DEPARTMEN: ICT

OPTION: IT

MODULE NAME AND CODE: INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (CCMRM601)

Credits: 5

Level/Year: 6 IT

Academic Year 2023-2024

Trainer’s Name: Erneste UWIZEYE

IPRC Ngoma, June 2024

II.PRELIMINARY PART

1. General introduction

This course aims to guide year one/level six students in IPRC Ngoma towards achieving
competence and proficiency in the theory of and practice to research. In more specific practical
aims, the present course aims to: Enable students understand what research is, Raise awareness of
the crucial value of scientific method, Introduce the concept at the heart of every research project
–the research problem- and to discuss what a researchable problem is. Evaluate literature, form a
variety of sources, pertinent to the research objectives. Identify and justify the basic components
of the research framework, relevant to the tackled research problem. Explain and justify how
researchers will collect research data. Discuss how to cite sources, using the American
Psychological Association (APA), and justify this choice. Finally, warn the common mistakes in
the field of research methodology.

2. Course description

General objective
This module aims to equip the student in the TVET related trades acquiring essential knowledge,
skills, values and attitudes in the comprehensive research methodology. The emphasis will be put
on description of research concept, development and presentation of research proposal. This
module provides the ability to conduct a research proposal.
Learning outcomes
LEARNING UNIT 1 – DESCRIBE RESEARCH CONCEPT

Learning Outcomes: 1.1 Explain research concept

1.2 Discuss approaches and types of research
1.3 Discuss qualities and criteria of good research

LEARNING UNIT 2 - DEVELOP A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Learning Outcomes: 2.1. Describe a research proposal
2.2. Review existing literature.
2.3. Formulate research title, background of the study and
problem statement
2.4. Set research objectives, questions, scope and expected
results
2.5. Identify research methods
2.6. Plan a research schedule and budge

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LEARNING UNIT 3 - PRESENT RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Learning Outcomes: 3.1. Write the main text and references of the
research proposal
3.2. Formulate preliminary pages,
executive summary and appendices of
a research proposal
3.3. Perform oral presentation of the research
proposal

Instructional methods: …………………..

Evaluation approaches (Assignment/Homework. Formative assessment, Summative assessment,
, Reassessment)

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LEARNING UNIT 1 – DESCRIBE RESEARCH CONCEPT

Learning Outcomes: 1.1 Explain research concept

1.2 Discuss approaches and types of research

1.3 Discuss qualities and criteria of good research

Learning hours: 10Hours

Learning Outcome 1.1: Explain research concept

Content:

Key terms
 Research: In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any
gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge (Martin
Shuttleworth).

- "Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data
to answer the question, and present an answer to the question (Creswell).
- "a studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at
the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light
of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws (The
Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary).

- “A careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge.”

- A “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”

- A movement from the known to the unknown; It is actually a voyage of discovery.
- Research is composed of two sylabus, a prefix re and a verb search.
- Re means again, a new, over again.
- Search means to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, to probe

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- The two words form a noun to describe a careful and systematic study in some field of
knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principals (Grinnell, 1997) - A systematic
way of asking questions (Drew, 1980).
- The scientific examination (reexamination of empirical data, collected by someone first
hand, concerning the social and psychological forces operating in a situation (Monette et
al., 1994).
- A way of going about finding answers to questions about the social world (Neuman,
1997).
- Data gathering to enable us answer questions about the social world (Bailey, 1994).
- Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for
its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison
and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic
method of finding solution to a problem is research.

The scientific definition

The strict definition of scientific research is performing a methodical study in order to

prove a hypothesis or answer a specific question. Finding a definitive answer is the
central goal of any experimental process. Research must be systematic and follow a
series of steps and a rigid standard protocol. These rules are broadly similar but may
vary slightly between the different fields of science.

Scientific research must be organized and undergo planning, including performing

literature reviews of past research and evaluating what questions need to be answered.
Any type of „real‟ research, whether scientific, economic or historical, requires some
kind of interpretation and an opinion from the researcher. This opinion is the
underlying principle, or question, that establishes the nature and type of experiment.

The scientific definition of research generally states that a variable must be

manipulated, although case studies and purely observational science do not always
comply with this norm.

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  Research methodology
Research methodology is a way of explaining how a researcher intends to carry out
their research. It is a logical, systematic plan to resolve a research problem. A
methodology details a researcher's approach to the research to ensure reliable, valid
results that address their aims and objectives.

For example, how did the researcher go about deciding:

• What data to collect (and what data to ignore)
• Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)
• How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)
• How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis methods”)

The methodology chapter should justify the design choices, by showing that the chosen
methods and techniques are the best fit for the research aims and objectives, and will
provide valid and reliable results. A good research methodology provides scientifically
sound findings, whereas a poor methodology does not.

• Purpose of research

 Development of knowledge: Research provides us with the information and

knowledge needed for problem solving and making decisions.
The key objective of researchers is to inform behavior, collect theoretical
evidence, contribute to the development of knowledge in the research field, and
ultimately help society. Researchers perform an essential role in learning new
treatments and ensuring that existing treatments are best used.

 Gaining insights: Research provide the power or act of seeing into a situation
(penetration). It is the act or result of apprehending the inner nature of things or
of seeing intuitively.

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  Testing hypothesis: Hypothesis is an idea or explanation for something that is
based on known facts but has not yet been proved. For a hypothesis to be a
genuine research hypothesis, this statement needs to have three attributes:
specificity, testability and falsifiability.

 Informing action: Action research is a form of investigation designed for use

by teachers to attempt to solve problems and improve professional practices in
their own classrooms. It involves systematic observations and data collection
which can be then used by the practitioner-researcher in reflection,
decisionmaking and the development of more effective classroom strategies.
• Research motivation
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.

 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
 Desire to be of service to society
 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits


• Significance of research: The significance of the study is a written statement that explains
why your research was needed. It's a justification of the importance of your work and impact
it has on your research field, it’s contribution to new knowledge and how others will benefit
from it. The following are some benefits of a well conducted research.
 Fountain of knowledge
 Basis for policies
 Solution to societal problems
 Promotion to logical thinking

• Challenges in research: Something that by its nature or character serves as a call to make
special effort, a demand to explain, justify, or difficulty in a undertaking that is stimulating
to one engaged in it. Below is a list of what should be the challenges while conducting a
research
 Limited funds
 Language barrier
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  Limited knowledge about research methodology
 Insufficient literature
 Limited access to the information / data.

Learning Outcome 1.2: Explain approaches and types of research

Content:

Research approaches: Research approaches are plans and the procedures for research that
span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation. The three common approaches to conducting research are quantitative,
qualitative, and mixed methods.

