Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22.

Chapter 1

Overview of principles die casting dies and machines

1.1 Introduction

PRESSURE DIE CASTING offers an economical way of producing large quantities of

complex, high-tolerance parts in aluminum, magnesium, zinc and copper alloys. The continued
growth of the die casting process depends, to a large extent, on the greater use of die castings in
the automotive industry, where weight reduction is increasingly important. Increasing demands on
die cast products will ensure continued development of die casting alloys with higher strength and
ductility, improved machinability, weldability and corrosion resistance.

The trends in product design are going towards:

1) Larger components
2) Thinner wall thicknesses
3) More complicated shapes
4) Closer tolerances

These factors favor the use of high pressure die casting over other casting methods like
low pressure and gravity die casting.

Die castings are produced by forcing molten metal under pressure into metal moulds
called dies. Die casting is closely related to permanent mould casting in that in both processes
reusable metal moulds are processes differ in mould filling method. Whereas mould filling in
permanent moulds casting depends on the force of gravity, die casting involves metal flow at high
velocities induced by the application of pressure. Because of this high velocity filling, die casting
can produce shapes that are more complex than shapes that can be produced by permanent mould
casting.

In die casting, after the die has been closed and locked, molten metal is delivered to a
pump/ plunger. The pump plunger is advanced to drive the metal quickly through the feeding
system while the air in the die escapes through vents. Sufficient metal is introduced to over flow
the die cavities, fill overflow wells and develop some flash. As the extraneous metal solidifies,
pressure is applied to the remaining metal and is maintained through a specified dwell time to

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 2

allow the casting to solidify. The die opens and the casting is then ejected. While the casting die is
open, it is cleaned and lubricated as required. Then the die is closed and locked, and the cycle is
repeated.

1.2 Advantages of Die Casting Process

More complex shapes can be made by die casting than by permanent mould
casting.
Because the dies are filled by pressure, casting with thinner walls, greater length-
to-thickness ratio, and greater dimensional accuracy can be produced by die
casting than by most other casting process.
Production rates are higher in die casting, especially when multiple –cavity dies are
used, than in other casting processes.
Because die casting are produced as almost completely finished parts, the
investment in inventory and factory floor space is reduced to a minimum.
Dies for die casting (like moulds for permanent mould casting) can produce many
thousands of castings without significant change die casting dimensions.
Metal cost is often lower than in other casting processes, because die casting
permits casting of thinner sections.
Some aluminum alloy die castings can develop higher strength than comparable
sand castings.

1.3 Limitations of Die Casting Process

Casting size is limited; casting weight seldom exceeds 20 Kgs. and normally is less
than 4 Kgs.
Depending on casting countered and gating, difficulty may be encountered with air
entrapped in the die. Entrapped air is a principal cause of porosity.
The facilities, consisting of the machine, the auxiliary equipment and dies are
relatively expensive. Because the die-castings are small, large quantities of
castings are required for the process to be economical.
With few exceptions, commercial use of the process is limited to metals having
melting temperatures no higher than those of the copper based alloys.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 3

1.4 Machines

All die casting machines have one of two different metal- pumping systems:

Hot chamber system.

Cold chamber system.

If the metal being cast melts at low temperature and thus does not attack the
injection-pump material, the pump can be placed directly in the molten metal bath (hot chamber
machines). If the molten metal attacks the pump material at casting temperature, the pump must
not be placed in the metal bath, and a cold chamber machine must be used.

1.5 Hot-chamber Machines

The metal pumping system is shown in

this figure, which consists essentially of
pressure and power cylinders, plunger,
gooseneck and nozzle is typical hot systems.
The gooseneck containing the pressure cylinder
and plunger is submerged in the molten metal
bath. This arrangement allows the metal to be
injected into the die cavities in minimum time
and with minimum decrease in temperature.

When the plunger in the up position as

shown in fig. 1.1 molten metal flows from the
pot into the pressure cylinder through the intake
ports. With the die closed and locked, the power
cylinder is energized to move the plunger
downwards. This seals off the intake ports. With
further down wards movement of the plunger,
the molten metal forced through the gooseneck
channel and the nozzle into the cavity. After a
preset time to allow the metal to solidify in the
die cavity, the power cylinder is activated in the
Fig. 1.1 Principal components of shot end of a hot
reverse direction, thus pulling the plunger up. chamber die casting machine

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 4

This uncovers the intake ports and metal flows from the pot into the pressure cylinder. The
machine is now ready for the next cycle. The power cylinder can be actuated by oil or air.

Using different sizes of gooseneck assemblies can vary the amount of metal cast with one
stroke. The weight of castings that can be made depends on alloy being cast, the projected area of
the shot and locking pressure. Hot-chamber die-casting machines are used mainly for casting of
low melting metals such as zinc, tin and lead alloys.

1.6 Cold-chamber Machines

In a cold-chamber machine, the shot chamber is unheated except for the heat from molten
metal ladled into it for casting and plunger tip is water cooled to prevent it from ov0erheating. To
facilitate pouring of the metal into it, the shot chamber mounted horizontally with a pouring hole
in the top of the chamber wall.

Fig. 1.2 Operation cycle of a vertical cold-chamber die casting machine

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 5

Figure 1.2 shows the operation cycle of a horizontal cold-chamber shot system. With die
closed and locked and the cylinder-plunger rod retracted, the metal the metal is ladled through the
pouring hole (pouring position 1 in fig. 1.2). Then the injection cylinder is energized and moves
the plunger rod forward. The plunger tip first closes off the pouring hole and then forces the metal
into die (position 2 in fig. 1.2). After a preset dwell time, which permits the metal to solidify, the
die is opened and the plunger is moved in the direction of initial travel to complete its full stroke
(position 3 in fig. 1.2). This final forward travel of the plunger tip forces the biscuit, or excess
metal, free of the shot chamber and ate same time, aids in stripping the casting from the cover die.
The plunger rod retracts, the casting is ejected from the ejector die and the shot is ready for the
next cycle. Cold-chamber injection systems can be used for all metals that can be die cast, but
they are normally used for aluminum, magnesium and copper alloys.

1.7 Advantages with cold-chamber machines

The main advantages with cold-chamber machines are the relative freedom from attack of
molten metal on equipment, because the shot chamber and plunger are not submerged in the
molten metal and high injection pressures. Injection pressures range from 560 to 2100 kgs./cm2.
Pressure up to 3500 kgs./cm2. have been used in special or experimental applications.

1.8 Disadvantages with cold-chamber machines

Te main disadvantages with cold-chamber machines are:

a) The need for an auxiliary method of feeding metal

b) Longer cycle time than is needed for hot-chamber operation.
c) The possibility of metal defects due to loss of superheat.

The volume of metal needed for the shot determines shot-chamber and plunger tip sizes. If
the shot chamber is too large, the metal will lie in the bottom of the chamber and the chances of
air entrapment are increased. If the shot chamber is too small, there will be insufficient metal for
the casting, or metal will splash out of the pouring hole. When the machine is being set up, the
plunger tip should be adjusted so that it will immediately start covering the plunger hole as the
plunger advances. In most operations, the actuating system is such that the plunger is advanced
slowly until the pouring hole is covered and the plunger then moves rapidly to inject metal into
the die. Optimum plunger speed varies with the alloy being cast, the size and shape of the casting
and the design of the gate and runner. Plunger speed range from 4570 cm. to 27450 cm. per min.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 6

Fig. 1.3 Operation cycle of a vertical cold chamber die casting machine

A vertical cold chamber die casting machine with vertical parting die is shown in Fig. 1.3
The injection system includes a vertical shot chamber connected directly to the corner die half by
sprue bushing. A hydrolytically actuated lower plunger covers the bushing hole in the vertical
cold chamber. While metal is being ladled into the chamber from above (position 1). After the
metal has been ladled, the upper or shot, plunger is actuated. As the pressure builds up, the lower
plunger retracts so that metal is force through the sprue bushing into the (position 2). After a
dwell cycle for metal solidification, the upper plunger is withdrawn, while the lower plunger is
rises and shears of the remaining slug of metal (metal biscuit) and ejects it as shown in Position 3.

One disadvantage of this type of machine is that, in having two operating plungers, one of
which doubles as a trimmer, it requires frequent maintenance work.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 7

1.9 Injection Pressure Systems

Fig. 1.4 Hydraulic-pressure injection system that uses a gas-oil accumulator

The pressure used in injection (shot) systems is generated either in air cylinders or in
hydraulic cylinders. A hydraulic pressure system usually includes a positive vane-type pump and
a gas-oil accumulator as shown in fig.1.4. The gas-oil accumulator is a pressure vessel that
supplies the required volume of oil at the high pressure and rates necessary to fill the mould cavity
rapidly with molten metal. An accumulator permits the use of a smaller pump: when an
accumulator is used, the volume capacity of pump need only be sufficient to recharge the
accumulator between casting cycles.

A hydraulic pressure system of the type shown in this fig. 1.4 operates as follows: With
the pump running continuously, oil is pumped into the gas-oil accumulator to the pressure limit
established by the relief valve. When motor pouring operation is completed, the shot control valve
is opened. Permitting the gas charged oil in the accumulator to pass to the head end of the
hydraulic cylinder, to activate the piston. When the die cavity is filled, there is a timed dwell to
allow to metal to solidify. In a hot chamber system, after dwell, the shot control valve is shifted,
permitting oil flow to the rod end of the cylinder, to return the piston to the fill position. In a cold
chamber system, after dwell, the piston advances to eject the biscuit and then returns to the fill
position.
Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director
 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 8

1.10 Die Locking Mechanism

Fig. 1.5 Die locking system that combines a Hydraulic cylinder stroke and dual toggle action to develop
the locking force

The most common locking system is shown in fig. 1.5. In comprising a hydraulic-cylinder
stroke and dual toggle action, this system combines the stroke and power transmitted by a
hydraulic cylinder with the mechanical advantage of the link system. The locking action begins
when the two faces of the die come in contact and compression at the dir faces is fist established.
When the three outer link pins are aligned and the crosshead-link position is normal to the
alignment of the pins, maximum force on the die equals tensile forces in the tie rods.

Die opening adjustment is made with various mechanical devices. The simplest device
consists of two nuts, one on each side of the toggle carrier, threaded on each of the four tie rods.
To close up the die opening, all four front adjusting nuts are loosened and the four rear adjusting
nuts are correspondingly tighten to force the toggle system forward until its into position.

1.11 Ejection Systems

Die casting dies usually include an integral Systems for ejecting the casting by machine
action. When the die is closed, ejector pins contacts the casting and safety (return) pins contacts
the parting-line face of the casting fixed half of the die. Both sets of pins are secured in a movable
ejector plate assembly. After the die opens, the casting is ejected by the forward movement of the
ejector-pin plate. The force required to activate the ejection system may be furnished by
mechanical knockout plate, a rack and pinion or a hydraulic cylinder.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 9

Fig. 1.6 Two types of systems used for ejecting castings from a die

A mechanical knockout plate system (Fig. 1.6a) has heavy steel plate rigidly secured to the
toggle carrier of the die casting machine. Holes through the ejector platen accommodate knockout
pins that are attached to the ejector pin plate. As the die opens, the ejector platen approaches the
knock out plate. The knockout pins then contact the knockout plate, and continuing travel of the
ejector system components remove the casting and sprue from the die. The ejector pins are
retracted by the die safety (return) pins when the die closes again. A hydraulic ejection system
(Fig. 1.6b) includes a hydraulic cylinder mounted on the back of the ejector platen. The cylinder
rod protrudes through the platen to the ejector pin plate. When the ejector platen moves
sufficiently to allow removal of the casting, a limit switch causes the cylinder rod to advance,
forcing the casting from ejector half of the die. An advantage of the hydraulic system over the
mechanical system is that the ejector pins can be retracted with the die in open position; the die
can be more easily cleaned and inspected with the retracted.

Another common hydraulic ejection system provides a hydraulically powered knockout

plate located in apposition similar to that of knockout plate shown in Fig. 6a. When the ejector
platen opens, the hydraulic knockout plate may be actuated at any position of travel for the ejector
platen. The ejection system can also retract the ejector pins hydraulically.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 11

1.12 Machine Selection

Machine selection for making any casting should be based principally on clamping force and operating stroke, length of shot stroke, maxi. shot
pressure, maximum die opening and die size, maximum & minimum die height, clearance between beams, over-all size and cost.

The rule of thumb for selection of die casting machine size is to use the smallest machine that will do the job. This will ensure fundamental
economy of operation, since the larger the machine, the slower its cycle. For example 400-ton machine can cycle about twice as fast as an 800-ton
machine. Clamping force is not necessary the deciding factor n the selection of a die a casting machine. Die dimensions must be considered. The
machine adequate tonnage for casting a part may have insufficient platen area or tie-rod spacing for the die, or the opening stroke may not be sufficient
for removal of casting. Another factor is the cost of the equipment, which must be amortized in the cost of operation. The cost of auxiliary equipment
for die casting machine is usually proportionate with the size of the machine.

Specification of HMT die casting machines

Model No. DC 60 DC 120 DC 180 H- 250-D H 400-D H – 660-D

Locking force tones 80 120 180 250 400 660
Injection force adjustable (with intensifier) tons 11.5 13 22.5 38 43 65
Hydraulic ejection force tons 4 6 10 15 22 34
Die mounting plates H x V mm 530 x 530 555 x 600 680 x 690 800 x 850 920 x 980 1130 x 1190
Space between tie bar mm 350 x 350 380 x 410 450 x 450 500 x 550 580 x 640 720 x 780
Tie bar diameter mm 60 65 80 100 120 150
Max. Die height mm 400 450 600 750 750 880
Min. Die height mm 150 150 200 225 200 350
Die opening force mm 350 375 460 500 600 630
Injection plunger stroke mm 250 275 300 350 400 600
Ejector stroke adjustable mm 60 65 100 100 145 150
Free cycle time Sec. 3 3.2 3.5 5.5 7 8
Motor capacity kW 7.5 11 18.5 22.4 22.4 44.7
Machine area M 4 x 1.1 4 x 1.25 5.0 x 1.3 5.9 x 1.6 6.1 x 1.65 7.2 x 2.1
Machine weight tones 3.6 4 5.5 10 12. 5 20
Capacity of oil tank lts 300 350 400 550 550 1000

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 12

Production data HMT die casting machine

Production Data DC - 80 DC - 120

Plunger dia. mm 35 40 45 50 55 35 40 50 60 65
Shot capacity for Alumn. kgs 0.43 0.56 0.71 0.88 1.06 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.6
Max. Injection pressure kg/cm² 1200 920 730 590 490 1352 1035 662 460 400
Nominal casting area at above
66 87 110 135 163 88 115 181 260 300
pressure cm²

Production Data DC – 180 H – 250 - D

Plunger dia. mm 40 50 60 70 80 85 40 45 50 55 60 70 80 85
Shot capacity for Alumn. kgs 0.7 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.0 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.4 3.2 3.6
Max. Injection pressure kg/cm² 1790 1145 795 585 590 400 3025 2390 1935 1600 1345 985 755 670
Nominal casting area at above
100 157 225 307 405 450 82 104 129 156 185 253 331 373
pressure cm²

Production Data H – 400 – D H – 660 - D

Plunger dia. mm 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 40 45 50 55 60 70 8- 85
Shot capacity for Alumni kgs 1.4 2.0 2.8 3.6 4.6 5.7 6.8 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.4 3.2 3.6
Max. Injection pressure kg/cm² 2190 1520 1115 855 675 545 450 3025 2390 1935 1600 1345 985 755 670
Nominal casting area at above
182 263 358 467 592 733 885 200 285 390 510 650 800 965 1150
pressure cm²
SHOT WEIGHT = PLUNGER AREA X PLUNGER STROKE X 0.75 FILLING RATIO X * 2.5 (Density of liquid Aluminum).
* for Zinc alloys multiply by 2.5
for Magnesium alloys multiply by 0.65
for Copper base alloys multiply by 3.2

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 13

Chapter 2
Die Design Concept of die casting dies
2.1 Dies

DIE CASTINGS dies consist of two sections – a cavity or fixed die half and an ejector
die or moving half, that meet at the die parting line. The cavity or fixed die half is secured to the
front or stationary platen of the casting machine. The sprue for filling the die cavity is in this half
and is aligned with the injector nozzle of a hot-chamber die casting machine or with the shot
chamber machine. The ejector die half contains the ejector mechanism and in most cases the
runner. It is normally fastened to the movable die platen, which is coupled with the actuating or
clamping mechanism of the die-casting machine. A cross section of a simple hot chamber die-
casting die is illustrated in fig. 2.1.

