The 8051 microcontroller has an 8-bit Here are five addressing modes of the i) MOV A, @R0: This instruction

: This instruction moves

data bus and a 16-bit address bus. 8051 microcontrollers: the content of the memory location
The step angle of a stepper motor Immediate Addressing Mode: pointed to by the value in register R0 into
refers to the angular distance the rotor In immediate addressing, the operand the accumulator A. It is an example of
(output shaft) of the motor moves with (data) is directly specified in the indirect addressing.
each step of the motor. instruction. For example, MOV A, #25H ii) CPL bit: CPL stands for complement,
the special function register (SFR) moves the immediate value 25H into the and this instruction complements (flips)
used to keep track of the priority of accumulator. the state of a specified bit. For example,
interrupts is often referred to as the Register Addressing Mode: CPL P1.2 complements the state of bit 2
"Interrupt Priority Register" (IPR) Register addressing involves specifying a in port 1.
In LCDs (Liquid Crystal Displays), the register as the operand. For instance, iii) DJNZ R2, Next: DJNZ stands for
contrast is often controlled using a MOV A, B moves the content of register B "Decrement and Jump if Not Zero." It
variable resistor (potentiometer) into the accumulator. decrements the value in register R2 and
connected to a specific pin called the Direct Addressing Mode: jumps to the specified label (Next) if the
"contrast" or "V0" pin. Direct addressing mode involves result is not zero.
Two commonly used assembler specifying the memory address directly. iv) RR A: RR stands for "Rotate Right
directives for the 8051 For example, MOV A, 30H moves the through Carry." This instruction rotates
microcontrollers are: 1) ORG (Origin): content of the memory location 30H into the bits in the accumulator A one position
This directive is used to specify the origin the accumulator. to the right through the carry flag.
or starting address for the code or data in Indirect Addressing Mode: v) SUBB A, B: SUBB stands for "Subtract
memory. 2) DB (Define Byte): This In indirect addressing, the address of the with Borrow." This instruction subtracts
directive is used to define one or more operand is held in a register or memory the value in register B from the
bytes of data and store them in memory. location. For instance, MOV A, @R0 accumulator A, taking into account the
"C/T" (Counter/Timer) bit in the TMOD moves the content of the memory location borrow from the previous subtraction if
(Timer Mode) register is used to select pointed to by the value in register R0 into the carry flag is set.
between Timer or Counter mode for the the accumulator. Here are five features of the 8051
associated timer (Timer 0 or Timer 1). Indexed Addressing Mode: microcontroller:
pins on the 8051 microcontrollers Indexed addressing involves specifying a Harvard Architecture:
explanation of the functions of the base address and an offset. For example, The 8051 microcontroller employs a
mentioned: MOV A, 20H+R1 moves the content of Harvard architecture, which means it has
i) ALE (Address Latch Enable): the memory location calculated by adding separate memory spaces for program
ALE is used to enable the external latch 20H and the value in register R1 into the and data. This architecture enhances the
for the address bus, allowing the accumulator. Understanding these performance and efficiency of the
microcontroller to latch the most addressing modes is crucial for effective microcontroller.
significant address byte during the 1st programming and utilization of the 8051 On-Chip RAM and ROM:
machine cycle. microcontroller's capabilities. The 8051 comes with on-chip RAM
ii) PSEN (Program Store Enable): Write 8051 C - program to generate 4 (Random Access Memory) for data
PSEN is an active-low signal that kHz square wave on port pin P1.2 storage and on-chip ROM (Read-Only
indicates the microcontroller is accessing using timer 0 in auto reload mode? Memory) for program storage. This
external program memory. When PSEN [Assume XTAL = 12 MHz] integrated memory simplifies the design
is low, it signifies a fetch operation for an #include <reg51.h> of microcontroller-based systems.
instruction from external program // Define crystal frequency Multiple I/O Ports:
memory. #define XTAL_FREQ 12000000UL The 8051 has multiple I/O ports, including
iii) EA (External Access): // Function to provide a delay P0, P1, P2, and P3. These ports can be
EA, when grounded (0), enables the void delay(unsigned int count) { configured for various input and output
microcontroller to fetch code from unsigned int i, j; operations, providing versatility in
external memory. If EA is left for (i = 0; i < count; i++) interfacing with external devices.