 Quantitative: Quantitative methodology is the dominant research framework in the

social sciences. It refers to a set of strategies, techniques and assumptions used to study
psychological, social and economic processes through the exploration of numeric
patterns. Quantitative research gathers a range of numeric data. Some of the numeric
data is intrinsically quantitative (e.g. personal income), while in other cases the numeric
structure is imposed (e.g. ‘On a scale from 1 to 10, how depressed did you feel last
week?’). The collection of quantitative information allows researchers to conduct simple
to extremely sophisticated statistical analyses that aggregate the data (e.g. averages,
percentages), show relationships among the data (e.g. ‘Students with lower grade point
averages tend to score lower on a depression scale’) or compare across aggregated data
(e.g. the USA has a higher gross domestic product than Spain). Quantitative research
includes methodologies such as questionnaires, structured observations or experiments

 Qualitative: Qualitative research relies on data obtained by the researcher from firsthand
observation, interviews, questionnaires (on which participants write descriptively), focus
groups, participant-observation, recordings made in natural settings, documents, case
studies, and artifacts. The data are generally nonnumerical. Qualitative methods include
ethnography, grounded theory, discourse analysis, and interpretative phenomenological
analysis. Qualitative research methods have been used in sociology, anthropology,

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 political science, psychology, social work, and educational research. Qualitative research
involves the collection and analysis of narratives and/or open-ended observations through
methodologies such as interviews, focus groups or ethnographies.

 Mixed: Mixed methods research combines elements of quantitative research and

qualitative research in order to answer your research question. Mixed methods can help
you gain a more complete picture than a standalone quantitative or qualitative study, as
it integrates benefits of both methods.
Mixed methods research is often used in the behavioral, health, and social sciences,
especially in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research.

Criteria of selecting a research approach.

Conducting research is often the stepping-stone when you are writing your dissertation, thesis,
or any report. Choosing the correct research methodology can determine the success and
overall quality of your report. It is hence essential to get the initial stage of your research right.
Following are crucial points to consider while selecting the research approach to follow.
 Research problem: A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or
gap in knowledge that you will aim to address in your research. You might look for
practical problems aimed at contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed at
expanding knowledge.
Bear in mind that some research will do both of these things, but usually the research
problem focuses on one or the other. The type of research problem you choose depends
on your broad topic of interest and the type of research you want to do.

 Research questions: A research question is "a question that a research project sets out
to answer". Choosing a research question is an essential element of both quantitative and
qualitative research. Investigation will require data collection and analysis, and the
methodology for this will vary widely. Good research questions seek to improve
knowledge on an important topic, and are usually narrow and specific. To form a research
question, one must determine what type of study will be conducted such as a qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed study

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  Personal experiences: Personal experience is the direct experience of an individual. The
researcher's personal experiences and insights are an important part of the inquiry and
critical to understanding the phenomenon.

 Audience: “Audience” means the people who will read your paper. Some academic
writing, such as a term paper or a thesis, is written for an instructor or a committee of
professors. More commonly, a paper is written for colleagues in your field, other people
who study some of the same things you do.
Why do Audience matter?
Knowing your audience helps you figure out what content and messages people care
about. Once you have an idea of what to say, knowing your audience also tells you the
appropriate tone and voice for your message. Research types by purpose
1. Basic research: Basic research also called pure research is theoretical type not a
practical one. Pure research is the knowledge of facts and theories to give us
satisfaction of knowledge and understanding. It discovers general principles for a
problem solution. Following are some of the features.
1. It keeps the foundation of initial study.
2. It discovers new facts.
3. It gives theoretical reports for solution.
Basic research seeks answers to fundamental questions and provides broad insights
to many different scientific fields. Basic research experiments are performed to
further scientific knowledge without an obvious or immediate benefit. The goal
of basic research is to understand the function of newly discovered molecules and
cells, strange phenomena, or little-understood processes.
Examples of basic research in science include: A research to determine the chemical
composition of organic molecules. Research to discover the components of the
human DNA.
2. Applied research: Applied research is the implementation of theoretical study upon
a problematic situation. It applies its theories and facts to know about the nature of
the problem and gives a concrete shape for the solution. This is practical work in the
field. Following are the features of such type of research.
1. It tests and verifies theories
2. It discovers new facts

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 3. It gives immediate answer to a question

3. Evaluation research: This type of research is an evaluation of some programs

working for the construction of problematic areas. It is the dankness of implemented
programmes about their effects and positive solution. There are three main types of
evaluation.
1. Concurrent evaluation-means continuous process
2. Phase or periodic evaluation-stage wise.
3. Terminal evaluation-Evaluation after the completion of the
programme.

4. Research and development: Research and development (R&D) includes activities

that companies undertake to innovate and introduce new products and services. It is
often the first stage in the development process. The goal is typically to take new
products and services to market and add to the company's bottom line. (The bottom
line is a company's net income, or the "bottom" figure on a company's income
statement. More specifically, the bottom line is a company's income after all
expenses have been deducted from revenues).
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• R&D represents the activities companies undertake to innovate and
introduce new products and services or to improve their existing
offerings.
• R&D allows a company to stay ahead of its competition by catering to
new wants or needs in the market.
• Companies in different sectors and industries conduct R&D—
pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, and technology companies generally
spend the most.
• R&D is often a broad approach to exploratory advancement, while
applied research is more geared towards researching a more narrow
scope.
• The accounting for treatment for R&D costs can materially impact a
company's income statement and balance sheet.

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 5. Action research: Action research is based on the taking of immediate action on a
happening, event or situation. The researcher is actively involved in the solution of
the problems. Second World War created many types of problems for which action
research was necessary. These problems including (flood, epidemic, earthquake, fire)
etc. features are as under.
1. It is quick service oriented
2. It is taking immediate action
3. It is sensitive to time and place

Research types by methods

 Descriptive research: It is used to obtain information concerning the current status
of the phenomena to describe “what exists” with respect to variables or conditions
in a situation. The main goal of this type of research is to describe the data and
characteristics about what is being studied.
Descriptive research is mainly done when a researcher wants to gain a better
understanding of a topic or idea. The idea behind this type of research is to study
frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations. Although this research is
highly accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a situation.
 correlation research: It is also called associational research. In this kind of
research, the relationships among two or more variables are studied without any
attempt to influence them.
 Experimental research: It’s a type of quantitative investigation in which at least
one independent variable is manipulated, other relevant variables are controlled as
much as possible, and the effect on one or more dependent variables is measured.
It involves random sampling, control group, and pre-post tests. The format of
experimental research usually includes a problem statement, hypotheses or
questions, sampling techniques, review of the literature, procedures for testing the
hypotheses, analyses, interpretation of analyses, and conclusions.
 Ethnographic: The ethnographic approach to qualitative research comes largely
from the field of anthropology (the study of human societies and cultures and their
development). The emphasis in ethnography is on studying an entire culture. It
enables the researcher to understand the culture through the interpretations,

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 experiences and perceptions and meanings given by those living within this specific
cultural context.
It is the types of research process that is based on fieldwork using a variety of
(mainly qualitative) research techniques but including engagement in the lives of
those being studied over an extended period of time.
 Case study: Is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multifaceted
understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research
design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the
social sciences.