Fig. 2.1 Principal component of a simple hot-chamber die casting die

The die cavity is machined into the two halves of the die block. The location of the parting
line must ensure that, on opening of the die, the casting will pull away from fixed die half and
remain in ejector half. Thus, when shapes having interior surface to be cast, as much of the cavity
are possible is located in the fixed die half, so that when the die is opened, the casting will have
shrunk onto the protruding ejector half, from which it can be ejected.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 14

Ejector pins free the casting from the die. There must be a sufficient number of ejector
pins to prevent the hot casting from distorting and the pins must be placed so that the marks they
leave are not in objectionable locations. When the casting is removed and the die is closed for the
next cycle, the ejector pin holder plate is forced back, thus withdrawing the ejector pins from the
cavity.

2.2 Cores

Cores are die parts that produce holes, openings and other casting details. Cores that
extend parallel with die movement and that therefore do not have to be removed before ejection of
the casting is called fixed cores (see Fig. 2.1). The ejector pins force the casting from fixed cores
as the casting is pushed out of the die cavity. Cores with axes not parallel with the die movement
are called movable or sliding cores; these cores must be withdrawn by a separate mechanism
before the casting is ejected from the die.

2.3 Slides

Slides are the movable die parts needed to build up die surfaces. Slides are used are used
when it is impossible to avoid undercuts in a casting. The part of the die cavity wall that forms the
undercut portion is made on the face of a slide, which is accurately fitted in a guide cut in the die
block. The slide must be free retracted before the casting can be ejected. A separate locking
mechanism must be provided for each slide. The use of slides adds considerably to die cost.

2.4 Runners and Gates

The metal entering the sprue is directed into one or more passages or runners. Near the
dies cavity, the cross sectional area of the runner decreases to form a gate designed to direct the
metal into the designed cavity (see Fig. 2.1).

2.5 Vents

Vents serve as outlets through which air can escape from the die cavity, permitting
complete filling by the metal. Adequate venting may be provided by clearance between the die
faces at appropriate location or venting may consist of the clearance between the die and movable
cores, ejector pins and slides.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 15

2.6 Overflows

For some castings, the die cavity may feed into an overflow. An overflow performs
several important functions as follows:

1. They serve as receptacles for the first metal entering the die cavity during each
shot. Normally this metal will be cooler than the metal behind it. In addition, it will
oxidize to some extent as it forces the air that is in the cavity out through the vents.
Feeding this cooler, oxidized metal to overflows both avoids cold shuts and traps
any included any oxides in appendages to the casting, which are latter trimmed off,
remelted and recovered.
2. They provide additional mass to small castings, thereby helping to maintain a
satisfactory and stable die temperature.
3. They serve as locations for contact of ejector pins when the casting themselves are
not permitted to have ejector pin marks on any surface.

2.7 Cooling

In die casting, there is hot metal in the cavity during

a large portion in each cycle and cycle frequency is rapid;
heat is dissipated to and retained by dies, especially around
the sprue and around heavy cross sections in the casting.

To prevent overheating of a die, sections of the die

are cooled to a controlled temperature by water circulating
through passages drilled in these sections. Temperature
control is achieved by control of the amount of the water in
circulation.

Locations of water-cooling lines in production die

sets are shown in Fig. The location of the cooling channels
should be such that the entire surface of the die cavity has
as uniform a temperature as possible. Surface smoothness
of the channels is important, both from the view point of
cooling and from the view point of strength.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 16

2.8 Runners, Gates and Overflows

To get optimum casting conditions the cooling system must have a heat balance with “the
hot part” (runners, gates, overflows and cavities). This means that the design of the runner, gate
and overflow system is of great importance. In parts which are difficult to fill in the cavity, an
overflow should be located to help casting metal to flow into this part. In multicavity dies with
identical impressions it is important that all runners have the same path length and cross-sectional
area and that the gates and overflows are identical.

The position of the gates and the thickness and width of the land is critical for the injection
speed of metal. The gates should be designed so that the injected metal flows smoothly and freely
into all parts of the cavity. Casting metal that is sprayed instead of flowed into the cavity causes
bad castings. Excessive turbulence of casting metal can cause erosion of the die.

Guidelines for Sizing

The following are some guidelines for sizing a die for aluminum to meet strength requirements:

1) Distance from cavity to outer surface >50 mm.

2) Ratio of cavity depth to total thickness <1:3
3) Distance from cavity to cooling channel >25 mm. Distance from cavity to cooling
channel at corner >50 mm.
4) Fillet radii Zinc /Aluminum / Brass >0.5 mm >1 mm >1.5 mm.
5) Distance from gate to cavity wall >50 mm.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 17

2.9 Types of Dies

Parts maybe die cast one at a time in single cavity dies or in sets in multiple cavities dies.
Dies that have cavities for producing different parts in the same die are called combination dies.
When small parts suitable for casting in a combination dies are to be made, but unequal quantities
of the various parts are required, a combination die can still be used economically if it consists of
a single die block containing machined-out recessions of equal size, for insertion of
interchangeable dies.

2.10 Single Cavity Die

Single cavity dies are used when:

a) Casting to be produced has so large a surface area that the die for one casting fills
the die space in the machine.
b) The volume of metal required for the casting is near the shot capacity of the ma
chine.
c) The production quantity does not warrant a larger machine for multiple casting
productions.
d) A suitable machine for multiple cavity production is not available
e) The complexity of the casting requires movable slides and cores that preclude the
use of more than one cavity.

Fig. 2.2 Components of single cavity die for use in hot chamber machine.

Fig. 2.2 shows a typical single cavity die for use in a hot chamber machine. The cover half
is mounted to the stationary platen of the machine by T-bolts and clamps. The gooseneck nozzle

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 18

is placed against the nozzle seat to provide a passage for the molten metal. This seat has 38 mm
spherical radius, which permits variation in the location of the die on the machine platen without
loss of a good metal-to-metal seal that will not leak under injection pressure up to 280 kgs. /cm².

The conical sprue hole may be cut in solid cover die block or a replaceable sprue bushing
may form it. Whether sprue is machined-in or inserted, it should contain provision for cooling.
The bushing is in Fig. 2.2 has water line inlet and outlet connections. If the sprue opening is
machined in a solid die block, four straight-through water-line holes, two near the top and two
near the bottom are generally used. The cooling system causes the molten metal adjacent to the
nozzle seat to solidify just before the dies are opened.

The area next to the nozzle seat is relived, to provide clearance for an externally applied
gas flame to control the temperature of the molten metal in the nozzle. Thus with fame at one side
of the nozzle and a flow of water at the other, the delicate balance of liquid and solid metal can be
readily controlled.

Four leader pins and bushings keep the ejector and cover die halves aligned during setup
and the clamping of the die in the machine. With the die properly clamped, the guided moving
platen of the machine closes the ejector die in the same location for each cycle.

The cover cavity or impression may be machined in the solid cover die half or it may be
inserted as shown in Fig. 2.2, the decision depends on the relative costs of the two methods for
initial construction, comparative costs of die maintenance and assemblity of water cooling lines.
For the cover die half, the section of the cavity protruding from the parting line surface would
have required the removal of this thickness of steel from 90% of the de face had this casting
cavity been machined from solid die block instead of being inserted.

The ejector half in Fig. 2.2 is mounted to the moving platen of the machine by T-bolts and
clamps. Four safety (return) pins are mounted in the ejector-plate assembly. All ejector pins are
similarly mounted. Movement of the ejector-plate assembly toward the parting line strips the
casting out of the ejector-die cavity so that the machine operator can remove the casting. The
casting can also be moved out farther and permitted to fall into a tray or quench tank or it can be
automatically removed from between the die faces. As the machine closes, the parting line face of
the cover die half contacts the end surface of the four safety (return) pins and pushes al these four
safety (return) pins simultaneously to the ejector die surface in the position shown in Fig.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 19

The liquid metal is injected through the sprue opening and is deflected by the sprue
spreader to begin its flow into the runner and then into the cavity. A fixed core pin forms an
accurate hole in the die-casting. A simple slide core pin is used for forming a hole in the sidewall
of the casting just above the boss that is cored by the fixed core. The side core is attached to the to
the core-slide header, which moved by an angle pin affixed to the cover die half. As the die opens,
the angle pins moves the header out from the die block, thus pulling the core pin out of the
casting, which can be ejected at the end of the machine operated stroke. A spring (not shown in
Fig. 8) holds the header in the open position until the die closes for the next shot. As the die
closes, the angle pin on the cover die drives the header into the position shown in Fig. 8. and slide
lock contacts a matting surface on the core-slide header to provide a secondary cam lock.

2.11 Multiple Cavity Die

Multiple cavity dies consist of two or more duplicate cavities for making identical castings
in one die (see Fig. 2.3). A multiple cavity die, compared to a single cavity die reduces the unit
cost per casting of producing a greater number of castings per machine-hour. In addition, multiple
cavities may sometimes produce better castings, because the symmetrical spacing of cavities often
provides a more uniform thermal balance in the die and better distribution of mechanical forces.
On the side of the side of disadvantages, the increase numbers of cavities increases the potential
operating problems and sometimes result in a slightly higher scrap rate. The number of shots per
hour is slightly reduced for multiple cavity dies and these dies may require a larger die-casting
machine.

Fig. 2.3 Multiple cavity die for casting four automotive lamp bezels per shot

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 20

The number of casting required generally determines the type of tooling, since a certain
quantity must be produced to justify the use of more elaborate tooling. The design of the casting is
also a factor; the possibility of lowering costs by using multiple cavity tooling decreases as size
and complexity of the casting increase and as tolerances become more stringent.

Much of the work involved in producing dies for extremely close tolerance castings stems
from the trial-and-error method required for developing the final tooling dimensions. In casting
made in multiple cavity dies, dimensional uniformity is not insured even when all cavities are
made accurately to the shape that would be required for producing castings of the same
dimensions in a single cavity die. Dimensional variations can occur between castings produced in
two cavities that have the same dimensions, because of the difference in the configuration and
location of the gates and runners relative to each cavity. Therefore for close tolerance casting, the
die making procedure should provide for the precise location of cored holes or bosses in the
cavity after all gating development work has been done.

Sometimes, die making procedures specify that the entire cavity be completed except
those areas that require close tolerances. The die is tried in this unfinished condition and the
castings are given an accurate layout inspection to determine the actual shrinkage and tooling
variations. The die maker then adds the previously omitted details in the cavity on the basis of the
information obtained by the tryout.

2.12 Family Dies

Combination dies or family dies consist of series of cavities in one die for casting two or
more different parts. The parts casts in a family die are generally components of a single end
product assembly.

The development of a suitable die cavity arrangement and optimum gating system is
usually more difficult in production with family dies than in production with multiple cavity dies.
This is because differences in size and shape of castings cause an imbalance in the mechanical
and thermal performance of the die. Two or more casting differing in volume and size by a family
die, but a smaller ratio is preferred.

Family dies require development of the tooling to achieve the required dimensional, visual
and physical properties. The dimensional development work is usually simpler than for multiple
cavities tooling, because there is only one cavity for each component in the family die.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 21

One disadvantage of a family die is that, it must be operated under the conditions that will
produce the most difficult casting of the group the most efficiently. The remaining castings in the
group ordinarily could be produced at higher speeds and at less cost. Another disadvantage of
family tooling involves the fact that, typically the castings produced in a family die are intended
for assembly into a single unit. This means that all of the castings will in effect, equal that of the
casting having the highest scarp rate, since no unit can contain a defective casting. Consequently,
if the volume required is high, a separate die for each different casting or at least a separate die for
the most troublesome casting will generally be more economic than family die.

Fig. 2.4 Family die used to produce four automobile deck-handle components per shot

A typical family die is shown in Fig. 2.4. This die was designed for low volume
production of Knob, Retainer and Socket castings that are combined with other components to
make up a complete handle assembly for station wagons rear decks.

Another example of castings produced in family dies is miniature model cars. In this
application the parts are packaged and shipped with runners attached, because some parts are so
small they might be lost if separated

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 22

Chapter 3

Die Design

3.1 Die Casting Die development is an important activity bridging product design and
manufacturing activities. Die development broadly compromises of three tasks: design,
manufacturing and tryouts. Die design includes design of core and cavity block, gating system
(gate-runner, runners, overflows and vents), cooling system and mechanical system (ejection
system, guiding system and die housings).

The shape of a die cavity must correspond to the dimensions of the part to be cast, plus
draft or taper, to facilitate ejection, plus an allowance for shrinkage. For close tolerance castings,
allowance must also be made for thermal expansion of the die cavity. The placement of the cavity
in the die block is governed by:

1. Parting line requirements.

2. Requirements for moving cores and slides.
3. Location of non-critical area in the casting for gating.
4. The need for positioning the gate so that cores or other members do not obstruct
the initial flow of metal.

Experience with similar castings is most frequently the basis of die design. Regardless of
past experience, however, changes in design ranging from minor to major are often required
before optimum results are obtained.

3.2 Shrinkage Allowances

In establishing dimensions for cavities and cores, an allowance must be added to the
dimensions specified for the part to be cast, for shrinkage of the casting metal. The shrinkage
allowances normally used are 0.5% for zinc alloys, 0.6% for aluminum alloys and 0.7% for
magnesium alloys. The above values are influenced by several variables, primarily size and shape
of the casting. For casting that have irregular surface contours, die section and cores are designed
to prevent free shrinkage in specific areas. Die sections or cores so designed are often called
“shrink resistors”.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 23

For close tolerance castings, it may be necessary to make an allowance for the expansion
of the die cavity caused by the difference in the temperature at which it was made and the
operating temperature. This value must be subtracted from the allowance for shrinkage of the
casting metal.

3.3 Draft

All casting walls that are perpendicular to the parting line require draft or taper, so that the
casting can be withdrawn without sticking or scoring. The amount of draft varies with the casting
metal and with height of the casting walls. The draft on cavity side is half that required for inside
walls. The amount of draft affects the amount of lubrication required, the speed of the casting
cycle and the precision of the casting.