unconnected or tied high (Vcc), the for (j = 0; j < 1275; j++); Four Parallel I/O Ports:
microcontroller fetches code from its } The microcontroller features four parallel
internal ROM. void main() { I/O ports (P0, P1, P2, and P3), each with
iv) RESET: // Configure Timer 0 in mode 2 (auto- 8 bits. These ports can be used for
The RESET pin is used to reset the reload) interfacing with external devices, sensors,
microcontroller. When a high-to-low TMOD = 0x02; and other peripherals.
transition is detected on this pin, the // Calculate Timer 0 reload value for a Integrated Serial Communication:
microcontroller is reset, and program 4 kHz square wave The 8051 microcontroller includes a
execution starts from the beginning. // Reload Value = (65536 - UART (Universal Asynchronous
A stepper motor is a type of (XTAL_FREQ / (2 * desired_frequency))) Receiver/Transmitter) for serial
electromechanical device that converts // In this case, desired_frequency = communication. This feature facilitates
electrical pulses into precise mechanical 4000 Hz communication with other devices, such
motion. It moves in discrete steps, and TH0 = 0xFC; as sensors, displays, or communication
each step corresponds to a specific TL0 = 0x66; modules.
angular rotation. Stepper motors are // Set P1.2 as output These features make the 8051
widely used in various applications, P1 = P1 & 0xFB; microcontroller widely used in embedded
including robotics, CNC machines, 3D // Start Timer 0 systems due to its versatility, ease of use,
printers, and automation systems, due to TR0 = 1; and integrated peripherals.
their accuracy and ability to control while (1) {
position and speed effectively. They are // Toggle P1.2 to generate a square
driven by providing a sequence of wave
electrical pulses to their coils, causing P1_2 = ~P1_2;
them to step incrementally and rotate. // Provide a small delay for the
square wave frequency
delay(1);
}
}
The 8051 microcontroller has four register The TCON (Timer Control) register in
banks (Bank 0 to Bank 3), each the 8051 microcontroller plays a crucial
containing registers like ACC role in controlling the behaviour of Timer
(Accumulator), B, DPTR (Data Pointer), 0 and Timer 1. Here are three key
and other general-purpose registers. aspects of the TCON register:
These banks allow efficient context Timer 0 and Timer 1 Control: TCON is
switching during subroutine calls, divided into two parts, one for Timer 0
enabling the microcontroller to quickly (TF0, TR0, IE0, and IT0) and the other for
switch between different sets of registers Timer 1 (TF1, TR1, IE1, and IT1). These
to support multitasking and optimize control bits determine the operation,
register utilization in program execution. interrupt enable, and interrupt type for
In 8051 C programming, the common each timer.
data types include: Timer Overflow Flag (TF): The TF bit is
int: The 'int' data type is used to represent set when either Timer 0 or Timer 1
integer values. It typically occupies 16 overflows, indicating that the specified
bits in 8051 programming. time period has elapsed. Programmers
Char: 'char' stands for character and is can check this flag to determine when a
used to represent a single byte or timer has completed its counting cycle.
character in 8051 C programming. External Interrupt Control (IE0 and IE1):
unsigned char: Similar to 'char,' but it is TCON includes bits IE0 and IE1, which
used for representing only positive are used for controlling external interrupts
values, allowing a range of 0 to 255. associated with Timer 0 and Timer 1,
float: 'float' is used for representing respectively. When enabled, these bits
floating-point numbers, which include allow external signals to trigger interrupts.
decimal points. However, 8051 C
compilers may have limited support for
floating-point operations.
Logical instructions in microcontroller
programming involve operations on
binary data, manipulating bits based on
logical conditions. Here are three key
logical instructions:
AND (Logical AND): The AND instruction
performs a bitwise AND operation
between each pair of corresponding bits
in two operands. The result is stored in
the destination operand, setting bits to 1
only if both corresponding bits in the
source operands are 1.
OR (Logical OR): The OR instruction
performs a bitwise OR operation between
each pair of corresponding bits in two
operands. The result is stored in the
destination operand, setting bits to 1 if at
least one corresponding bit in the source
operands is 1.
XOR (Logical Exclusive OR): The XOR
instruction performs a bitwise exclusive
OR operation between each pair of
corresponding bits in two operands. The
result is stored in the destination operand,
setting bits to 1 if the corresponding bits
in the source operands are different.