Learning Outcome 1.3: Describe criteria and qualities of a good research

Content:
• Criteria of a good research
 Systematic: All aspects of the research process are carefully planned in advance,
and nothing is done in a casual or haphazard fashion.
 Logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and
the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research.
 Empirical: Information or facts about the world based on sensory experiences.
That is direct observation of the world, to see whether scientific theories or
speculations agree with the facts.
 Reliable: Reliability is the most important and fundamental feature in the
evaluation of any measurement instrument or tool for a good research. Reliability
concerns the faith that one can have in the data obtained from the use of an
instrument, that is, the degree to which any measuring tool controls for random
error.
 Replicable: Repeating studies numerous times to determine if the same results
will be obtained.

• Qualities of a good research

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  Purpose: Good research must have its purposes clearly and unambiguously defined.
The problem involved or the decision to be made should be sharply delineated as
clearly as possible to demonstrate the credibility of the research.

 Method: A thumb rule (a broadly accurate guide or principle, based on practice

rather than theory) for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:
Using quantitative analysis works better if you want to confirm or test something
(a theory or hypothesis) Using qualitative research works better if you wish to
understand something (concepts, thoughts, experiences)

 Ethical standard: Ethical norms serve the aims or goals of research and apply to
people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities.
Ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work,
such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many
ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and
patenting policies (A patent is a legal title that gives the holder the right to
exclude others from using a particular invention.), data sharing policies, and
confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property
interests while encouraging collaboration.
 Logical analysis: An analysis of data should be completely enough to reveal its
significance and the method of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity
and reliability of data should be checked carefully. The data should be classified
in a way that the research reaches a good conclusion. When the statistical
methods are used the probability of errors should be evaluated and the criteria of
statistical significance applied.

• Ethical consideration
 Avoiding Plagiarism: Avoid presenting someone else's work or ideas as your
own, with or without their consent, by incorporating it into your work without
full acknowledgement.
 Fraud free: avoid publishing data or conclusions that were not generated by
experiments or observations, but by invention or data manipulation.

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  Confidentiality: This refers to a condition in which the researcher knows the
identity of a research subject, but takes steps to protect that identity from being
discovered by others.
 Anonymity: It is a condition in which the identity of individual subjects is
not known to researchers. This means that either the project does not collect
identifying information of individual persons (e.g., name, address, email
address, etc.), or the project cannot link individual responses with participants'
identities.
 Avoiding bias issues: In research, bias occurs when “systematic error is
introduced into sampling or testing by selecting or encouraging one
outcome or answer over others”. Bias can occur at any phase of research,
including study design or data collection, as well as in the process of data
analysis and publication.
 Providing informed consent: Informed consent is one of the founding
principles of research ethics. Its intent is that human participants can enter
research freely (voluntarily) with full information about what it means for
them to take part, and that they give consent before they enter the research.

Learning activities:

1. Discussion on qualities of a good research

2. Discussion on criteria of good research.
3. Discussion on ethical consideration in research

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LEARNING UNIT 2 - DEVELOP A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Learning Outcomes:

2.1. Describe a research proposal

2.2. Review existing literature.

2.3. Formulate research title, background of the study and problem statement

2.4. Set research objectives, questions, scope and expected results

2.5. Identify research methods

2.6. Plan a research schedule and budget

Learning Outcome 2.1: Describe a research proposal

Content:

Research proposal concept

 Definition: A research proposal is a simply a structured, formal document that

explains what you plan to research (i.e. your research topic), why it's worth
researching (i.e. your justification), and how you plan to investigate it (i.e. your
practical approach)

 Significance: The significance of the study is basically a written statement that

explains why your research was important. It justifies why your research was needed,
the impact of your research in your field, its contribution, and how others (audience)
would benefit from it. The purpose of the research proposal: The research proposal is
your chance to explain the significance of your project to organizations who
might wish to fund or otherwise support it. Ideally, it will demonstrate the quality
and importance of your project as well as your ability to conduct the proposed
research.
 Characteristics: There are three broad sections in a research proposal: introduction,
literature review and methodology. The introduction is written in the present tense.

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 The literature review is written in the past tense. The methodology is written in the
future tense.

Components/parts of research proposal

* Preliminary Pages (Title Page, Table of Contents)

* Chapter One - The Problem and Its Scope

* Chapter Two - Review of Related Literature

* Chapter Three - Methodology

* References

* Appendices

Appendix I- Transmittal Letter

Appendix II - Informed Consent

Appendix III -Research Instrument

Appendix IV -Proposed Data Presentation through Tables/ Graphs

Appendix V -Proposed Budget

Appendix VI -Time Frame

N.B.: The length of the proposal should not exceed 30 pages including the references

Research Proposal writing guidelines

 Text formatting:

 1. A4 size, 80 gram bond paper

 2. Computer printed materials must be of good quality

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  3. Font = Times New Roman

 4. Font Size = 12

 5. Margins: 1.5 inches spacing from top, bottom, left and right sides

 6. Type with 1.5 inches spacing

 7. Double space from one heading to the next heading.

 Page setup

 Number pages consecutively in Arabic numerals starting with the first

page of the text.
 Number should appear in the center of the lower/bottom margin of the
page.
 Preliminary pages before the first page of the text should be numbered
using small Roman numerals, still at the bottom and centered.

 Use of appropriate terms.

 Use and underline (separately) scientific names. Enclose the common

name in parentheses.
 Spell out acronyms, symbols, formulas when used for the first time in
the text.

 Sentences and paragraph writing

 Avoid using contractions in the text such as isn't, don't etc, as theses/
dissertations are formal presentations.
 Never start a sentence with a figure. Spell out the figure in words.
 Delete redundancies in words/ sentences/ statements.
 Title: should not exceed 20 words; all capital letters (except for scientific
names); in bold; inverted pyramid.
 Side Headings: in bold; only the beginning letter is capitalized.
 Avoid one sentence paragraph all over the text.

 Use of caption
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 A caption is text that appears below an image. Most captions draw
attention to something in the image that is not obvious, such as its
relevance to the text. A caption may be a few words or several sentences.

 American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style

The APA referencing style is an "author-date" style, so the citation in the text
consists of the author(s) and the year of publication given wholly or partly in
round brackets. Use only the surname of the author(s) followed by a comma
and the year of publication. E.g., (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference
should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

Learning activities

Discussion on research proposal concepts

Discussion on components of research proposal

Discussion on research proposal writing guidelines

Learning Outcome 2.2: Review existing literature

Content

• Theoretical perspectives on literature review

 Definition of literature review: A literature review is both a process and a product. As
a process, it involves searching for information related to your topic, to familiarize
yourself with the relevant research and to identify issues and gaps in the research. In most
cases, you're seeking to identify the key authors and key arguments that are relevant to
your topic, not to exhaustively read everything written on the subject.
 Purpose of literature review: A literature review establishes familiarity with and
understanding of current research in a particular field before carrying out a new
investigation. Conducting a literature review should enable you to find out what research
has already been done and identify what is unknown within your topic.

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  Qualities of a good literature review
Accuracy: The concept of accuracy is defined in the published literature using
the terms completeness, comprehensiveness, correctness, precision, legibility,
readability, quantity of data, redundancy of data, clearness of data, concordance
of data, and legitimacy.
Relevance: Relevant literature means having direct bearing on the matter in hand;
pertinent.