3.4 Parting Line

Parting-line shape and location have a considerable effect on the economy and
effectiveness of any die casting operation. A straight parting line, permitting flat die surfaces is
preferred. Flat surfaces on the die halves are more economical to machine than contoured
surfaces. Moreover, with flat surfaces it is easier to maintain a seal between the two die halves.

Cores and slides are expensive, so the parting line should be located to minimize the
number the number of cores and slides required for casting. This may entail machining of an
irregular parting line (see original design in Fig. 3.1)

The parting line should be in an area on the casting, where the flash and gate will be easy
to remove and where any marks resulting from trimming will have the least effect on function, on
surface finish and appearance.

The circular boss on the

sidewall of a die cast housing required a
recessed parting line as shown in Fig.
3.1, or the use of slide. Either approach
resulted in an expensive and
complicated die. Extending boss
(Improved design) permitted the use of
Fig. 3.1 Die cast housing that was redesigned for straight- straight parting line, thus simplifying die
line instead of recessed parting, to simplify die construction
design and lowering die cost.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 24

Sometimes, the projected design of a casting requires an irregular parting line or a parting
line that necessitates the use of cores and slides. In these cases, it may be feasible to redesign the
casting so that it both performs the intended function and can be cast with a simple parting-line
arrangement. The two examples that follow describe revisions in casting design that permitted die
simplification.

Fig. 3.2 Redesign of a die cast support that permitted shallower die cavity and eliminated
the need of two slides

Rib Relocation (Fig. 3.2) A die cast support as originally designed (left view) required the use of
two slides for forming the recessed and a relatively long fixed core for forming the area between
the upright end sections. The parting line was along the bottom surface of the casting. When the
casting was redesigned to have one centered rib instead of two outer ribs (right view), it could be
produced in a cavity divided equally between two die halves along a straight parting line. No
slides or fixed cores were needed and as an added saving less metal was required per casting.

3.5 Cavity

The design of a die casting die is primarily determined by

the shape of the finished component. But there are a number of
aspects involved in the design and sizing of a die which can have
an influence and important bearing on die life. High-strength
steels are extremely notch-sensitive. It is therefore important that
the cavity is designed with smooth changes of sections and fillets
of maximum possible radius. In order to reduce the risk of erosion
and heat checking on the die material near the gate, the cavity
wall or any cores or inserts should be located as far from the gate
as possible.
3.6 Slides

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Slides are movable die parts used for producing a casting with undercuts on external
surfaces. Their basic construction and operation are briefly described in previous Dies chapter.
Although slides sometimes are desirable for venting air from the cavity, it is usually preferable to
design a casting that has no undercuts and that, therefore doesn’t require the use of slides. When
this is not possible, machining the casting should be considered as an alternative to casting with
slide; a cost evaluation must be made to determine whether the added tooling cost for casting
which slides can be justified or whether it will be more economical to complete the shape by
machining. Sometimes, casting with slides is found most practical way of obtaining the desired
shape be kept to a minimum. An arrangement of more than four slides should be avoided.
However, if there is no cross movement of the slides, a casting requiring more than four slides can
be produced.

3.7 Use of Cores

The two basic types of cores are described in the previous chapter. Cores cannot be used to
make very long, thin holes. The depth of hole that can be cored depends on casting metal and hole
diameter. The cores used in die casting require draft to assist in removing the core from the
casting The draft for cored holes depth. The amount of draft required also varies according to
whether a core is movable or fixed. In general, a core that pulled from the casting when the die is
closed, require less draft than a core from which the casting is stripped by the action of ejector
pins. Stripping is facilitated by a slight increase in draft, which serves both to lessen the load on
the ejector pins and to minimize or avoid deformation of the casting.

Fig. 3.3 Use of a three-element core to form an undercut in a cylindrical die casting

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 26

Fig. 3.3 shows the use of a three-element core in die casting of a cylindrical part with an
undercut produced by internal bosses around side holes. The core pins were stationary in the
ejector and cover halves of the die. Core element A was an integral part of the slide and core
elements B and C were loose (removable) pieces.

To load the die, core element C was placed on the ejector half and element B on the cover
half. After the die was closed, element A was slid into place between elements A and C. After
casting is solidified, the slide withdrew core element A. The two remaining core elements were
removed after being loosened by pressure applied through the holes made by the core pins.

The complexity of die-castings that can be made with the extensive use of cores and slides
are illustrated in Fig. 3.4. This casting does not represent good practice, but the design required
that it be cast in this form.

Sometimes, cores are used for purposes other

than to form functional details of a casting.
For example, cores can serve as metal savers,
to reduce the amount of metal needed in
localised heavy sections and, as an added
benefit, to attain more uniform section
thicknesses. The advantages in using cores in
this way must be considered against the
disadvantages of greater complexity of die
design and increased die costs.
Minimum draft required for cored holes in die
castings made of four types of alloys

Fig. 3.4 Complex die casting produced with cores and slides

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 27

3.8 Ejection

Casting ejection requires that the die be designed so that the casting remains in the ejector
half when the die is opened. (See the discussion on Fig. 1.6 in the section of Dies) Poor cover die
cavity, inadequate draft in the cover die cavity, poor machine setup or a damaged cover cavity
may cause the casting to sticks in the cover half of the die.

Immediately after solidification, a casting is still hot and is subject to distortion by ejector.
To minimize distortion, the casting must have adequate draft and ejector pins must be located
close to the areas where the casting shrinks onto the die components. Frequently ejector bosses
must be added to a casting, to provide location for the ejector pins to strike, thus avoiding possible
damage to the casting. The addition of overflows is an alternative method for providing locations
that can be struck by ejector pins without damaging the casting.

3.9 Gating System

The gating system includes all of the die elements needed to feed liquid metal to the die
castings, namely runners, gate inlet or fore gates, gates, vents overflow and chills. The gating
system is a preponderant factor in the production of acceptable die castings. Properly designed, it:

1. Determines whether a stable flow of liquid metal is supplied to the casting during the
fling period.
2. Provides for entrapment of oxides, lubricants and other impurities in overflows
outside the body of the casting.
3. Controls metal turbulence and impingement throughout the filling period.
4. Provides the necessary feed metal to reduce shrinkage.
5. Influences die life.

A gating system should be designed to provide the required fill rate and a minimum
amount of gas inclusions in the casting. Optimum fill rate depends on: Thickness of the casting,
type of metal cast, metal temperature, die temperature, shape of the casting including the distance
the metal runs from the gate), intricacy of the die and the volume of casting.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 28

Various arrangements of
sprue, runners and gates have been
used for injecting metal into die
cavities. Fig. 3.5 shows some
arrangements using a T-shaped
gate for round and rectangular
castings; each arrangement
produced good surface finish and
permitted adequate cooling of the
runner and gate. Changes in gate
design are often made to correct
casting defects.

Fig. 3.5 Typical gating system for round and rectangular

zinc die castings
Thickness of Gate thickness in mm.
Gate Thickness – Selection of gate thickness from casting wall Aluminum Zinc

calculated gate area for a given casting is often governed Very thin 0.8 0.7

by the size of the die parting face available for a required Thin 1.25 0.85
width of gate. Use of thinnest possible gates facilitates
Medium 1.6 1.40
trimming and cleaning operations. Based on casting wall
thickness, the following gate thickness is recommended. Thick 2.0 1.65

The above values are conservative and are not intended for to discount the feasibility of
even thinner gates as thin as 0.5 mm for aluminum alloy and 0.4 mm for zinc alloy.

Approach to the Gate from a runner should design to produce a uniform increase in
metal velocity toward the gate. Fan gates must be tapered to provide a constant decrease in cross-
sectional area from the runner to the gate, as discussed earlier. If possible 60 angles should be
used for solid-front filling; the shape of the part may require a compromise.

The major difficulty in producing sound die-castings is not in getting the metal into the
cavity, but in getting the air out of it. In cold-chamber machines, much of the air in the shot
chamber, as well as that in the runners and cavity, must be expelled ahead of the advancing metal

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 29

if a sound casting is to be produced. Accordingly, a primary aim of gating practice must be to

avoid the sealing off of vents and overflows early in the filling phase, for once this has occurred,
the residual air will inevitably be trapped within the casting.

If a casting is gated so that metal strikes the die surface at a very oblique angle and spreads
in a thin stream across it, much of the periphery of the component is sealed off before more than a
small proportion of the metal has been injected. The same effect is encountered when a thin-wall
casting has a bead or flange of thicker section all around it. Metal flows preferentially along the
thick section and seals off all the parting-line vents before the thin-wall areas are completely
filled. The fault is accentuated in both types of casting when runners of a spreading or "fishtail"
form are adopted.

A fan, or fishtail, runner is shown in Fig. 3.6. This design effectively projects a fan-shape
wavering jet into the cavity and, as it is frequently cut in such a way that it diminishes in depth at
each side (section Y-Y, Fig. 3.6), flow may be extremely unstable. Metal entering the runner
during the first part of the plunger stroke solidifies in the wedge-shape extremities, so that only
the central portion of the gate is initially effective.

The hotter metal that follows cuts

back into the chilled metal at the sides,
with the result that the effective cross
section of the gate is increased during the
filling period. Control of the direction of
flow within the cavity is very poor, and
the pattern of cavity filling varies greatly
with die temperature, which determines
to what extent the initial choking of the
gate extremities occurs. Some choking
takes place at the ends of gates, even if
the section of the tapered feed is held Fig. 3.6 Fan or fishtail runner that feeds into a
comparatively straight edge and produces unstable
constant. metal flow.

This condition can be avoided by adopting converging, rather than spreading, runner
layouts, or by extending the runner channels laterally beyond the ends of the gate to form pockets
into which the chilled metal is projected. In practice, these two features are often advantageously
combined.

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Adverse Effects of Curved Runners

A flagrant example of
unsatisfactory runner layout is the
carrying of a runner in sweeping
curves from the biscuit to the gate
(Fig. 3.7). The die in Fig. 3.7 has
two "handed" cavities for a
component of approximately trape-
zoidal form, of length such that the
lower ends of the cavities are about
level with the top of the shot hole.
Fig. 3.7 Runner with sweeping curves from biscuit to gate.

The central portion of the runner follows a curve concentric with the biscuit, and reverse
curves continue the channels up to the fishtailed feeds. A section through the biscuit shows that
the runner is fed from a circular depression, the depth of which is a little greater than that of the
runner itself, located opposite the biscuit.

The most unsatisfactory feature of this layout is the extent to which air is initially trapped
in the runner and subsequently carried into the cavity with the metal. This trapping occurs because
the metal first forced up out of the shot chamber is projected around the outside curve of the
central portion of the runner, until it reaches a point where it leaves the surface tangentially to
follow the outside curves of the outer ends of the runner. Not until the tapered feed sections have
filled with metal backing up from the gates does the metal from the shot chamber begin to flow at
"full bore". With runners of this kind it is extremely difficult to avoid gross porosity in the
casting.

Wherever possible, runner channels should be straight and of unvarying cross section.
Where a change of direction is necessary, there should be no fairing or blending of the angles of
the junction. If, for example, a runner must be turned through a right angle, it should not be milled
to a radius, as indicated at the left in Fig. 3.8, because this form results in air being trapped by the
metal. Instead, a change of direction should be made by carrying the main runner well beyond the
point at which the turn is required, and cutting the branch runner either at right angles to it, as
indicated at the right in Fig. 3.8, or at a slight negative angle, as shown in Fig. 3.9. The choice
between the two forms depends on the degree of pressure relief that is desirable in the runner

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system. In either form of Intersection, the metal flowing along the main runner continues in a
straight line into the runner extension, and not until this portion is substantially filled and the
backpressure rises, does any significant quantity of metal pass into the branch runner.

Fig. 3.9 Method for retarding metal flow in a

Fig. 3.8 Incorrect (left) and correct (right) method of branch runner until the main runner is flowing at
changing the direction of metal flow in a runner full bore

The metal in the runner extension contains a large quantity of trapped air, which acts as a
pneumatic shock absorber. Initially, metal enters the branch runner at relatively low velocity, so
that air is easily forced ahead of it through the gate, and it is not until the branch is running full
bore that the whole thrust of the injection plunger becomes operative. When this condition is
established, and the metal begins to move with maximum velocity along the branch, a velocity
gradient is set up across the branch near the junction. By this time, however, virtually all the air
carried in from the shot chamber has been expelled, so that the resulting turbulence is negligible.

It may appear that the same phenomenon the establishment of a velocity gradient across
the stream where it changes direction has first been cited as a cause of air being carried into the
cavity, and then as a factor preventing air from being carried in. However, there is no
inconsistency. With curving runners, static air is trapped when metal gets ahead of it, but when
sharply angled runners are adopted, the static air is pushed through the channel ahead of the
metal, and only air already entrained in the metal stream is retained.

Disadvantages of Thin Gates

Spreading runners are usually justified on the grounds that by widening the feed section as
its depth diminishes, the metal passage is not constricted progressively as the gate is approached.
The use of very wide and thin gates is a carryover from zinc die-casting practice where, although
not desirable, it serves to facilitate trimming. In the cold-chamber die casting of aluminum alloys,
both metal temperature and injection pressure are much higher, and shallow gates are much more
undesirable, than in the die casting of zinc alloys.

When a thin gate is used in conjunction with high injection velocity, the metal is sprayed
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into the cavity in a pulsating, wavering stream. If this stream impinges immediately on a core
surface, overheating and erosion ensue, whereas if the metal is able to travel some distance
tangential to the surface, air and residual lubricant are carried with the stream into the area where
the surface flow breaks down and the metal "puddles". As the turbulent mass thus formed
increases in volume and moves back toward the gate, there is little opportunity for trapped air and
vapor to escape, and the unstable metal stream is continually carrying in more air.

To produce consistently sound aluminum alloy die castings, it is desirable to provide a

gate of a size and form that will cause the metal to puddle that is, to form a mass filling the whole
cross section of the cavity, as near the gate as possible. This arrangement has many advantages,
the foremost being that metal passing the gate (once the puddle has filled back to the gate) cannot
entrain additional air. Secondly, the efflux of the stream into the already injected metal reduces its
velocity and modifies its impact on adjacent core surfaces. Thirdly, the heat resulting from the
loss of kinetic energy is carried, by reason of the strong turbulence immediately around the gate,
outward into the spreading puddle.

Provided the section variations are not such that the metal can spread preferentially around
the periphery of the cavity (and this can largely be prevented even in thick-rimmed dish shape
components, by correct gating), venting at the parting line remains effective throughout virtually
the whole of the filling phase when puddle feeding is adopted. Although velocity is lost and heat
gained in the vicinity of the gate instead of remote from it, as in free-stream feeding, the influx
rate is not appreciably reduced, because the freer venting allows the air being compressed by the
expanding puddle to escape more readily from the cavity, and so lowers the back pressure.
Similarly, lubricant vapors are blown out of the cavity ahead of the metal, and solid lubricant
residues are not scoured from the surface and caught up in the metal.

The locations of gates and overflows are highly critical even when puddle feeding is
employed, for as the metal advances preferentially along the lines of least resistance - that is,
through the largest sections air locks are formed if unfilled areas are cut off. Such an air lock may
occur, for example, if the metal is able to advance along a pair of heavy rib impressions and
merge at the far end.

