N/m
Confir
waves Find )f,
satisfy
linear., momentum R+T= 1. (bvt)t) hittingabout
a 4.33x10-and
incident
between
relationship
boundary
waves. are
electromagnetic {b(z-v)} f,(Z, pressure
twocoefficients. functions 8.66x10
Nm',
8.4x10-]
=uo.
reflection
by
wave
fields and
of
(bz)cos
equations.
sunlightHowof =
transmitted that u,
mean the
electromagnetic
waves.
energy,
magnetic interface
reflection the fraction
Vc =
type suitable
Essayclassical
Obtain
questions
Show
Fresnel sin
following sin is =
u,
exact
you A A waveof Whatabsorber?
[P. assumi
polarization? andthe Problems f,(z.t)=t)=
4.12
transmittance. intensitywhat
theApplying thatand thethethe the to? the
do
incident at
the (z. watt/m.
calculate Calculate
electric DiscussObtain
waves Check f, satisfy perfect amount without
What Show
(a) (c) The
228
6. 1. 2. 3. 5. 1. 2. 3.