 Characteristics of a relevant literature

1. It should be wide enough to cover or to provide enough information required

on your topic.
2. It must identify studies and models that support your topic.
3. It must be narrow enough to eliminate irrelevant information from your
research.
4. It must lay a strong foundation for your topic.

• Types of sources
 Book
 Journal articles
 Reference books
 Magazines
 Newspapers
 dissertations
 Websites
• Key components of literature review
 Conceptual framework: A conceptual framework is a representation of the relationship
you expect to see between your variables, or the characteristics or properties that you
want to study. Conceptual frameworks can be written or visual and are generally
developed based on a literature review of existing studies about
your topic. See the following example of conceptual framework

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  Theoretical review: The theoretical literature review help establish what theories
already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have
been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested.

 Empirical review: Empirical Research is research that is based on experimentation or

observation, i.e. Evidence. Such research is often conducted to answer a specific question
or to test a hypothesis (educated guess).

 Research gap: A research gap is a question or a problem that has not been answered by
any of the existing studies or research within your field. Sometimes, a research gap exists
when there is a concept or new idea that hasn't been studied at all.

• Criteria for selecting literature review

 Topic relevance: Relevance means that your research can contribute something
worthwhile. But for whom must it actually be relevant? The answer is simple: the topic
should be relevant for all of the parties that are involved in your dissertation.
You and your educational program are just the starting point.
 Questions do you need to ask in order to conduct a thorough literature review

 Have you clearly indicated the scope and purpose of the review?
 Have you included a balanced coverage of what is available?
 Have you included the most recent and relevant studies?
 Have you included enough material to show the development and limitations
in this area?
 Have you indicated the source of the literature by referencing accurately?
 Have you used mostly primary sources or appropriate secondary sources?

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• Steps for conducting literature review

1. Identification of key terms: It is important to find all the relevant keywords for the
topic to ensure the search is comprehensive by identifying: different spellings, tenses
and word variants of keywords, synonyms, related concepts.
2. Location of literature: The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your
thesis or dissertation. After the introduction, it grounds your research in a scholarly
field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology.
3. Determine inclusion/exclusion criteria
Think about relevant dates, geographies (and languages), methods, and conflicting
points of view
4. Choose databases and conduct the search

a. Conduct searches in the published literature via the identified databases

b. Check to see if this topic has been covered in other discipline's databases
c. Examine the citations of on-point articles for keywords, authors, and previous
research (via references) and cited reference searching.

5. Review your results

a. Save your search results in a citation management tool (such as Zotero,
Mendeley or EndNote)
b. De-duplicate your search results
c. Make sure that you've found the seminal pieces -- they have been cited many
times, and their work is considered foundational
d. Check with your professor or a librarian to make sure your search has been
comprehensive

6. Synthesize the information gathered

a. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of individual sources and evaluate for bias,
methodologies, and thoroughness
b. Group your results into an organizational structure that will support why your
research needs to be done, or that provides the answer to your research question
c. Develop your conclusions
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 7. Write the literature review

In a literature review, you should attempt to discuss the arguments and findings in prior
studies and then work to build on these studies as you develop your own research. You can
also highlight the connection between existing and prior literature to demonstrate how the
current study you are presenting can advance your knowledge in the field.
When performing a literature review, you should aim to summarize your discussions using a
specific aspect of the literature, such as by topic, time, methodology/design and findings. By
doing so, you should be able to establish an effective way to present the relevant literature
and demonstrate the connection between prior studies and your research.
As a researcher, you have also to:
a. Pick an organizational structure, i.e., themes, approaches, concepts,
methodologies.
i. For example: Background, Current Practices, Critics and Proponents,
Where/How this study will fit in
b. Organize your citations and focus on your research question and pertinent studies
c. Compile your bibliography

Note: The first four steps are the best points at which to contact a librarian. Your librarian
can help you determine the best databases to use for your topic, assess scope, and formulate
a search strategy.

Learning activities:

o Discussion on theoretical perspectives on literature review.

o Discussion types of sources for literature review.

o Discussion on important components of literature review.

23
 o Discussion on steps of conducting literature review. o Discussion on criteria of selecting
literature review.

o Individual work of reviewing existing literature related to own research topic

Learning Outcome 2.3: Formulate research title, background of the study and
problem statement

Content
• Key research related terms
 Research variables: A variable is any property, characteristic, number, or a quantity
that increases or decreases over time or can take on different values (as opposed to
constants, such as n, that do not vary) in different situations. These are all examples of
variables because each of these properties varies or differs from one individual to another.
Age, sex, export, income and expenses, family size, country of birth, capital
expenditure, class grades, blood pressure readings, preoperative anxiety levels, eye
color, and vehicle type.

 Research topic: Is the research question you are going to answer in your paper. The
process of finding a good research topic may seem difficult the first time. Use your
preliminary research and your personal interests to guide you as you select the topic
you will continue to research. … Once you have settled on your topic idea, you should
form a research question. Your research question states the fundamental inquiry that
your paper will answer. Here there is an example of research topic;
Topic Sentence: Dogs make wonderful pets because they help you to live longer. The
topic is “dogs make wonderful pets” and the controlling idea is “because they help you
to live longer.”

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  Research title: The title summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study. A good title
contains the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents and/or purpose
of your research paper. The title is without doubt the part of a paper that is read the
most, and it is usually read first.

 Research background: Is a brief outline of the most important studies that have been
conducted so far presented in a chronological order.

 Problem statement: A problem statement is a concise description of an issue to be

addressed or a condition to be improved upon. It identifies the gap between the current
(problem) state and desired (goal) state of a process or product. What problem is the
research attempting to address? Having a Problem Statement allows the reader to
quickly understand the purpose and intent of the research.

• Types of research variables

 Dependent variables: Researchers often manipulate or measure independent and
dependent variables in studies to test cause-and-effect relationships. The dependent
variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the independent variable.

 Independent variables: The independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent
of other variables in your study.
Example: Independent and dependent variables
You design a study to test whether changes in room temperature have an effect on math
test scores.
Your independent variable is the temperature of the room. You vary the room
temperature by making it cooler for half the participants, and warmer for the other half.

Your dependent variable is math test scores. You measure the math skills of all
participants using a standardized test and check whether they differ based on room
temperature

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  Intervening variables: Intervening variables are hypothetical internal states that are
used to explain relationships between observed variables, such independent and
dependent variables. Intervening variables are not real things. They are interpretations
of observed facts, not facts themselves. But they create the illusion of being facts.