Effect of Ribs on Metal Flow

The orientation of ribs and other features involving local changes of section, in relation to
the gate, is of primary importance. If the advancing metal meets a heavy rib section transversely,

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 33

the effect is to retard, momentarily, the forward movement as metal flows laterally along the rib,
but the sideways movement of metal through the thin section on the near side of the rib continues.
Feeding into the rib thus proceeds on a widening front, to increase the lateral flow rate within the
rib and to straighten out the advancing metal front in the thin section on the far side of the rib.

If the advancing edge, moving through a thin section, encounters the end of a heavy rib
cavity disposed radially, flow again occurs preferentially along the rib, but the outward flow from
the rib on both sides increases with the length of the rib filled. Whether one type of flow is to be
preferred to the other depends on the over-all form of the casting, and cannot be determined
arbitrarily.

In order to prevent flow along ribs from resulting in air locks, it is desirable that the rib
section be slightly thinner than the adjoining web. When heavier ribs are necessary for structural
reasons, they should preferably be faired I off into the wall at both ends, rather: than carried to the
edge of the casting. In such fairing is particularly desirable if the edge of the casting has a heavy I
bead into which the far end of the rib would feed.

Heavy Gating

For puddle feeding to be achieved, heavy gating is essential. For it to be effective, correct
positioning and orientation of the runner, feed, and gate are equally necessary. Wide, thin gates,
even when correctly placed, do not give an initial buildup of metal within the cavity adjacent to
the gated portion. Instead, the metal changes direction and runs back along the cavity surfaces
from the point of impingement, blocking the vents ahead of the main fill.

The use of a gate as an imposed

constriction of flow at the junction of
runner and casting is not essential to the
production of an acceptable casting.
Even castings with thin sections are
produced satisfactorily on vertical cold
chamber machines by direct feeding, as
shown in Fig. 3.10. The sprue metal is
cut off short and, if necessary, the base
Fig. 3.10 Feeding directly from a vertical cold-chamber
is ground flush with the remainder of sprue to the web of a casting

the casting surface.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 34

However, the soundness of vertical sprues is generally excellent, and the point at which
they are subsequently cut from the casting is of no importance to cavity filling. Thus, there is no
disadvantage to heavy gating apart from the increased difficulty in separating the runner metal
from the casting. Because many aluminum die-castings must be band sawed even when gates are
wide and thin, major objections can arise only when the gate form prohibits removal of the entire
runner metal with a band saw. Such a condition arises when an upward gate into the rim or flange
of a casting is adopted.

Nevertheless, it is always unwise to sacrifice casting quality for ease of trimming and, for
this reason, designers are becoming more willing to mill runners from the casting instead of
sawing them off. On modern rotary-table equipment, with fixed cutters rotating at speeds up to
10,000 rpm, milling operations of this kind can be performed on several hundred parts per hour.

Gating Long, Narrow Castings

Having considered preferred practices for gating, the application of these practices to
specific castings will now be examined. For a first example, it will be assumed that a plain
rectangular plate, measuring 300 by 1% by 2.5 mm., is to be cast. Weight of the trimmed casting
is a little more than 85 gms. If the cavity is to fill properly in about 0.02 sec, the gate area required
is 64 sq mm., based on a cross section of 50 mm. by 1.25 mm.

Considering the length of the

casting, gating to the middle of one of
the sides would minimize the distance
the metal must travel to fill the cavity.
With an assumed ratio of casting
thickness to gate depth of 2 to 1, this
arrangement is unlikely to be
satisfactory, because the metal stream,
during most of the filling phase, will be
projected across the cavity, and
puddling will occur on the far side
only. The main spread of metal will be
toward the ends of the cavity, but along
the ungated side only, as shown in Fig.
Fig. 3.11 Successive stages of die filling from a central
3.11 (a) and (b). gate to a thin, rectangular plate, showing probable
locations of defects

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 35

The defects resulting from this method of gating are shown in Fig. 3.11(c). The surface
near the middle of the casting is generally satisfactory, but large areas at each end are glazed and
marked with flow lines, and the edges and corners are not sharply defined. Seams occur along the
gated side where the metal last injected abuts against the chilled stream. In addition, striations are
likely to occur in the areas indicated, because of the pulsing overlap of successive increments of
metal when the cavity was more than half filled.

Control of Metal Flow.

The short comings of the gating in Fig. 3.11 stem from the fact that the die designer has
little control over the flow of metal within the cavity. Velocity of flow is highly variable, both
from point to point in the casting and from moment to moment during the filling period, despite
the fact that the pattern of flow is reasonably stable. A satisfactory flow is one that is as constant
as possible, and with such velocity variations as do occur following a regular and predictable
course. This result can be achieved only if the metal stream fills the entire space between the
cavity walls throughout most of the injection phase. Under conditions of "skin flow", when the
stream is projected in a thin film along one surface of the impression, metal velocity and distance
of projection are extremely sensitive to variations in the temperature of the cavity surface.

Under conditions of "free surface" flow, where the metal fills the whole depth of part of
the cavity, as in Fig. 3.11, the velocity is much slower than in skin flow but again is highly
variable, diminishing rapidly as the stream travels farther from the gated area, and is markedly
affected by the varying temperature of the cavity surface. Thus, with either skin flow or free
surface flow, small variations in speed of operation invariably give rise to large variations in the
surface finish and the internal homogeneity of the casting.

Gating Near One End. The only type of flow that is at all controllable is achieved when the
metal fills the whole cross section of the cavity and advances along an unbroken front. In a thin,
rectangular plate, a flow pattern substantially of this type is obtained by gating the cavity near one
end in such a way as to project the metal stream initially to that end.

The nearest approach to this condition that is practicable is shown in Fig. 3.12, where a
strongly convergent feed from the main runner joins the cavity near one end. The gate terminates
about 6 mm. from the corner of the cavity, primarily to leave a datum face to facilitate machining
the piece after the gate has been removed, but also to avoid the immediate flow of metal over the
end of the cavity as the stream passes the gate. Assuming that the gate area requirement is the

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 36

same as before, it would be desirable to modify the proportions slightly, and to provide a gate
approximately 35 mm. long by 1.7 mm. deep. This depth is more than half the casting thickness,
and as the stream from a convergent feed thickens somewhat, it is ensured that even at the start of
injection the metal does not impinge strongly on the far wall of the cavity.

Fig. 3.12 End gating from a main runner to ensure progressive filling from end to end

With a gate of the type indicated in Fig. 3.12, the metal is projected diagonally to the
remote corner, and immediately builds up to fill the gated end completely before advancing along
the cavity. Flow is, and continues to be, very turbulent at the gated end of the cavity, but turbulent
flow is not in itself a disadvantage provided it does not result in the trapping of air. With the main
runner extended well beyond the gate, as shown, little air is carried in with the metal stream, and
air from the cavity space, which is initially ingested in the turbulent metal, is subsequently carried
forward as the mass flow progresses along the cavity, and is expelled at the advancing free
surface.

As the stream moves down the cavity, the metal immediately in contact with the wall
surfaces becomes stationary and the layers adjoining the surfaces are much retarded. Thus, a
rapidly moving ribbon at the center of the section is being forced through a sleeve of stationary or
slowly moving metal. This central core travels at a higher velocity than the average speed at
which the mass is advancing along the cavity. Entrained air is thus carried forward and, provided
the cavity is sufficiently long, is expelled into the free space ahead of the metal stream. If the
runner layout is designed to a void trapping air that may be carried into the cavity at a late stage in
filling, air inclusions in the casting can be largely avoided.

Metal flowing through the cavity progressively loses heat, with the result that there is a
thermal gradient from end to end, but if a blind (ungated) runner is provided as shown in Fig.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 37

3.12, the steepness of this gradient is greatly reduced. Nevertheless, it is likely that terminal
overflows will be needed to act as additional heat sources and to receive the last of the metal
flowing through the section, which, with this gating arrangement, is the coolest. Indeed, it is only
when the casting fills progressively in this manner that terminal overflows are fully effective.

Form of the overflow is important. A single, long overflow, gated to the whole length of the end
wall, is not desirable, because it affords no control over filling in the last, critical stages. Several
small overflows, each of postage-stamp area and from ¼ to ⅜ in. deep, are preferred. Appropriate
positions are indicated in Fig. 3.12, the variable spacing serving to control the local thermal input.
The overflow impressions can be sunk before trials are carried out, but should be left ungated.
The volume of metal taken up by terminal overflows should be kept to a minimum, as it is
undesirable to delay the final pressure pulse by more than a few milliseconds after filling has been
completed.

Gating Modifications. Gating to one end is purely an expedient to achieve the desired
result, and not a fixed principle to be adopted uncritically. If, for example, the casting were of a
shape and thickness similar to the casting shown in Fig. 3.12, but with a heavier central pad, it
would be preferable to feed into the heavy section, from a narrower and deeper gate (about 25 by
2.4 mm.) instead of to one end. The heavy section would permit an initial buildup of metal, and
the stream would then advance, full bore, toward each end of the cavity. Similarly, if there were a
heavy section at one end of the casting, it should be gated at that end, and if the casting tapers, the
gate should be at the wider rather than at the narrower end, to avoid a slowing down of the
advancing edge of molten metal within the die cavity.

Gating Thin-Section Parts

A wall thickness of 2.5 mm. is typical of a wide range of aluminum die-castings, and even
thinner sections are not uncommon. The thinner the section, the greater is the frictional resistance
encountered within the metal stream when it is flowing full bore. Even a few thousandths of an
inch variation in section thickness has a marked effect on the local flow. With a 1.6 mm. section,
the gate depth cannot exceed about 1.15 mm., but since the total cross-sectional area of the gate
cannot be diminished in proportion to the reduction in the cross-sectional area of the cavity,
because more rapid filling is needed, the length of the gate must be increased.

Long gates are undesirable, because they reduce control over the flow pattern. Preferential
flow occurs at those portions of a long gate at which the backpressure of metal in the cavity is
least, and militates against the maintenance of an unbroken front of advancing metal. Thin-section

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 38

castings, if of considerable length, are therefore best fed from a single runner with a multiplicity
of gates, as shown in Fig. 3.13. Because of the increased frictional resistance in thin sections, it is
easier to fill the whole space between the cavity surfaces before the stream has spread very far
from the gate. This applies even if the casting is flat.

Fig. 3.13 Multiple gating for feeding a long, hollow (cored) thin wall casting

With the casting shown in Fig. 3.13, two main factors affect flow. Initially, the hot metal
abutting the core will be forced sideways along the near wall as soon as injection begins.
However, as resistance to flow increases, the rate of lateral flow diminishes and more of the metal
passes straight over the core to the far side of the cavity. Because local flow through a chilling
section tends to become stabilized, the metal thereafter advances preferentially along the far side
of the cavity and air is likely to be trapped on the crown of the casting if the gates are close
together, and on the near (gated) side if they are far apart. It is for this reason that the main runner
is placed at some distance from the cavity, with feeding runners leading to the gates. This
arrangement permits the provision of overflows of substantial volume (and vented by large-
diameter ejectors) at positions between the gates.

Core Displacement. In producing castings of the type shown Fig. 3.13, it is often helpful, if
tolerances allow, positioning the core asymmetrically in the section. By increasing the wall
thickness on the gated side by 0.125 mm., and diminishing the thickness on the other side by the
same amount, flow can be directed preferentially along the near side, and the points of final fusion
are then located on the far side, where overflows can be better placed from the viewpoint of
thermal balance. Such a result can be achieved only if the allowable displacement of the core is a
substantial fraction of the section thickness.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 39

Bracket Gating. The appropriate location for the gate on an angle bracket or similar part is on the
inside corner. This location gives the desired buildup of metal adjacent to the gate and a mass
flow to each end, provided the casting section is thin (from 2 to 2.5 mm.) and even. With castings
of thicker section, or if the arms join at an obtuse angle, there is likely to be preferential flow
along the outer edge if a single gate is provided, and it is desirable to gate from two parallel
runners.

If the casting is of thin section, on the other hand, the layout should be similar to that of
Fig. 3.13, with several gates fed from a single runner. There should be two channels leading from
the biscuit, and arranged to meet the runner opposite ungated portions of the cavity edge. This
layout is preferable not only because it avoids heat concentrations, but also because it reduces the
distance that the metal must travel along the main runner.

Many die-castings used in the automotive industry for dashboard, taillight and grille
members, and in the appliance industry for ornamental trim on home appliances, are long and
thin. Because most of these castings are chromium plated, their as-cast surface finish is critical.
To be economically feasible, they must have thin wall sections. Metal must flow through the
gating system and fill the die cavity with as little turbulence as possible, to meet these
requirements.

Fig.3.14 shows an ejector die half that represents a well-designed runner-gate-vent system
for producing long, thin zinc die-casting. In this system, the metal enters near the center of the
lower portion of the die. It is brought from the sprue to one end of the die by a long lateral runner,
which branches into a long feed runner at the bottom edge of the casting and a short runner at the
top left side of the casting. With these runners filled, metal will flow mainly upward through the
die cavity to form the casting. Ample overflows are located along the upper right portion of the
die to keep the heat gradient in the die uniform. These overflows are vented to permit trapped
gases to escape, and can. be extended as needed to bleed off the chilled metal to obtain the
required surface finish.

When castings are produced in long dies like that in Fig. 3.14, external heat is applied at
the extreme ends of the die, especially during start-up and until heat balance has been reached;
otherwise, misruns are likely to occur.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 40

Fig. 3.14 Arrangement of gates, runners, vents and overflows in an ejector die half for making
automotive grill component 107 cm. long 30 cm. wide, with an average wall thickness of 1.25
mm. system represents good design for metal feeding.

Gating Rectangular Frames

Internal gating of rectangular frames is a modification of the method shown in Fig.3.13.

The common practice of gating along one of the shorter inner edges is seldom satisfactory,
because it usually results in. the projection of the metal stream around the entire periphery of the
casting at an early stage of injection. This condition is more likely to arise if the outer wall of the
frame is thicker than the web. With the external venting thus completely sealed off, there is a
sudden buildup of backpressure within the cavity, the thin-section web fills too slowly, and
surface blemishes result.

Fig. 3.15 Internal gating of a narrow channel-section

frame
Fig. 3.16 Method of feeding to one corner of a
channel-section frame from a cruciform main runner
Fig. 3.16

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 41

For a narrow frame, it is preferable to gate to the longer sides near one end, convergent
feeds being used to direct the metal back into the corners. A heavy mass of runner metal is
avoided by taking a separate runner from the biscuit to each of the feeds, as shown in Fig. 3.15.
With this arrangement, space is allowed for an internal overflow at the middle of the short side, if
needed. For a wider frame, it is desirable to revert to twin gates at the corners. The runners should
be carried well into the angles but, again, a central gap should be provided, to serve as an
overflow, as in the layout shown in Fig. 3.16.

These feeding methods are suitable for frames up to about 38 by 20 cm. within the normal
range of web thickness. It is undesirable to go beyond these dimensions unless the casting is of
sufficiently thick section to permit the use of heavier-than-normal gates (2.5 to 3.0 mm. deep);
otherwise, the filling time is excessive. Larger frames should be fed at both ends, symmetrically
repeating the layouts shown in Fig. 3.15 and Fig. 3.16. In either arrangement, slight variations at
the junction of biscuit and runners are called for, depending on whether the long axis of the frame
is horizontal or vertical. The total cooling contraction with large frames is often sufficient to
involve a risk of cracking before the part can be ejected; therefore, it is necessary to make full use
of overflow wells to keep up the temperature over the central portions of the longer sides.