• Research title
 Function: The title summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study. A good title
contains the fewest possible words needed to adequately describe the content and/or
purpose of your research paper. A title can be used to identify the work, to put it in
context, to convey a minimal summary of its contents, and to pique the reader's
curiosity.
 Categories
Declarative: States main findings or conclusions of the article. It tells you what it is
about. I could have given it a declarative title, one that declares that something is so,
such as ‘Declarative titles are deceptive’.
Informative: Informative research paper attempts to discover new information on a
certain topic. Data gathered on this type of study may also be used to prove or
disprove an existing concept. Students writing informative research papers should
give as much information on the issue as they can. Besides, it is very important to
gather information from different sources. Using studies of foreign scholars is
imperative, even if their works differ from statements of national scientists. It is also
useful to present opposite ideas supported by books and studies. In other words,
informative research paper should offer readers as much information on selected
topic as possible. Sure, analysis and comparison are certainly welcome in this case.
Interrogative: Interrogative titles or titles phrased as a question. The use of questions
in titles can create interest by making the reader immediately wonder what the
answer might be. It is also a concise way of presenting the research topic.
 Characteristics/attributes
A good research title should be interesting to the reader. It should reflect the tone of the
writing. It should contain important keywords that will make it easier to be located
during a keyword search. The “title” should be descriptive, direct, accurate,
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 appropriate, interesting, concise (very brief in statement or expression), precise,
unique, and should not be misleading (to lead in a wrong direction or into a mistaken
action or belief).
 Guidelines for formulation of research title
In a nutshell, your research title should accurately capture what you have to do, it should
sound interesting to the people who work on the same or a similar topic, and it should
contain the important keywords that other researchers use when looking for literature
in databases. To make the title writing process as simple as possible, 5 simple steps
have been broken down.
Step 1: Answer some key questions about your research paper
What does your paper seek to answer and what does it accomplish? Following are some
questions a researcher should ask himself and their answers to help him getting idea on
the title.

1. “What is my paper about?”

“My paper studies how program volume affects outcomes for liver transplant
patients on waiting lists.”
2. “What methods/techniques did I use to perform my study?
“It’s a case study.”
3. “What or who will be the subject of my study?”
“I will study 60 cases of liver transplant patients on a waiting list throughout
the US aged 20-50 years.”
4. “What will I search for?”
“My study will search for the correlation between waitlist volume and
prognosis of transplant procedure.”

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Step 2: Identify title keywords and phrases

One-sentence answer Title keywords/phrases

“My paper studies how program -program volume

volume affects outcomes for liver -liver transplant patients
transplant patients on waiting lists
lists.” -waiting
-outcomes

“This is a case study.” -case study

“I will study 60 cases of liver 20-50

transplant patients on a waiting list -US/age
throughout the US aged 20-50
years.” -60 cases

28
 “My study will search for the
correlation between waitlist volume -correlation between
and prognosis of transplant waitlist volume and
outcomes
procedure.”

Step 3: Title writing: use these keywords

“I will use a case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years to
assess how waiting list volume affects the outcomes of liver transplantation in patients; and
search for the correlation between increased waiting list volume and prognosis after the
transplant procedure.”

N.B: This sentence is obviously much too long for a research paper title, which is why you
will trim and polish it in the next two steps.

Step 4: Create a working research paper title

To create a working title, remove elements that make it a complete “sentence” but keep
everything that is important to what the study is about. Delete all unnecessary and
redundant words that are not central to the study or that researchers would most likely not
use in a database search.

“I will use a case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years to
assess how the waiting list volume affects the outcomes of liver transplantation in patients;
and search for the correlation between increased waiting list volume and prognosis after
transplant procedure.”

Now shift some words around for proper syntax and rephrase it a bit to shorten the length
and make it leaner and more natural. What you are left with is:

29
 A case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years to assessing
the impact of waiting list volume on outcome of transplantation and showing results of
correlation between increased waiting list volume and prognosis” (Word Count: 38)

This is getting closer to what we want in a research title, which is just the most important
information. But note that the word count for this working title is still 38 words, whereas
the average length of published journal article titles is 16 words or fewer. Therefore, we
need to eliminate some words and phrases that are not essential to this title.

Step 5: Eliminate unessential words and phrases from the research title

Since the number of patients studied and the exact outcome are not the most essential parts
of this thesis, remove these elements first:

A case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years to assessing
the impact of waiting list volume on outcome of transplantation and showing results of
correlation between increased waiting list volume and prognosis” (Word Count: 19)

In addition, the methods used in a study are not usually the most searched-for keywords in
databases and represent additional details that you may want to remove to make your title
leaner. So, what is left is:

“Assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcome and prognosis in liver transplantation
patients” (Word Count: 15)

Adding a Research Paper Subtitle

If you feel that a subtitle might be needed to give more immediate details about your
methodology or sample, you can do this by adding this information after a colon:

“: A case study of US adult patients ages 20-25”

 Considerations in selecting a research title

These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will remain motivated.

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 Interest: A research endeavor is usually time consuming, and involves hard
work and possibly unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great
interest to sustain the required motivation.

Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators
and measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.
Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of expertise for
the task you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself.

Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge,
bridges current gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to
sustain interest in the study.

• Background of the study

The background of the study provides context to the information that you are discussing in
your research thesis. Thus, the background of the study generates the reader's interest in
your research question and helps them understand why your study is important.
 Purpose: The background of the study establishes the context of the research. This
section explains why this particular research topic is important and essential to
understanding the main aspects of the study. Usually, the background justifies the
need for conducting the study and summarizes what the study aims to achieve.
 Importance: The background of the study informs the readers about the main topic
of your research project. It will help you prove or disprove your thesis. It provides
you with detailed, scholarly research on a specific area. Background information
matters because it provides a way for the writer to help the reader understand the
topic, provide relevant or historic details and to outline the pros and cons. This
information also serves to inform the reader of relevant dates or events and to
identify key people or organizations.
 Content: Typically, the background of a study includes a review of the existing
literature on the area of your research, leading up to your topic. It also includes
current information surrounding the issue, previous studies on the issue, and
relevant history on the issue. Ideally, the study should effectively set forth the
history and background information on your thesis problem.
 Tips for writing background of the study
31
 Following are tips to write a background of the study

1. Don't write a background that is too long or too short. Focus on including
all the important details but write concisely.
2. Don't be ambiguous. ...
3. Don't discuss unrelated themes. ...
4. Don't be disorganized.