Very thin frames should be fed in the same manner as shown in Fig. 3.13, the main
runners being carried almost all the way along the inner edges of the casting. A single, continuous
runner, even if fed by several approach channels, should be avoided, because in practice one or
another of the channels may become partially blocked by chilled metal at the start of injection,
and may later be back-filled by metal that has traveled all around the remainder of the feeding
runner.

If the feeding runner is segmented, the pressure pulse, as the individual short segments are
filled and the entry of metal into the cavity begins, is normally sufficient to restart the flow of
molten metal in the approach channel that is partly blocked. Use of a single approach channel to a
continuous loop runner eliminates this problem, but only at the cost of thermal unbalance and
delayed filling at gates on the far side of the loop from the approach channel.

Internal Feeding of Circular Castings

Internal feeding of circular castings requires close attention to runner layout, partly
because such castings are often decorative or semi decorative in nature, and must have a good

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 42

finish, and partly because "free-

surface" flow is very easily set up in
such components and results in internal
in homogeneity. The difficulties are
more apparent with large than with
small castings. Annular pieces of a size
that can be cast on 50 to 100 ton
machines with a plunger diameter of 40
Fig. 3.17 Internal gating of a small annular casting
mm. or less can often be cast
satisfactorily with a single convergent
feed, in the manner shown in Fig. 3.17.
Using a single divergent feed is likely
to give rise to blistering in the areas on
each side of the gate. Moreover, the
excessive mass of metal involved with
a divergent feed will usually reduce the
production rate.

A large annular casting can be

adequately fed by two parallel runners
(Fig. 3.18) if the section is thick enough
to allow the use of gates of the order of
2.3 mm. thickness. The runners ter- Fig. 3.18 Paired runner and feeding system for a large
annular casting
minate short of the cavity, and the
feeds, which are somewhat wider but
shallower, are sunk in the opposite half
of the die.

This is the only reliable method

for stepping up the channel width at the
approach to the gate. If a widened feed
is cut as a continuation of the runner,
the side extensions fill with dead metal,
and flow through the gate is divergent
and unstable.
Fig. 3.19 Part of runner system
(Symmetrically repeated) for large ring

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 43

Still larger castings can be fed

by three or four separate runners sub-
tending 345º or more, and arranged as
shown in Fig. 3.19. The feeds and gates
are located at each end of the various
runners.

Fig. 3.20 Multiple gating with tangential inclination foe

feeding a ring of thin section

The local flow pattern then achieved is similar to that obtained by the method illustrated in
Fig. 3.18, and the local heat concentration at the T-junction of each runner compensates for loss of
heat in metal flowing through the cavity toward the fusion zone. If the casting is not only of large
diameter, but also of disproportionately thin section, it becomes necessary to revert to multiple
gating, as with rectangular frames.

The greater tendency for the metal to flow preferentially around the outside edge of
circular parts demands some modification of the orientation of feeds. They should not be disposed
radially, but should be tangentially inclined, as in Fig. 3.20, so that metal from the intermediate
gates is directed back toward that advancing from the gates near the main runner. For a casting
that has a number of radially disposed ribs, the gates should be positioned between the ribs and
not in line with them.

Fig. 3.21External gating of a small annular Fig. 3.22 Single (a) and paired (b) feeds in gating system for
casting rings up to 20 to 23 cm. in diameter

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 44

External Gating of Annular Castings

External gating of small annular castings presents few difficulties, provided adequate
venting from the center is maintained. Whatever method of gating is adopted, the areas imme-
diately adjacent to the ends of the gate are usually the last to fill, and even divergent feeds seldom
have any marked deleterious effect, because metal spraying from the extremities is caught up in
the mass flow back toward the gate. Nevertheless, it is preferable to a void such unstable feeds.

Single gates are desirable, and for components up to about 125 mm. in diameter, a runner
of constant section, radially disposed and connecting with a wider "under lapped" feed, as shown
in Fig. 3.21, is satisfactory. When parts of this type are cast in multiple-cavity dies, the runners
should connect with a ring runner around the biscuit.

Somewhat larger annular castings, up to 20 or 23 cm. diameter, are best fed by a loop
runner and a single gate. The gated portion of such a casting is shown in Fig. 3.22(a). Overflows
are required in the central opening, gated to the far side, and on the outside, near the gate. If the
central hole is small, twin feeds (Fig. 3.22b) are preferable.

Gating Dish-Shape and Cup-Shape Castings

With dish-shape castings, the primary requirement is to avoid the flow of metal around the
outside wall, and to project it over the crown of the cavity to reach the far side. Skin flow along
the convex face must be avoided, lest air trapped on the underside of the initially projected skin
form blisters. The only effective solution (apart from feeding at the center through a solid, vertical
sprue) is to use paired, convergent gates, as shown in Fig. 3.23, to build up the metal to full web
thickness as soon as it enters the cavity. Metal is then projected forward in a substantially parallel
sided stream right over the crown, and thereafter spreads laterally to fill the remainder of the
cavity. To avoid overheating of the gate region, the runner should be as light in cross section as is
practicable, and a large number of small (but not shallow) overflows should be provided around
the whole of the ungated portion of the periphery. If there are internal radial ribs, some of the
overflows should be gated to the ends of those ribs, but the cavity should be oriented so that the
two feeding gates are on either side of one of the ribs.

Cup-shape castings, especially deep, cylindrical housings with heavy, circumferential

flanges at the base, are among the most difficult parts to gate satisfactorily for production in hori-
zontal cold-chamber machines.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 45

The satisfactory methods provide

for gating to a point on the top face. One
method that can be used with twin-cavity
dies is to feed in the ordinary manner to
the back of a movable cavity member and
thence by way of tapered sprues to the
impressions. The slug and cross runner
are sheared from the back' of the die plate
at the end of the first part of the two-stage
die-opening stroke. If it is not practicable
Fig. 3.23 Paired convergent gates for feeding a disk
to gate anywhere except at the base, the or a dish-shape casting
most satisfactory method assuming that
the casting is not heavily flanged is to
provide a pair of convergent runners
arranged to feed up under the edge of the
casting, as shown in Fig. 3.24. This
illustration shows the gating to one cavity
of a two-cavity die. Note that the two
feeding runners are not disposed equi-
angularly to the main runner, which
would result in metal entering first
through the gate nearer the biscuit. Fig. 3.24 Gating for a small cup-shape casting. A two-
cavity die was used; one cavity is shown here

For a larger casting of 20-cm. diameters, it is inadvisable to rely on a single pair of gates
to project the metal over the crown and down the other side, before meeting the flow of metal
around the sides. Such a casting may be gated on opposite sides, using twin gates. The metal flow
is then convergent just inside the cavity, and the combined streams merge with those from the op-
posite gates on the top face of the part. Subsequent flow is lateral across the face, the metal
spreading downward along the sides rather slowly to merge with that moving around the wall of
the casting. Overflows are necessary near the last points to fill, which are approximately
equidistant from the gates on each side.

Larger and thinner castings may be gated in the same manner, using three or even four
pairs of gates. For such castings, the branch runners are brought off from a completely annular
runner, which should be kept well away from the base of the casting, even though the use of

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 46

larger die blocks is necessitated. In practice, many of the troubles encountered in the production
of such parts arise from the use of die blocks so small that the gating possibilities are too limited.

Choice of Section to be Fed

The choices of a section into which to feed demands care. If there is one localized heavy
section in a component that is mainly thin-webbed, it usually is desirable to feed into that section
through a heavy gate, the stream then moving out in all directions from the heavy section. If,
however, a casting has several local thicker sections, it is better to feed into the thin web at points
between the heavier portions, because fusion of the flows is more likely to be satisfactory if the
streams meet where the distance between the cavity walls is greatest. However, to avoid porosity,
isolated heavy sections into which it is impossible to gate, should not be fed by merging streams.
The gates should be located so that such an isolated section is filled either by the flow from one
specific gate or by an already merged joint flow.

In feeding long, ribbed castings, such

as grills, it is of even more importance that as
much as possible of the air in the runners
should be forced through the gates before
metal enters, and for this reason close control
of the directionality of flow in the runner
system itself is necessary. If the ribs are
united at the end by a fairly heavy transverse
section, the gates should be placed
intermediate between the ribs, as shown in
Fig. 3.25(a), but if the transverse section is of
no greater cross section than the ribs
themselves, it is better to gate opposite the
ends of the ribs, as shown in Fig. 3.25 (b). In
either gating arrangement, a cross runner
should be cut parallel
Fig. 3.25 Modifications of runner layout to suit the
sections into which they feed

with the end of the casting, and fed by several channels from the point of metal entry, to minimize
the distance of flow along this cross runner. For open-end grill type parts, this arrangement is
modified, as shown in Fig. 3.25 (c).

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 47

Other Die-Design Factors

When twin gates or multiple gates are used, it is of critical importance that the depth of
gates be identical at all feeding points. Friction in the gate area modifies the velocity of metal
entry, and if one gate, or a portion of a gate, is even a few thousandths of an inch deeper than
average, metal will flow preferentially at this point. Thus, if a greater volume of metal is required
to pass through one gate than through the others, the required result should be accomplished by
increasing the width of the gate, rather than by altering the depth of the gate.

Because of the inertia of the rapidly

moving metal stream, it is the directional
orientation of the feeding runner that
determines the direction of flow into the cavity.
Thus, with identical gate designs but different
runner orientations (Fig. 3.26), the direction of
flow of metal through the gate varies. Fig. 3.26 Effect direct orientation of runners on
the flow of metal through gates

Convergent flow is not achieved merely by cutting the taper on the gates to appropriate
angles. If the runners are divergent (Fig. 3.26b and c), the directionality that they impart will
determine the flow path immediately within the cavity, while pockets of "dead" metal will be
formed at the sides of the gates.

Runners should be milled in the die block and should be of constant, substantially
rectangular cross section. Tool marks should be polished out to minimize the thickness of the
stagnant boundary layer within the channel and to promote optimum flow conditions.

Balancing Die-Casting Gates

In the design of gating and venting for die-casting dies, some producers of die-castings can
rely on the trial and error experience of older craftsmen. In the absence of such experience, how-
ever, the producer is obliged to copy existing gating and venting arrangements, which inevitably
leads to mistakes. The correction of faults in gating design rapidly becomes a preponderant factor
in operating costs, because of machine downtime, tooling costs, and delays in delivery. In
addition, the faulty castings resulting from incorrectly designed gating cannot be finished
economically, thus adding another heavy burden to operating costs. For these reasons, gating and
venting are generally the most significant cost factors in the production of die-castings and thus

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 48

warrant engineering analysis. The principal objectives in such an analysis are:

1) To apply current gating theory to gating design and to practical shop use
2) To develop a successful method for determining cavity-fill time and for calculating
the values of other process variables related to gating design
3) To describe the results obtained when the method developed is applied to actual
production of castings under shop conditions.

Relation of Gating Theory to Practice

In approaching the problem of gating and venting in die design, two conflicting
requirements for cavity filling must be combined in a reasonable compromise. These basic
requirements are:

1) Cavity fill should be as slow as possible, for optimum venting.

2) Cavity fill must be fast enough to be completed before the compression phase of
the machine cycle sets in and before solidification of metal can take place in the
most remote and thinnest sections of a given casting.

Cavity-Fill Time. Basically, a die-casting die is a form of heat exchanger and, as such, is
subject to the laws of heat transfer. On the basis of these laws, four characteristics of a casting
were examined as starting values for the calculation of optimum cavity-fill time: (a) average wall
thickness, (b) ratio of weight to surface area, (c) ratio of cavity volume to maximum distance from
the gate, and (d) minimum wall thickness. Of these four characteristics, minimum wall thickness
was found to be the most influential in determining the best engineering compromise for cavity-
fill time. The distance of the thinnest wall from the gate was of secondary but significant
importance.

Initially, use was made of Foster Bennett's calculations for heat exchange, as well as his
tables and definition of maximum allowable cavity fill time (Ref 1). These calculations were
based on Fournier's equation in which the rate of heat flow is dependent on five factors - namely,
the heat conductivity of the metal to be cast, the heat content of the quantity of metal in the cavity,
the surface area of the cavity, the distance the heat has to diffuse (half the casting wall thickness),
and the temperature difference between the injected metal and the die walls. Table 3.1, showing
optimum cavity-fill times for two aluminum alloys and one zinc alloy, was developed from
Bennett's calculations.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 49

Table 3.1 Optimum Cavity –Fill Time

Cavity fill time, sec.
Minimum wall
Aluminum alloys Zinc alloys
thickness, mm.
380 (a) 13 (b) AG40A (c)
0.76 0.006 0.004 0.003
1.27 0.012 0.008 0.007
1.52 0.017 0.011 0.010
1.90 0.027 0.017 0.016
2.28 0.040 0.026 0.024
2.54 0.048 0.032 0.030
2.80 0.059 0.038 0.037
3.18 0.072 0.050 0.047
3.81 0.110 0.072 0.072
4.65 0.150 0.105 0.105
5.08 0.180 0.125 0.125
6.35 0.280 0.205 0.205

(a) Die temperature, 260º C: metal temperature at gate, 638 to 643º C

(b) Die temperature, 260º C: metal temperature at gate, 641 to 646º C
(c) Die temperature, 204º C: metal temperature at gate, 421 to 427º C

Gate Velocity. Another significant factor in the design of gating is the velocity of liquid metal
as it travels through the gates. This factor, generally referred to as gate velocity, is difficult to
establish. However, experience has shown that metal turbulence can be substantially reduced by
increasing the gate area and thereby lowering gate velocity without changing fill time.
Conversely, decreasing gate area and increasing gate velocity without changing fill time serves to
overcome premature solidification in remote areas of thin-wall castings.

Relating gate velocity to minimum wall thickness of castings resulted in the data shown in
Table 3.2 for aluminum alloys 380 and 13 and zinc alloy AG40A. For all three alloys, the gate
velocity varies inversely with minimum wall thickness. These data can be used, with the
following modifications: (a) slightly higher velocities than those shown should be used for long,
thin parts in which the direction of metal flow changes abruptly; and (b) lower velocities can be
used for castings of simple configuration. Finally, although gate velocities in the high range (33.5
to 48.8 Mps) and low range (6.1 to 18.3 Mps) are acceptable, velocities in the intermediate range
may yield erratic results.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 50

Gate Thickness. Selection of gate thickness

Thickness of Gate thickness, in.
from a given casting is often governed by the
wall Aluminum Zinc
size of the die parting face available for a
Very thin 0.8 0.7
required width of gate. Use of thinnest
possible gates facilitates trimming and Thin 1.3 0.9
cleaning operations. Based on the casting
Medium 1.6 1.4
wall thicknesses, the following gate
Thick 2.0 1.7
thicknesses are recommended in reference 2:

The above values are conservative and are not intended to discount the feasibility of even
thinner gates. The author has successfully used gates as thin as 0.5 mm. for aluminum alloy 380
(see Example 8) and 0.4 mm. for a zinc alloy.

For zinc alloy castings that are to be polished and plated over the gating areas, both
feeding gates and gates to overflows should be made as thin as possible, to avoid porosity and to
enhance appearance. Conversely, for nonporous aluminum castings that require deep machining
cuts, gates as thick as 3 mm. may be used (Example 10).

During die filling, thin gates require more hydraulic force than thick gates of the same
cross-sectional area, to overcome the choking effect. Thus, although both have the same area, a
gate 0.5 by 50 mm. will require more hydraulic force than one 1.0 by 25 mm.

Approach to the gates from a runner should be designed to produce a uniform increase in
metal velocity toward the gate. Fan gates must be tapered to provide a constant decrease in cross-
sectional area from the runner to the gate, as discussed in Reference 3. If possible, 60° angles
should be used for solid-front filling; however, the shape of the part may require a compromise.

Calculations

The data presented in Tables 3.2 are used in determining gate areas, injection-plunger
diameters, plunger velocities, and other gating variables. Calculations begin with listing on a work
sheet the casting alloy and the minimum wall thickness of the casting, Table 3.2 will denote a
projected gate velocity, which may be slightly adjusted to suit the casting (see text on Gate
Velocity). Finally, the weight of metal through the gate should be estimated as accurately as
possible. This weight consists of the weight of the casting and overflows.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 51

Table 3.2 Assumed Gate Velocity

Velocity meter per sec.

Minimum wall
Aluminum alloys Zinc alloys
thickness, mm.
380 (a) 13 (b) AG40A (c)
0.76 48.8 44.3 45.75
1.27 47.0 45.75 44.2
1.52 45.75 44.2 42.7
1.90 44.22 42.7 41.2
2.28 43.31 41.8 40.25
2.54 42.7 41.2 39.65
2.80 41.8 40.3 38.75
3.18 41.2 39.65 38.1
3.81 39.65 38.1 36.6
4.65 38.13 36.6 35.1
5.08 36.6 35.1 33.5
6.35 33.55 32.0 30.5

(a) Die temperature, 260º C: metal temperature at gate, 640º C

(b) Die temperature, 260º C: metal temperature at gate, 643º C
(c) Die temperature, 204º C: metal temperature at gate, 424º C

With three known values, namely the cavity-fill time, the gate velocity, and the weight of
metal through the gate, it is possible to calculate the following: (a) cavity-fill rate, (b) gate area,
(c) required plunger diameter, and (d) plunger velocity. These items are calculated and entered on
the work sheet. With the gate area determined, it is possible to select a gate thickness and width
that will satisfy the area requirement and the configuration of the casting. These items, in turn, are
entered on the work sheet.

With the above information and the suggested design standards for runners, overflows,
and vents given in two subsequent sections of this article, a basis is established for designing the
gating system and for selecting an appropriate die-casting machine for producing the castings.

Among the miscellaneous items that should be evaluated and entered on the work sheet
are any unusual aspects of design or shape of the casting that might affect gating or the operating
variables of the die-casting machine. For example, if the thinnest cross section of the casting is

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 52

near the gate, longer filling times should be selected. On the other hand, if there are thin sections
far from the gate, or very deep thin ribs, or thin sections over embedded cold heating-element
inserts (such as those used in castings for electric-iron soleplates), the lesser values must be
applied in calculating cavity-fill time.

Frequently, the calculations must be reworked backwards to corroborate the values

initially fed in. Adjustments may be required to compensate for insufficient machine capabilities,
lack of available plunger sizes, limitations on the placement of gates, or compromises in fill time
on castings of different size in family dies (Example 12).

Limitations. Because the calculations are based on metal temperature, die temperature, and the
setting and reproducibility of plunger speeds, means of measuring and controlling these variables
must be provided. Control of metal temperature in the holding furnace is not difficult, especially
when two-chamber induction furnaces are used. In cold-chamber machines, heat loss in the ladle
can be calculated but is usually insignificant. When hot plunger tips are used at operating tem-
peratures of 315º to 371º C, heat loss in the cold chamber is negligible. However, when water-
cooled plungers are used, heat loss may be significant and may require close control. Although
heat loss in the runners is small, because of the high velocity of the metal, it can be compensated
for by superheating in the holding furnace. For example, a superheating temperature of 650º to
663º C may be used for aluminum alloy 380 to ensure a metal temperature of 638º to 650º C at the
gate. Variations in die temperature attributable to cycle time are less easy to predict. The barrier to
heat flow presented by die surfaces, by configuration of the die cavity, and by cores can
significantly limit heat removal. Although thermocouples can be placed in some areas of the die,
it is not always possible to place them where they are most needed. Hence, the only guide to heat
control in these areas is the quality and appearance of the casting,

Plunger speeds can now be measured and controlled by direct-reading instrumentation.

Nevertheless, these instruments are not foolproof, and errors in timing are not uncommon. The
calculations proposed in this article provide reasonable latitude for small variations in plunger
speed.

Finally, the calculations for aluminum alloy 380 are more dependable than those for
aluminum alloy 13, because the latter are based on a single example (Example 14). Calculations
for zinc alloy castings are also tentative, because it was not possible to set plunger speeds at
predetermined values.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 53

3.10 Some Gating Formulas:

Where
F = Gate area in mm²
F=V/W.T V = Volume of casting inclusive of overflow in cm³
W = Gate velocity in m/sec.
T = Cavity fill time in sec.
Where
F = 0.39 (G / K) F = Gate area in mm²
K Nos. of Gates
9 1
0.39 = Factor (constant)
7 2 G = Net weight of casting inclusive of overflow in grams
5 3
3 4 K = Factor for number of gates.
Where
F = Gate area in mm²
G = Net weight of casting inclusive of overflow in grams
F=G/ .W.T
= of corresponding Alloy gravity
W = Gate velocity in m/sec.
T = Cavity fill time in sec.
Where
F = Gate area in mm²
F = 1.8 (G / 10) 0.39 = Factor (constant)
G = Net weight of casting inclusive of overflow in grams
K = Factor (constant)
Where
F = Gate area in mm²

F=A V.S A = Factor (constant)

V = Volume of casting inclusive of overflow in cm³
S = average wall thickness in cms.
Where
F = Gate area in mm²
F=V/ (15x0.2)=V/3 15m/s = Gate velocity al alloys m/sec. (constant)
0.2 sec. = Cavity fill time for all alloys.
V = Volume of casting inclusive of overflow in cm³

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 54

3.11 Calculation of Casting Area & Locking Force:

Injection Force f
= Specific Pressure (in Die) = P
Plunger surface s

Locking Force F
= Casting Area (max.) = A
Specific pressure P

Locking Force F
= Specific Pressure (max.) = P
Casting area A

Where F = Locking Force in tons or kgs.

A = Projected Area in cm2.

P = Specific Pressure in kg/cm2.

. f = Injection Force in tons.

. s = Plunger surface area in cm2.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 55

3.12 Runner Design

In most dies, the runner is machined entirely in the ejector half and the cover half forms
only the flat side of a runner. The width and depth of runners varies with the volume of metal to
be injected into the cavity. Sometimes, the cross-sectional area must be adjusted to obtain thermal
balance in the die. Most runners are uniform in cross section until the gate is approached. At this
point, the depth is reduced and usually the width is increased, to form a gate inlet. The change in
the shape of runner at the gate inlet can slow or speed up metal flow.

Standard proportions for runner configurations,

as established within reasonable limits are shown in
Fig. 3.27. To obtain “gate-controlled fill” of the die
cavity, the cross sectional area of a runner must be
larger than that of the gate. However, for minimum
heat loss, metal velocity in the runner feeding a gate
must be as high as possible. For these reasons, a Ratio of width (W) to depth (D)
is 1.6 : 1 to 1.8 : 1
runner-to-gate area ratio of 1.15 : 1 to 1.5 : 1 is R = 1.5 up to 12 mm. Width,
generally used. Oversize runner will increase metal R = 2.5 over 12 mm. Width.

losses and remelting cost. Fig. 3.27 Cross section of a runner,

Showing standard proportions

Runners should be designed with a stepped increase in cross-sectional area from the gate
via branch runner to a main runner and on to sprue or biscuit, to promote uniform metal velocity
and uniform ratio of cross-sectional area to perimeter. The cross-sectional area of a feed runner is
equal to or less than the sum of the cross-sectional areas of the branch runners. A thick runner (of
square or round section) will not solidify fast enough for the cycling rates generally used. A thin,
flat runner will cause the metal to lose too much heat before it enters the gate. As a compromise, a
standard width-to-depth ratio of 1.6 : 1 to 1.8 : 1 has been adopted. This ratio provides for
reasonably fast cooling without excessive heat loss during cavity filling. Runners can be placed in
either half of the die and can be carried over slides. Channels for water-cooling should be placed
under runners for rapid solidification.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 56

3.13 Vents

Because the air in the die cavities must be permitted to escape as the metal enters, a
venting system for dies is essential. Vents or air-escape passages often lead out of overflows.
Venting may also be provided by small grooves cut across the parting plane of the die or by the
clearances around ejector pins or movable cores and slides. Sometimes, clearances around sleeves
or inserts used as die components provide the necessary venting.

The cross sectional areas of vents should be at least 50% of the gate area. Self-cleaning of
vents can be ensured by making vents 0.5 to 0.6 mm. Thick for the last 40 to 50 mm of length and
then decreasing their thickness to 0.1 to 0.2 mm. for the leads out of the die. This is sufficiently
large to allow the escape of air and yet, under normal injection pressures, restricted enough to
prevent the passage of molten metal. Ejectors pins are often used for venting by grinding flats
have to be short enough to remain self-cleaning.

Under unusually high pressure, the metal may be forced through the vents. When this
happens, it is necessary to use one or more chill strips. A chill strips (also known as chill block) is
made by machining matching slots or strips in both the cover half and ejector half of the die. To
provide maximum surface for cooling, these strips are corrugated in shape. When water-cooling is
used, as is generally the case, each strip contains a duct through which water is passed, thus
providing cold section in the die, which serves to solidify the metal and prevent its passage
through the vents. Chill strips may vary in area, although 100 by 100 mm is common.

3.14 Overflows

Overflows provide an exit for the air from the casting cavity and serves to draw the metal
around a corner or a core. Overflows also furnish a cavity for dross, oxide and debris that washes
out of the die and gooseneck and they provide heat to improve the thermal balance of the die
cavity.

In a casting of non-uniform cross section, overflows may be required adjacent to the thin
portion of the casting so that sufficient heat is concentrated at these locations to permit proper
flow of metal. Overflows are closely spaced in the thin section of the die cavity and around the
area of the cavity that are farthest from the source of hot metal. The number and size of overflow
assigned to the dies should be held to conservative limits, because, in requiring injection of excess
metal, overflows contributes to die wear in the gating areas and increase the amount of metal that
must be trimmed from die castings and remelted.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 57

The placing of overflows is generally predictable and their location and size are designed
into the gating system of a die. However, the addition or relocation of overflows is the most
frequent a cause of failure in the 15% of dies for which first-shot success is not achieved. The
weight of metal in overflows should be added to the part weight in calculating the total weight of
metal flowing through the gate.

In some family dies, more overflows are added to the smallest casting than are required for
optimum filling, in order to bring the combined weight of casting and overflows closer to that of
larger members of the gate cluster. Sometimes, overflows are added to heat cold spots in the die.
However, overflows should be used mainly to direct excess flow to areas of the casting that
otherwise would be incompletely filled or that would suffer from parameter solidification or air
inclusion. To avoid flow from one overflow to another, overflows should not be connected. Only
the need to obtain flatness for direct trimming from the gate should force a departure from this
rule.

3.15 Water Cooling

Water-cooling requirements for the dies are established by the heat input of the molten
metal, which depends on the type of metal being cast, the weight per shot and the number of shots
per unit of time. (Weight includes the casting, gate, runners, overflows and sprue or biscuit.)

Because the die functions as a heat exchanger, an optimum die temperature must be
established and maintained. Common practice is to design the die with more cooling channels
than are needed and to keep the flow of cooling water at a minimum during die start-up. Water
flow may be increased after the die is at operating temperature.

In normal operation, an approximately one third of the heat input is dissipated by

convection and radiation; the remaining two thirds must be removed by water-cooling or by other
methods. For example, if an aluminum die casting produces a heat input of 60,000 Btu per hour,
20,000 Btu will be dissipated by convection and radiation and 40,000 Btu indicates the amount of
water-cooling. The 40,000 Btu indicates the amount of water-cooling required, but does not
specify the location of the cooling lines. Section thickness, cores, injection rate and localized hot
spots determine the location of water lines.

3.16 Materials Used for Die Parts

Die casting dies are exposed to severe thermal and mechanical cyclic loading, which puts
high demands on the die material. There are thus a number of phenomena which restrict die life.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 58

The most important are:

1) Thermal fatigue (heat checking)

2) Corrosion/erosion
3) Cracking (total failure)
4) Iindentation

Basic Die Material Properties:

1) Thermal expansion coefficient

The thermal expansion coefficient ought to be low to get low thermal stresses.

2) Thermal conductivity

A high thermal conductivity reduces the thermal gradients and thereby the thermal
stresses. It is, however, very difficult to predict or to investigate experimentally to what extent the
thermal conductivity influences this matter.

3) Hot yield strength

A high hot yield strength lowers the plastic strain and is beneficial in resisting heat
checking.

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 59

4) Temper resistance

If a die material with initially high hot yield strength becomes softer during use due to
high temperature exposure it means that the heat checking damage accelerates. It is therefore
important that the die material has a good resistance to softening at high temperature exposure.

5) Creep strength

The softening associated with temper resistance is clearly accelerated by mechanical load.
The die material is exposed both to high temperature and mechanical load. It is thus obvious that a
good die material will possess resistance to the joint action of high temperature and mechanical
load as quantified by high creep strength. In fact, it has been proven by experiment that heat
checking cracks also can be produced by constant temperature and cyclic mechanical load.

6) Ductility

The ductility of the die material quantifies the ability to resist plastic strain without
cracking. At the initiation stage of the thermal fatigue damage the ductility governs the number of
cycles before visible cracks appear for a given hot yield strength and temperature cycle. At the
crack growth stage the ductility has a declining influence.

The ductility of the material is greatly influenced by slag inclusions and segregations, i.e.
the purity and the homogeneity of the steel. The steels for die casting dies are therefore processed
in a special way. The ductility of the steel has been considerably improved by means of a special
melting and refining technique, a controlled forging process and a special microstructure
treatment. This improvement is especially pronounced in the center of thick blocks.
Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director
 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 60

Selection of die material for die-casting dies depends mainly on the type of metal being
cast and on production quantities. Following table will gives recommendations for materials for
cavity blocks, cores, slides, ejector pins and mould base parts are listed here.