• Problem statement
A problem statement is an explanation in research that describes the issue that is in need of
study. What problem is the research attempting to address? Having a Problem Statement
allows the reader to quickly understand the purpose and intent of the research.
 Sources of the research problem statement
Deduction from theories: A deduction from theory refers to inferences a
researcher makes from the generalizations of life in a society that a researcher
knows very well.
A researcher takes the deduction, places them in an empirical frame, and then,
based on a theory, they come up with a research problem and a hypothesis
that suggests some findings based on given empirical results.
The research accounts for the relationship to observe if a theory summarizes
the state of an affair.
A systematic investigation, which evaluates if the empirical information
affirms or rejects the hypothesis, comes next.
Relevant literature: To generate a research problem from relevant literature,
you first have to review research related to your area of interest.
Doing so allows you to find gaps on the topic, making it easy for you to
understand just how much understudied your area of interest is. Data collected
from relevant literature is relevant because it helps to:

 Fill existing gaps in knowledge based on specific research

 Determine if current studies can have implications on further research
on the same issue
 See if it’s possible to conduct a similar study in a different area or
apply the same in a different context
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  Determine if the methods used in previous studies can be effective in
solving future problems

Interviews: Interviews sessions can be significant sources of research

problems. The method gives you an opportunity to have formal discussions
and informal interactions with individuals who can provide useful insights
into research and make findings more relevant to future research.
Consider having discussions with experts in the field you wish to investigate.
These professionals mat be healthcare service providers, business leaders,
teachers, social workers, attorneys, and accountants to mention but a few
examples.
By interacting with these experts, you’re able to identify real-world problems
that researchers have either ignored or understudied in the academic space.
Moreover, interview sessions give you the opportunity to get some practical
knowledge that can help you to design and conduct your studies.
Observation: Sometimes observation of what is going on in our life and
environment may trigger our desire to know more, and to have concrete
knowledge of what is going on it can lead to the formulation of a hypothesis
and conducting of systematic research.

 Steps in formulation of a problem statement

Statement of the problem in a general way:
First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must
immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem.
In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the
researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey.
Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the
subject expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms,
and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms.
In case there is some directive from an organizational authority, the problem then can be stated
accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which
33
must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time the feasibility
of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the
problem.

Understanding the nature of the problem:

The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way
of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how
the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated
the problem himself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a
general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the problem
involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem
concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the environment
within which the problem is to be studied and understood.

Surveying the available literature:

All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined
before a definition of the research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be
wellconversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant
literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related
problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for
operational purposes. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself
as well as the technique that might be used.”. This would also help a researcher to know if there
are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem under
study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not follow
a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on. All this will enable a researcher to
take new strides in the field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can move up starting from the
existing premise. Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties that

34
may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings. At times
such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the present problem.
Developing the ideas through discussions:
Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be
developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his
colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich experience are in a
position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed study and their advice and
comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention
on specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to
the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general
approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.

Rephrasing the research problem:

Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once
the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment (within which the problem
has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the
available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or
operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research
problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help
in the development of working hypotheses.

 Characteristics of appropriate problem statement.

Supported by literature: Your research problem should be relevant to the
field and supported by a number of recent peer-reviewed studies in the field.
Even if you identify the problem based on the recommendation of one journal
article or dissertation, you will still need to conduct a literature search and
ensure that other researchers support the problem and need for conducting
research to further address the problem.

35
 Significant: Your research problem should have a positive impact on the field.
The impact can be practical, in the form of direct application of the results in
the field, or conceptual, where the work advances the field by filling a
knowledge gap.
Timely: Your research problem should be related to the current needs in the
field and well-suited for the present status of the issues in your field. Explore
what topics are being covered in current journals in the field. Look at calls
from relevant disciplinary organizations. Review your research center agenda
and focused topics. For example, the topics of the Research Labs at Center
for Educational and Instructional Technology Research including critical
thinking, social media and cultural competency, diversity, and Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in higher education are
representative of the current timely topics in the field of education.
Identifying a current question in the field and supporting the problem with the
recent literature can justify the problem timeliness.
Novel: Your research problem should be original and unique. It should seek to
address a gap in our knowledge or application. An exhaustive review of
literature can help you identify whether the problem has already been
addressed with your particular sample and/or context. Talking to experts in
the research area can illuminate a problem. Replication of an existing study
warrants discussion of value elsewhere, but novelty can be found in
determining if an already-resolved problem holds in a new sample and/or
context.
 Tips for writing a problem statement
Ensure the problem statement focuses on existing problem.
Outline the negative points of the current situation
Include the time frame the problem has been occurring
Try to quantify the problem with appropriate data

Learning activities:
Discussion on key terms
Discussion on identification of research variables

36
Practical exercises on formulation of research title
Practical exercises on formulation of research background of the study
Practical exercises on formulation of a research problem

Learning Outcome 2.4: Set research objectives, questions, scope and expected
results
Content:
Research objectives: Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to
accomplish.
 Importance
Research objectives are important because they: Establish the scope and depth of
your project: This helps you avoid unnecessary research. It also means that your
research methods and conclusions can easily be evaluated.
 Types
General objectives
A general objective is a statement that communicates the overall goal of a
research or study project in a single sentence. While it does need to be
specific, this type of objective is always broad and usually refers to a project
goal that would be achieved if most or all of the specific objectives were
achieved.
Specific objectives
Specific objectives state the smaller actionable goals that lead to fulfilling
the general objective. These are always more focused, with each new
specific objective building from the last to create a clear plan of action.
 Characteristics (SMART)
Specific: Be specific about your desired outcomes. Your objectives
should be clearly written and leave no room for confusion. This can help
you keep them narrow and focused.
Measurable: Making your objectives measurable is essential to
achieving them. You can create metrics to measure your progress
toward achieving your objectives.

37
 Achievable: Be sure to create objectives that you can realistically
achieve to help you avoid getting overwhelmed by unrealistic
expectations. Make sure you have the resources and budget to
accomplish your objectives.
Relevant: Make your objectives relevant to your research and your
overall goals. This can help you stay motivated and on track throughout
your research project.

Time-based: You can establish deadlines to help you keep your research
process on track. You can set a major deadline for your entire project as
well as smaller deadlines for each objective. Guidelines for stating research
objectives.

Research questions
 Definition: A research question is a specific inquiry which the research seeks
to provide a response to. It resides at the core of systematic investigation and it
helps you to clearly define a path for the research process.
 Types
Descriptive: When a study is designed primarily to describe what is
going on or what exists.
Ex: Public opinion polls that seek only to describe the proportion of
people who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature.
For instance, if we want to know what percent of the population would
vote for a Democratic or a Republican in the next presidential election,
we are simply interested in describing something.
Relational: When a study is designed to look at the relationships
between two or more variables.
Ex: A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and
females say they would vote for a Democratic or a Republican candidate
in the next presidential election is essentially studying the relationship
between gender and voting preference).

38
 Causal: When a study is designed to determine whether one or more
variables (e.g., a program or treatment variable) causes or affects one or
more outcome variables.
Ex: If we did a public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent
political advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would
essentially be studying whether the campaign (cause) changed the
proportion of voters who would vote Democratic or Republican (effect).
 Steps for developing research questions

Step 1: Pick a topic (or consider the one assigned to you).

Step 2: First, a preliminary review of related literature allows you to discover issues
that are currently being discussed by scholars and fellow researchers. This way, you
get up-to-date, relevant knowledge on your topic.
Step 3: Write a narrower/smaller topic that is related to the first.
Step 4: List some potential questions that could logically be asked in relation to the
narrow topic.
Step 5: Pick the question that you are most interested in.
Step 6: Change that question you’re interested in so that it is more focused

 Characteristics of a good research question: There is no universal set of criteria for a

good research question. Different disciplines have different priorities and requirements.
A good research question for a history paper will differ from a good research question
for a biology paper. In general, however, a good research question should be:
o Clear and focused. In other words, the question should clearly state what the
writer needs to do.
o Not too broad and not too narrow. The question should have an appropriate
scope. If the question is too broad, it will not be possible to answer it thoroughly
within the word limit. If it is too narrow you will not have enough to write about
and you will struggle to develop a strong argument (see the activity below for
examples).
o Not too easy to answer. For example, the question should require more than a
simple yes or no answer.

39
 o Not too difficult to answer. You must be able to answer the question
thoroughly within the given timeframe and word limit.
o Researchable. You must have access to a suitable amount of quality research
materials, such as academic books and refereed journal articles.
o Analytical rather than descriptive. In other words, your research question
should allow you to produce an analysis of an issue or problem rather than a
simple description of it.
 Tips in setting a good research question

o Select a specific subject for your future work o Read about the chosen
theme to understand the main issues about it o Focus on a particular
niche you want to research
o Find out a clear research problem you want to solve in the paper

When you get a specific and well-defined problem for the research, you can create your
questions more clearly.
• Research hypothesis
 Definition: A research hypothesis is a statement of expectation or prediction that will be
tested by research.
 Types of Hypothesis
Null and alternative hypotheses are used in statistical hypothesis testing.
NULL Hypothesis
The null hypothesis of a test always predicts no effect or no relationship
between variables.
Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis states your research prediction of an effect or
relationship.
 Importance of Hypothesis
It helps to provide link to the underlying theory and specific research question. It helps
in data analysis and measure the validity and reliability of the research.
 Characteristics of Hypothesis

A good Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

1.It is never formulated in the form of a question.

40
 2.It should be empirically testable, whether it is right or wrong.
3.It should be specific and precise.
4.It should specify variables between which the relationship is to be established.
5.It should describe one issue only.

 Guidelines for setting Hypothesis

Once you've written a possible hypothesis, make sure it checks the following boxes:
• It must be testable: You need a means to prove your hypothesis. If you can't test it, it's not
a hypothesis.
• It must include a dependent and independent variable: At least one independent variable
(cause) and one dependent variable (effect) must be included.
• The language must be easy to understand: Be as clear and concise as possible. Nothing
should be left to interpretation.
• It must be relevant to your research topic: You probably shouldn't be talking about cats and
dogs if your research topic is outer space. Stay relevant to your topic.

• Research scope
 Definition
The scope in research refers to the boundaries and extent of a study, defining its
specific objectives, target population, variables, methods, and limitations, which
helps researchers focus and provide a clear understanding of what will be
investigated.
 Importance
It allows researchers to define the research project's boundaries, enabling them to
focus on specific aspects of the project. This focus makes it easier to gather relevant
data and avoid unnecessary information that might complicate the study's results.
 Types of scope
Scope in time
The project's schedule based on which the project will be completed.
Scope in domain
It defines which domains users can and cannot access.
 Contents of the research scope
General purpose of the study

41
 The Purpose of the Study illustrates what the study will do, which should reflect
the statement of the problem. The purpose also discusses how you will conduct
your study and the kinds of comparisons you will make. Population and
sample size
A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. A sample
is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is
always less than the total size of the population. In research, a population doesn't
always refer to people.
Duration of the study
Duration of Study means the total number of time required to complete A
research project.
Geographical location to be covered
It describes the locations or the geographic area which is related to the measured
economic phenomenon, or the area that is covered by a survey, etc.

 Steps to define research scope.

Identification of the project needs.
Confirmation of the objectives and goal
Description of research scope.
Expectations and acceptance.
Identification of constraints.
Identification of necessary changes.
 Guidelines for writing a research scope
Consider the feasibility of your study
Do not broaden the scope
Do not narrow the scope
Define the coverage of study
Expected results of the research
 Definition of expected results

42
 It is an ideal result that the tester should get after the test case is performed. It's usually
documented together with the test case. It's usually compared with actual result, and if the
actual result differs from the expected one, the difference is documented and called a bug. 
Importance of expected results
The expected results address the desired knowledge, skills, and behavior that learners
should gain at the end of the project; in simple words they reflect the desired learning outcomes.
Their achievement is measurable and thus, they help in the project's evaluation.  Guidelines
for writing expected results

1.Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides
authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics,
methods, or results to your study.
2.Consider your research results in relation to the journal’s requirements and catalogue
your results.
3.Design figures and tables to present and illustrate your data.
4.Draft your Results section using the findings and figures you have organized.
5.Review your draft; edit and revise until it reports results exactly as you would like to
have them reported to your readers.

Learning activities
Discussion on research objectives
Practical exercise on formulation of research objectives
Discussion on research questions
Practical exercise on formulation of research questions
Discussion on research scope
Practical exercise on formulation of research scope Discussion
on research expected outcomes.
Practical exercise on research expected results

43
Learning Outcome 2.5: Describe research methods Content:
• Research methods
 Definition
Research methods are the strategies, processes or techniques utilized in the
collection of data or evidence for analysis in order to uncover new information or
create better understanding of a topic.
 Importance
It helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect
highquality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions,
utilizing credible sources. This allows you to draw valid, trustworthy conclusions. Data
collection
 Definition
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables
of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated
research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
 Importance
Data collection can help improve services, understand consumer needs, refine
business strategies, grow and retain customers, and even sell the data as
secondparty data to other businesses at a profit.
 Data types
Primary data
Primary data refers to the first hand data gathered by the researcher himself.
Secondary data
Secondary data means data collected by someone else earlier.
Types of research Instruments
 Interview
 Questionnaire
 Documentary review
 Observation
• Criteria in selection of method for data collection
 Nature, scope and object of enquiry
 Availability of funds
 Time factor
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  Precision required
• Data collection procedures
 Data collection authorization
 Informed consent
 Administration of the instrument
 Data recording
• Validity of research instrument
 Definition of validity
Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
and performs as it is designed to perform. It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an
instrument be 100% valid, so validity is generally measured in degrees.
Types of validity
Validity tells you how accurately a method measures something. If a method
measures what it claims to measure, and the results closely correspond to real-world
values, then it can be considered valid. There are four main types of validity:

1. Construct validity evaluates whether a measurement tool really represents the thing we
are interested in measuring. It’s central to establishing the overall validity of a method.
(Does the test measure the concept that it’s intended to measure?)
2. Content validity assesses whether a test is representative of all aspects of the construct. (Is
the test fully representative of what it aims to measure?)
3. Face validity considers how suitable the content of a test seems to be on the surface. It’s
similar to content validity, but face validity is a more informal and subjective assessment.
(Does the content of the test appear to be suitable to its aims?)
4. Criterion validity
Criterion validity evaluates how well a test can predict a concrete outcome, or how well
the results of your test approximate the results of another test. (Do the results accurately
measure the concrete outcome they are designed to measure?)

Factors affecting validity

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 Numerous factors affect the validity of the study. The internal validity is affected
by the size of the subject/specimen, type or variability of the subject, attrition of the
samples, maturation, time taken for evaluation, history, and instrument or
assessment sensitivity.
• Reliability of research instruments
 Definition of reliability
Reliability tells you how consistently a method measures something. When you apply
the same method to the same sample under the same conditions, you should get the
same results. If not, the method of measurement may be unreliable or bias may have
crept into your research.