Fig. 3.28 Various material used for Die casting die parts

Position Part Description Material HRc

1 Fixed plate, Movable plate, Spacer, Ejector M. S.

holder & Ejector bar.
2 Core housing, Cavity housing, Backing M. S. or En 8
plate, Cooling jacket & Ejector plate.
3 Ejector guide bush. Ph. Bronze
(Cu 86, Sn 4)
4 Guide pillar, Guide bush, Ejector guide pin, OHNS (O1) 56 – 60
Angle pin, Locator & button pad. SAE 8620 Case 64 - 68
Core 38 - 42
5 Slide, Wedge lock, Angle pin Guide rail & Case hardening Case 64 - 68
Wear plate. steel – SAE 8620 Core 38 - 42
or Equivalent
6 Die inserts, Cores, Sliding cores, Plunger H 11 or H 13 44 – 48
bush, Spreader, Runner plate & Die blocks. (Hot die steel) (Vacuum-
ASSAB - Vidar hardening 50–54)
supreme or Orvar
supreme
7 Small inserts, Core pin, Ejector pin, Return H 13 Case 64 - 68
pin. (Hot die steel - Core 44 - 48
Nitrided)

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 61

3.17 Dimensional Stability

Distortion during the Hardening and Tempering of Die Casting Dies

When a die casting die is hardened and tempered, some warpage or distortion normally
occurs. This distortion is usually greater when using higher austenitizing temperatures.

This is well known, and it is normal practice to leave some machining allowance on the
die prior to hardening. This makes it possible to adjust the die to the correct dimensions after
hardening and tempering by grinding, EDM operations etc.

Distortion takes place because of stresses in the material. These stresses can be divided into:

• Machining Stresses
• Thermal Stresses
• Transformation Stresses

Machining Stresses

This type of stress is generated during machining operations such as turning, milling and
grinding.

If stresses have built up in a part, they will be released during heating. Heating reduces
strength, releasing stresses through local distortion. This can lead to overall distortion. In order to
reduce distortion while heating during the hardening process, a stress relieving operation can be
carried out. It is recommended that the material be stress-relieved after rough machining. Any
distortion can then be adjusted during fine machining, prior to the hardening operation.

Thermal Stresses

These stresses are created when the die is heated. They increase if heating takes place
rapidly or unevenly. The volume of the die is increased by heating. Uneven heating can result in
local variations in volume growth, leading to stresses and distortion. Preheating in stages is
always recommended in order to equalize the temperature in the component. An attempt should
always be made to heat slowly enough so that the temperature remains virtually equal throughout
the die. What has been said regarding heating also applies to quenching. Very powerful stresses
arise during quenching.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 62

As a general rule, the cooling rates should be as fast as possible, relative to the acceptable
distortion level. It is important that the quenching medium is applied as uniformly as possible.
This is especially valid when forced air or protective gas atmosphere (as in vacuum furnaces) is
used. Otherwise temperature differences in the tool can lead to significant distortion. Step
quenching is recommended for larger, more complex dies.

Transformation Stresses

This type of stress arises when the microstructure of the steel is transformed. This is
because the three microstructures in question ferrite, austenite and martensite have different
densities, i.e. volumes. The greatest effect is caused by transformation from austenite to
martensite. This causes a volume increase. Excessively rapid and uneven quenching can also
cause local martensite formation, causing volume increases locally in a die giving rise to stresses
in some sections. These stresses can lead to distortion and, in some cases, cracks.

Fig. 3.29 Aluminum part for the automotive industry

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 63

Chapter 4

Standard Mould Units

A mould unit may be defined as an assembly of parts, which conforms to an accepted

structural shape & size. The mould unit is purchased with the mould plates suitably attached
together and a guidance system incorporated. Naturally the mould unit does not contain the
impression form and this aspect of mould manufacture must be left to a specialist mould-maker.

Mould unit manufacturers adopt the two-part mould as the ‘standard mould unit’ because
this particular mould construction is the most widely used design in industrial practice. The unit
comprises two mould plates (a cavity plate and a core plate) plus an ejector system as illustrated
in Fig. 18. along with table for variable plate sizes are shown on next page.

Advantages of using Standard Mould Units:

1. Drawing sheets for individual unit sizes are available. This reduces drawing time.
2. Less steel needs to be carried in stock, therefore investment is reduced.
3. Buying and stock control are simplified.
4. The cost of the mould unit is known therefore estimating is easier.
5. Waiting time for steel blanks, etc., is avoided.
6. Shaping, planning and drilling of steel plates and blocks is avoided.
7. Turning, grinding and fitting of guide pillars and bushes is similarly avoided.
8. The ejector plate is pre-positioned and located.
9. The individual mould plates are screwed and dowel together.
10. Machine time is saved as a result of 6 and 7 above.
11. Labour time is saved as a result of 6-9 above.
12. Work on the impression can usually begin immediately.
13. The individual mould unit components are standard: if damage occurs during
manufacture or in production, a part can be quickly replaced.
14. In small moulding companies, one mould unit can be used for several similar jobs.
Only the impression inserts need to be changed.
15. The overall time the mould is in the tool room is reduced.
16. Mould delivery time is reduced.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 64

Fig. 4.1 Photograph of Standard Mould Base for Die Casting Dies

Fig. 4.2 Standard Mould Base for Die Casting Dies (See for table on next page)

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Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 65

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 66

Standard Mould Units & Inter-changeable parts

for Die Casting Dies

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Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 67

Guide Pillar – Type I

Guide Pillar – Type II

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Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 68

Guide Bush – Type I

Guide Bush – Type II

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Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 69

Ejector Guide Pin

Ejector Guide Bush

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Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 70

Angle Pin

Ejector Pin

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Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 71

Locator

Spacer

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Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 72

Sprue Bush for Cold Chamber M/c

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 73

Sprue Bush & Spreader for Hot Chamber M/c

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 74

Chapter 5

Surface Finish

5.1 Die Cavities

All die cavities must be smooth enough to permit easy ejection of the casting. Aside from
this, the required surface finish of die cavities depends mainly on the application of the casting.
When the casting is to be painted or plated, particular care must be given to the die-cavity finish.

One method of producing a good finish the die cavity with diamond dust to smoothest
finish possible. During continued operation, this fine finish will “satin” to some extent, but a
small amount repolishing will restore the smoothness of the surface. This method is suitable for
cavities for casting the metals that melt at lower temperatures. Also duller finishes affords better
retention of the lubricants, thus prolonging die life. A satin or matt finish is best obtained by wet
blasting. Dry blasting with sand or steel grit is generally too sever and is likely to remove too
much metal from critical areas.

Plating of die cavities with chromium or electroless nickel has proved successful for dies
used for die casting of aluminum alloys. Although the main purpose is to built up worn surfaces
and thus to salvages the dies, plating with either of these metal helps, in addition, to produce
smooth cavity. Chromium plated die cavities have not been successful for die casting of zinc
alloys. Electroless nickel plating has been used for building up die cavities for casting zinc, but
this practice is not always successful and is regarded as marginal.

5.2 Die Castings

For good appearances, a casting must be homogenous, be free of surface imperfection due
to uncontrolled floe of metal (imperfections such as heat-sink marks, pits, porosity swirls, cold
shuts and misruns) and exhibit no imperfections caused by oil deposits and dross inclusions. A
normal amount of buffing seldom removes surface flaws. Excessive buffing is likely to break
through the dense skin and expose un-derlying porosity.

Hardware finish is a term used to describe a die-casting surface finish that will permit
decorative plating. To obtain good hardware finish, dies must be properly gated, overflow patterns
must be correctly placed to remove trapped gas and create heat balance, venting must be ample,

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 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 75

and only a minimum of die lubricant must be used. Polishing of the die cavities will greatly
increase the number of shots that can be made with one lubrication. The location of water lines for
cooling the die is important; improper cooling can create either hot spots in the die that produce
sink marks in the surface of the casting or cold spots that cause metal to freeze prematurely. If
openings from the die cavity into overflows are too large, the casting metal will circulate in and
out of the overflows and produce swirls, which appear in the casting surface and remain after plat-
ing. When possible, ejector pins should be short, so that the ejector-pin reflections can be blended
into the casting to avoid ejector-pin marks on the casting surface. Means for control of metal flow,
and proper methods of lubrication and ejection, are described in the section on Die Design in this
article.

For consistent production of hardware finish, the die-casting process must be controlled to
prevent flow lines, surface porosity, seams, and surface roughness from castings sticking to the
dies, whiskers, foliation and stains.

Flow lines are caused by improper gating and improper injection pressure, improper gate
lubrication, 'and back pressure. If flow lines cannot be allowed on casting surfaces, the amount of
lubricant should be controlled, gates should be enlarged, and more vents and overflow wells
should be used. (See Examples 365 and 366.)

Surface porosity results from excessive agitation during melting, pouring, and injection
of the molten metal. Turbulence of the molten metal can be eliminated by: (a) reducing agitation
during pouring into the cold chamber, (b) decreasing the plunger speed,(c) reducing the
abruptness and number of directional changes in the gating system and the mold cavity, (d) using
larger overflows and vents, and (e) increasing the gate area to minimize squirting.

Seams result when two divided streams of molten metal freeze without adequate welding.
This defect can be rectified by increasing the temperature of the die and the molten metal, by
fluxing the metal to minimize oxides that decrease the flow rate, by increasing the injection
pressure, and by increasing the number or size of vents.

Surface roughness caused by die soldering (adhesion of the casting to the die surface)
may be corrected by lowering the metal temperature and die temperature, by altering the die
design to avoid unfavorable impingement, by providing a more adequate die lubricant, or
sometimes by adjusting the alloy composition.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 76

If the casting sticks to the die and is scratched by rubbing against the die walls or cores
upon ejection, the draft must be increased.

Whiskers (mushroom like exudations) on casting surfaces are usually caused by the
lower-melting-point constituents of the alloy. These are still molten at casting ejection and
extrude through the skin of the casting. If the alloy cannot be changed, the heavy sections should
be decreased, the molten metal degassed, and the casting allowed cooling for a longer time before
being ejected from the die.

Foliation, or leafIike layering partly fused to the casting surfaces, results from premature
solidification of thin forerunners that are engulfed but not remelted by the main mass of molten
metal. Foliation can be prevented by ensuring that the die cavity is thoroughly clean before each
injection, and by increasing gate size to minimize forerunner effect. Raising the die temperature
sometimes eliminates this problem.

Stains can result from the presence of calcium salts or free iron in a water-soluble die
lubricant. Heat-tinted surfaces are caused by operating temperatures that are too high.

Grayish streaks in front of a gate are often caused by abnormal dispersion of silicon par-
ticles in an aluminum-silicon casting alloy, which is a result of the freezing rate. These 3treaks
may be eliminated by: (a) changing gate location or size (usually by enlargement), (b) changing
the direction of injection into the die cavity, or (c) maintaining a higher and more uniform die
temperature.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 77

Chapter 6

Die Wear

The rate of die wear is influenced chiefly by the temperature of the casting metal and by
the design of the die. When the metal has a casting temperature no higher than that of zinc alloys
and the die is of simple design, it is not unusual to obtain more than 5,00,000 shots before there is
significant amount of die wear. As metals with higher and higher casting temperatures are used,
progressing from zinc to aluminum and thence to copper alloys, die wear increases rapidly,
regardless of die design. As the configuration of the casting and gating system becomes more
complex, wear in localized portions of the die also increases, especially as the temperature of the
metal rises. Die erosion (wash) is likely to be severe when the hot metal goes around a corner.

Although die wear generally does not vary greatly when metals of the same type and
casting temperature are being cast, there are exceptions. For instance, the high-silicon aluminum-
base alloys sometimes cause more rapid die wear than the lower-silicon alloys. In one application,
in casting a high-silicon aluminum alloy (9% Si approx.) die wear in sprue area was O.25 mm. On
the diameter for 12,000 shots; when the same casting were made from a lower-silicon alloy (5%
Si approx.), 20,000 shots were made before die wear in the same location reached) 0.25 mm.

Frequently, a replaceable sleeve or insert can be used for high-wear area of a die, to avoid
rework of scrapping of the entire die. Plating is also used under some conditions.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 78

Chapter 7

Die Casting Alloys

CONTROL OF COMPOSITION

The composition of casting alloys strongly influences the die-casting process and the final
product, and should be checked periodically as the castings come from the machine. The greatest
source of impurities is return scrap from rejected castings, especially those that have been plated,
and trimmings (sprues, runners and flash). Scrap materials should be remelted in separate
facilities, and they should be analyzed before being recast.

7.1 Zinc Alloys

Compositions of the zinc die-casting alloys are given in Table 7.1. Good melting practice with
minimum agitation and close temperature control will cause little change in these compositions.
Overheating will result in a loss of aluminum through oxidation, and in an increase in iron due to
a decrease in the scavenging action provided by aluminum. Return scrap for remelting must be
clean and free of moisture. Clean scrap may be charged into the furnace in unlimited proportions,
provided it is of acceptable chemical composition. If there is doubt about the purity of the scrap, it
should not be used until analyzed.

Aluminum in amounts of 3.5 to 4.3% is added to zinc to strengthen the alloy and to
improve fluidity and castability. The casting of alloys containing less than 3.5% aluminum should
be avoided. If aluminum content is too low (especially when it gets below 2%), the attack on dies
and machinery becomes more aggressive and castability of the alloy decreases. When aluminum
content exceeds 4.3%, each increase in aluminum content up to the eutectic composition (5%
aluminum) results in a corresponding decrease in ductility and shock resistance.

As shown in Table 7.1, small amounts of magnesium are present in zinc die-castings to
counteract the tendency of the impurities in the zinc alloys to promote subsurface corrosion.
Magnesium also provides the hardness necessary for the handling of zinc die-castings. Preferably,
the magnesium content should be close to the minimum values shown in Table 7.1. When the
magnesium content of a zinc alloy casting exceeds 0.05%, the susceptibility of the casting to hot
cracking increases.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 79

Copper in small amounts helps minimize the adverse effects of impurities and moderately
increases hardness and strength. However, zinc alloys containing more than 1.25% Cu are not di-
mensionally stable, and age with a serious decrease in ductility.

Iron in the amounts usually present has no detrimental effect on the properties of zinc
alloys. However, excessive iron pickup can cause trouble. The iron picked up in melting is
removed with the surface dross; thus, good skimming practice is mandatory.

Lead, cadmium and tin are controlled by the magnesium addition. If they are present in
amounts above permissible limits, they promote hot shortness, and susceptibility to subsurface
corrosion. Nickel and chromium contamination results from remelting of plated castings. Small
amounts of silicon and manganese are sometimes introduced with aluminum alloy additions.
However, the concentration of any of the above elements is seldom high enough to cause any
difficulty.

TABLE 7.1a: Designations of Zinc Die-casting Alloys

Equivalent Designations
ASTM Government
Common Name Other
Number Number
Zamak-3
B 86, alloy SAE 903, Mazak-3,
(die casting) QQ-Z-363
AG 40A(XXlII) Gomak-3
Zamak-5
B86, alloy SAE 925, Mazak-5.
(die and Sand casting) QQ-Z-363
AC41A(XXV) Gomak-5

TABLE 7.2b: Chemical Compositions of Zinc die-casting Alloys

Composition %
Al Cu Pb Other
Common Name
Zamak-3
0.03-0.08 Mg, 0.005 Cd,
(die casting) 3.5-4.3 0.25 0.007
0.005Sn, 0.10Fe
Zamak-5
0.03-0.08 Mg, 0.005 Cd,
(die and Sand casting) 3.5-4.3 0.75-1. 25 0.007
0.005 Sn, 0.10 Fe

TABLE 7.1c: Physical Properties of Zinc Die-casting Alloys

Electrical
Density at 70°F Melting Range °F Thermal Thermal
Resistivity
Common Name Expansion, Conductivity
at 70°F
g /cc lb /cu in. Liquidus Solidus (µ-in./in./°F) BTU/ft/hr/°F
(µ-ohm -cm)
Zamak-3 6.60 0.240 728 717 15.2 66.0 6.37

Zamak-5 6.70 0.242 727 717 15.2 63.5 6.54

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 80

TABLE 7.1d: Typical Mechanical Properties and Uses of Common Zinc Die-casting Alloys
Tensile Brinnel Shear Endurance
Trade Elongation
Strength Hardness Strength Limit Uses
Name in² in., %
(1000 psi) Number (1000 psi) (1000 psi)
For die castings in
automotive parts,
Zamak-3 household utensils,
41.1 10 82 31 6.9
(die casting) padlocks, building
hardware, toys, and
novelties
For the same die casting
Zamak-5
purposes as Zamak.3
(die and Sand 47.6 7 91 38 8.2
above / Sand casting used
casting)
for drop hammer dies

7.2 Aluminum Alloys

Nominal compositions of the aluminum die-casting alloys are given in Table 7.2.