 Types of Reliability
There are four main types of reliability. Each can be estimated by comparing different
sets of results produced by the same method.

 Factors affecting reliability

Reliability is affected by many factors, but from the researcher's point of view, the three
most important factors are the length (or total number of questions), the quality of the
questions, and the fit to the group being measured.
• Pilot study
Type of reliability Measures the consistency of…

The same test over time.

Test-retest
The same test conducted by different people.
Interrater
Different versions of a test which are designed to be equivalent.
Parallel forms
The individual items of a test.
Internal consistency
 Definition
A pilot study, also known as a feasibility study, is a small-scale preliminary study conducted
before the main research to check the feasibility or improve the research design. Pilot studies

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 can be very important before conducting a full-scale research project, helping design the
research methods and protocol.

 Importance
A pilot study provides necessary information not only for calculating the sample size, but also
for assessment of all other aspects of the main study, minimizing unnecessary effort from the
researchers and participants, as well as the dissipation of research resources.

 Procedures

- Sample size and selection. ...

- Determine the criteria for a successful pilot study based on the objectives of your study.
- When recruiting subjects or collecting samples ensure that the process is practical and
manageable.
- Always test the measurement instrument. - Data entry and analysis.

• Research design
 Definition
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research
methods suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies for success.
 Importance
A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims,
that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your
questions, utilizing credible sources. This allows you to draw valid, trustworthy
conclusions.
 Features

47
• Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data
you expect to collect. The results projected in the research should be free from research bias and
neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple
individuals and consider those who agree with the results.
• Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects similar results every
time. You’ll only be able to reach the desired results if your design is reliable. Your plan should
indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard of results.
• Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring
tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the
research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.
• Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized method implies that your survey can be conducted on any part
of a population with similar accuracy.
 Types
Explanatory research studies
Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject to
further explore their theories. The study explains unexplored aspects of a
subject and details the research questions’ what, how, and why.
Descriptive and diagnostic research studies
In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying
cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more
about the factors that create troublesome situations.

48
 This design has three parts of the research:
1.Inception of the issue
2.Diagnosis of the issue
3.Solution for the issue
While, in a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in
describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a theorybased
design method created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected
data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of
research. Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the
research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory
research.
Correlation designs
Correlational research is a non-experimental research technique. It helps
researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables.
There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two other
variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the relationship between
them. This type of research requires two different groups. Experimental
designs

Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and effect

of a situation. It is a causal research design where one observes the impact
caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example,
one monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a
dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is an
efficient research method as it contributes to solving a problem.

The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the
dependent variable. Social sciences often use it to observe human behavior by
analyzing two groups. Researchers can have participants change their actions
and study how the people around them react to understand social psychology
better.

49
• Sampling concepts
 Definition of Population
A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. A sample
is the specific group that you will collect data from.
 Definition of sampling
Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your
research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university,
you could survey a sample of 200 students. In statistics, sampling allows you to test a
hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
 Sample size
The sample size is defined as the number of observations used for determining the
estimations of a given population. The size of the sample has been drawn from the
population. Sampling is the process of selection of a subset of individuals from the
population to estimate the characteristics of the whole population.
 Determination of sample size
A sample size generally depends on five study design parameters: minimum expected
difference or also known as the effect size, estimated measurement variability, desired
statistical power, significance criterion, and whether a one- or two-tailed statistical analysis
is planned.
 Sample characteristics
There is no point in conducting a research study unless the sample has this characteristic.
In summary, a good sample should be truly representative of the character of the
population. It should be chosen randomly and should be proportional. In fact, these
are the attributes or properties of a good sample.
• Probabilistic sampling
Probability gives all people a chance of being selected and makes results more likely to accurately
reflect the entire population.
 Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling is a type of probability sampling in which the researcher
randomly selects a subset of participants from a population. Each member of the population
has an equal chance of being selected.
 Stratified random sampling

50
 Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a
population into smaller subgroups known as strata. In stratified random sampling, or
stratification, the strata are formed based on members' shared attributes or characteristics,
such as income or educational attainment.
 Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method where researchers select members
of the population at a regular interval – for example, by selecting every 15th person on a
list of the population. If the population is in a random order, this can imitate the benefits of
simple random sampling.
 Cluster (or area) sampling
Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method in which you divide a population into
clusters, such as districts or schools, and then randomly select some of these clusters as
your sample. The clusters should ideally each be mini-representations of the population as
a whole.

• Non-probabilistic sampling
Non-probability sampling is a method of selecting units from a population using a subjective
(i.e. non-random) method. Since non-probability sampling does not require a complete survey
frame, it is a fast, easy and inexpensive way of obtaining data.
 Purposive sampling
Purposive sampling, also known as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling, is a form
of non-probability sampling in which researchers rely on their own judgment when
choosing members of the population to participate in their surveys.
 Accidental sampling
Accidental sampling, also known as grab or opportunity sampling, is a form of
nonprobability sampling that involves taking a population sample that is close at hand, rather than
carefully determined and obtained. Factors influencing sampling
 Available funds
 Size of population
 Accessibility
Learning activities:
Discussion on defining research methods

51
Discussion on data collection
Discussion on types of research instruments
Discussion on criteria of selecting methods for data collection
Discussion on data collection procedures
Discussion on validity of research instruments for data collection
Discussion on reliability of research instruments for data collection
Discussion on pilot study
Discussion on research design
Discussion on sampling concepts
Discussion on probability sampling
Discussion on non- probability sampling
Discussion on factors influencing sampling

Learning Outcome 2.6: Plan a research schedule and budget Content:

• Research Schedule
 Definition
Work plan that provides the Commencement Date, the required Completion Date of the
Research Project, and any other specific requirements of the Research Project to be carried out.
 Activities
Schedule of Activities: (This includes a brief description in chronological order of each
activity. The starting date and planned completion date are indicated in year and month.
Milestones or targets are also clearly set.
 Gantt chart
The Gantt chart shows the timelines of the various steps of the project including their
dependencies and any resources needed. In other words, the chart depicts when an event is
supposed to take place in your project by providing an outline regarding the order in which the
various tasks need to be performed.  Importance
Outlining the research project from start to finish.
Research budget
 Definition
Research Budget means the budget for the Research Plan as agreed to by the Parties.
 Purpose

52
 A budget is a detailed statement outlining estimated project costs that support a sponsored
project. It should include all Direct Costs, as well as the calculated Facilities and
Administrative (F&A) costs required to carry out the project objectives.
 Cost for items in research budget
Personnel
Travel and accommodation
Stationeries

• Sources of research funds

 Personal funds
 Grant
 National science foundation
• Steps for developing a research budget
 List your activities
 Check the rules again
 Cost each item
 Put it in spreadsheet
 Justification
• Guidelines for planning research budget
 Reasonableness
 Allocability
 Allowability
 Consistency

53
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