Aluminum alloys are extremely susceptible to iron pickup, especially under conditions of
overheating (heating above 663º C). Excessive iron pickup not only impairs the quality of the
casting, but also shortens the life of metal components in the melting and casting equipment.

Iron is present in aluminum die casting alloys up to a maximum concentration of 1.7%, but
normally in the range of 0.8 to 1.2%. At these concentrations, iron reduces the tendency of the
casting metal to solder to dies, increases hot strength and minimizes hot cracking. At higher
concentrations, iron decreases the fluidity of the alloy and may, in the presence of chromium and
manganese, cause sludging. A complex AlFeMn (Cr) Si constituent that reduces ductility and
machinability of aluminum alloys is formed at relatively low iron levels (above 0.8% Fe) when
the other contributing elements are present.

Manganese is normally specified in aluminum die-casting allays to a maximum of 0.5%.

Because manganese can form sludge when mixed with iron, manganese content must always be
considered in relation to iron content, particularly if metal temperature is lower than about 650º C.

Chromium content is normally less than the specified maximum of 0.25%. Nickel content
is usually limited to 0.5%, although some special alloys for which improved elevated-temperature
properties are desired may contain as much as3% Ni.

Zinc, when present in amounts up to 3%, mainly affects the specific gravity of the
aluminum alloy. As zinc content increases above 4%, Brinell hardness increases approximately
five points for each 1 % increase in zinc. In the range of 4 to 8% zinc, aluminum alloys are hot
short.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 81

Magnesium content is limited to 0.10% (except in alloys 218 and 360). Excessive amounts
of magnesium decrease the fluidity of molten aluminum alloys and also increase the hardness and
decrease elongation and impact strength of the castings.

TABLE 7.2a: Designations of Aluminum Die-casting Alloys

Equivalent Designations
ASTM SAE AMS
Trade Name
Number Number Number
13 B 85-46T - S9 305 4292
43 B 85-46T – S4 304
85 B 85-46T – SC5 4292
218
360 B 85-46T – SG2 309 4290
A380 B 85-46T – SC6 306 4291

TABLE 7.2b: Chemical Compositions of Aluminum Die-casting Alloys

Trade
Cu Si Fe Mg Mn Zn Ni Sn Other
Name
13 0.6 max 11.0 –13.0 1.3 max 0.1 max 0.3 max 0.5 max 0.5 max 0.1 max 0.2 max

43 0.6 max 4.5 – 6.0 2.0 max 0.1 max 0.3 max 0.5 max 0.5 max 0.1 max 0.2 max

85 3.0-4.0 4.5 – 5.5 1.3 max 0.1 max 0.5 max 0.6 max 0.5 max 0.3 max 0.5 max

218 0.2 max 0.5 max 1.8 max 7.5-8.5 0.3 max 0.1 max 0.1 max 0.1 max 0.1 max

360 0.6 max 9.0 – 10.0 1.3 max 0.4-0.6 0.3 max 0.5 max 0.5 max 0.1 max 0.2 max

A380 3.0-4.0 7.5 - 9.5 1.3 max 0.1 max 0.5 max 0.6 max 0.5 max 0.3max 0.5 max

TABLE 7.2c: Physical Properties of Aluminum Die-casting Alloys

Electrical
Density at 70°F Melting Range °F Thermal Thermal
Resistivity
Common Name Expansion, Conductivity
at 70°F
g /cc lb /cu in. Liquidus Solidus (µ-in./in./°F) BTU/ft/hr/°F
(µ-ohm -cm)
13 2.66 0.096 1080 1065 11.3 – 12.4 70.0 5.6

43 2.69 0.097 1170 1065 12.2 – 13.3 82.5 – 94.1 4.1 – 4.7

85 2.77 1140 11.6 0.29 cgs units

218 2.55 1140 13.3 0.25 cgs units

360 2.64 0.095 1150 1035 11.6 – 12.7 84.1 6.2

A380 2.71 0.098 1100 1000 11.8 – 12.9 55.8 7.5

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 82

TABLE 7.2d:Typical Mechanical Properties and Uses of Common Aluminum

Die-casting Alloys
Tensile Yield Shear Brinnel
Common Elongation
Strength Strength Strength Hardness Uses
Name in² in., %
(1000 psi) (1000 psi) (1000 psi Number
Excellent castability and resistance
13 39.0 21.0 25.0 2.0 80 to corrosion, as in thin walled and
intricate castings.
Ductility and excellent resistance
to corrosion, moderate strength.
43 30.0 16.0 22.0 5.0 50 For cooking utensils, food
machinery parts, marine fittings
and thin walled section castings.
85 40.0 24.0 23.0 3.5 75
218 45.0 27.0 30.0 8.0 80
Excellent castability and resistance
360 41.0 23.0 28.0 5.0 75 to corrosion, as in thin walled and
intricate castings.
A380 46.0 25.0 29.0 3.0 80 General-purpose castings.

7.3 Die Temperature

Die-casting dies are basically similar to heat exchangers, and thermal conditions must be
balanced according to section thicknesses and the configuration of the die.

The temperature that a die will reach and hold during continuous operation depends on the
temperature of the casting metal, the weight of the shot, cycle speed, surface area and shape of the
die cavity, and provisions for die cooling. Optimum die temperature for a specific casting is deter-
mined by section thicknesses and by the type of finish required.

When optimum die temperature has been established, it should be maintained within ±5ºC.
Specific areas of a die can be heated by using runners, copper inserts, and strip heaters. These
heating devices are either embedded in the die or mounted externally on the die. It is often
necessary to add overflows on perimeters of castings when thin sections are far removed from the
main runner (as in the die in Fig. 3.14). Overflows increase the metal flow in thin sections, and
thus help to increase die temperature in these areas. Conversely, water-cooling channels are
frequently concentrated behind the runner immediately adjacent to the sprue to prevent over-
heating and possible soldering at this location.

When the die temperature is too low, the overflows fail to fill, and the castings may have
excessive internal porosity, cold shuts, and flow marks. A study of the first few shots of a run will
reveal the flow pattern in the die cavity and can be used to determine needed alterations in the
gate and the overflow wells.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 83

When a die is hotter than is necessary to provide complete filling and good finish, heat
checking may occur. Heat checking shortens die life and promotes "hangup", or poor ejection.
Failure to eject disrupts the casting cycle, and cycle disruptions contribute to fluctuations in die
temperature.

Shrinkage caused by hot spots may occur when sufficient cooling cannot be provided or
cores cannot be built into the die, particularly in heavy sections.

7.3.1 Zinc Alloys. For casting zinc alloys die temperatures generally range between 163º C
and 246º C. Temperatures at the low end of the range are used for heavy castings; higher
temperatures are required for thin-wall castings. For a hardware finish, higher die temperatures (at
least 218º C and usually nearer 246º C) are generally required, regardless of section thickness.

7.3.2 Aluminum Alloys. For casting aluminum alloys, die temperatures are appreciably
higher than for zinc alloys; the usual range is 218º to 315º C, with the average near 288º C.
Because of high heat requirements and the oxidation characteristics of aluminum alloys, good
casting finish is considerably more difficult to obtain than with zinc alloys. A surface finish
comparable to a hardware finish is rarely obtained on aluminum die-castings.

The attack of aluminum on the steel dies becomes more pronounced as die temperatures
increase. Cores that are located where heat extraction is difficult are more susceptible to attack
and, subsequently, to soldering than are other die components. Nitriding of steel cores helps to
prevent attack by the molten metal.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 84

Chapter 8

Die Lubricants

Lubricants prevent a casting from adhering to the die and provide the casting with better
finish. A correctly chosen lubricants will allow metal to flow into cavities that otherwise can be
filled.

Selection of lubricants is based on the temperature of the metal being poured, the
operating temperature of the die and the alloy being cast. No lubricant will perform equally well
for all casting alloys.

When the molten metal contacts an oil-containing lubricant, some of the lubricant
decomposes and forms a carbonaceous powder, which remains on the surface of the casting after
ejection from the die.

Any carbonaceous residue on the die can be removed with an air jet. If the lubricant has
the correct fire point, enough of it will remain on the die to allow at least five or six shots before
another application is necessary. When the carbonizing temperature of the lubricant is too high,
the lubricant will be absorbed into the surface of the casting and will appear as an oil stain. When
the carbonizing temperature of the lubricant is too low, all of the lubricants will be used on the
first shot. The lubricant must carbonize slowly. In doing so, it must form a minimum amount of
gas, but it must not actually burn.

Moving die parts, such as ejectors and cores, must be regularly treated with high
temperature lubricants to prevent seizure. Oil suspensions of colloidal graphite are generally used
for this purpose. Heavy graphite in grease (flake graphite is often used) is applied to plungers and
shot chambers. In most plants, die lubricants are purchased as proprietary concentrates and mixed
to the desired consistency.

8.1 Lubricants for Zinc alloys:

a) Solvent soluble lubricants are mixtures of mineral spirits and oil or kerosene and
oil, with graphite sometimes added. These give excellent die release and at the
same time, lubricate the ejector pins. They do not; however provide cooling for the
die.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 85

b) Water mixed die lubricants (colloidal graphite or silicon emulsions) are excellent
for cooling the die and provide good release, but do not adequately lubricate the
ejector pins. When water mixed lubricants are used, it is desirable to use a separate
pin lubricant and apply it regularly.

8.2 Lubricants for Aluminum alloys:

a) Pigmented compounds are mixtures of pigment and oil. The pigment has a higher
melting point than the metal being cast and will not embed itself in the surface of
the casting. The oil provides the carbonaceous deposit that allows easy ejection.
Frequently, when a die is worn or checked or has insufficient draft, a good,
unstained casting can be obtained with this type of compound. A disadvantage of
pigmented compound is that they adhere to the die and thus impair dimensional
accuracy. This can be prevented by frequent cleaning of the dies with caustic
solution.
b) Graphite greases are best for dies that operate at cool-to-normal temperatures.
The waxes in these compounds act, as the wetting agents and the oil and graphite
are the lubricants. These compounds are usually mixed with kerosene in a ratio of
fifteen parts kerosene to one part lubricant and then sprayed on the die. The
mixture should be agitated frequently to prevent the graphite from setting out.
c) Colloidal graphite in oil is used when die temperatures range from normal to hot.
Carbonizing takes place slowly with this type of compound and if the dies are not
enough, oil stains will show on the surface of the casting.
d) Water-mixed die sprays are colloidal-graphite or silicon emulsions that cool the
die and act as a lubricant. Proprietary concentrates are usually mixed with water in
ratios (concentrate-to-water) of 1-to-30 to 1-to-100.

To lubricate the plunger or ram, the above lubricants, with the exception of
the water-mixed types, are used. The lubricant most commonly used for this
purpose is colloidal graphite in oil, which can also be used on ejector pins, slides
and cores.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 86

Chapter 9

Casting Cycle Time & Casting Defects

9.1 VARIABLES THAT DETERMINE CYCLE TIME

The optimum casting cycle is established on the basis of past experience and a trial
production run. Changes may be required in dwell time, shot-injection time, pouring time, pouring
temperature or methods of die cleaning and lubrication. Adjustments in die cooling are usually
made by varying the flow rate of the cooling water or by using external cooling. Sometimes,
changes must be made in the size and location of cooling passages, gates and overflows.

The cycle time for producing a die casting (or for making a shot that yields more than one
casting) depends largely on the size and weight of the shot These basic factors are interrelated
with machine capability, die-opening and closing time, pouring time, injection time, dwell time,
metal temperature, extraction time, time for die cleaning and time fir the application of lubricant.

Die-opening & closing time depends on the travel distance and the average speed of
travel of the ejector half of the die, on the number and complexity of movable components used in
the die and on the speed travel distance of the individual movable parts. Die-opening time is
usually slightly less than die-closing time.

Pouring time varies depends on the type pouring system used and on the amount of
metal per shot. Time for hand lading is influenced by operator efficiency. Automatic pouring time
varies for the different systems.

Injection time varies with the volume of the metal cast (longer time for larger-volume
castings) and the configuration of the gate used in the die. Generally, a longer time is required for
a more constricted gate.

Dwell time depends on the cooling rate of the die (slower cooling rates require longer
dwell times and vice versa), casting weight (especially if walls are thick) and metal temperature
(the hotter the metal, the longer the dwell time).

Extraction time depends on the type of actuation, speed and travel distance of the die
and whether extraction can partly overlap the die-opening operation. Extraction time also varies

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 87

with operator efficiency in withdrawing the ejected casting from the machine. Location, size and
number of ejector contacting surfaces, together with size, weight and configuration of the casting,
influence the ejection portion of the extraction time.

Die-cleaning time is affected by the method and equipment used, the amount of residue
left in the die, operator efficiency, and cavity and configuration.

Lubricant-application time is influenced the method and equipment used, the amount
of lubricant required, the area and configuration of die cavity to be lubricated, operation
efficiency and condition of die cavity surfaces.

9.2 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF CASTING DEFECTS

Misruns, cold shuts, flow lines, shrinkage porosity, cracks and blisters are common defects
in die-castings. These defects may impair mechanical properties or surface finish.

9.2.1 Misruns are most likely to caused by slow filling of the die cavity, over lubrication,
incorrect die temperature or metal temperature and improper gating. Trapped air or too little metal
in the shot chamber will also cause a misrun. To prevent misruns, usually either the gate or runner
must be enlarged. Overflows are sometimes added to change the direction of flow.

9.2.2 Cold shuts are surface marks that result when two or more streams of metal fall to
merge and to interdiffuse. One or more of the following usually causes cold shuts: insufficient of
injection velocity or pressure, high oxide content in the molten metal, high backpressure in the die
cavity or too low a temperature of the casting metal or of ht surface of the die cavity. Cold shuts
thus can be prevented by:

(a) Increasing injection pressure.

(b) Enlarging gates or runners, if this will decrease the fill time of the die cavity.
(c) Fluxing the molten metal to remove oxide impurities.
(d) Ensuring that venting of the die cavity is adequate for release of backpressure (this
may require the use of vacuum in casting).
(e) Increasing the temperature of the molten metal and die cavity.
(f) Changing to an alloy with better fluidity, if possible.

9.2.3 Shrinkage Porosity. Shrinks in the form of ragged, irregular porosity often result from
local overheating of the die. One means of preventing local overheating is to provide cooling of
the die in the areas subject to overheating; another is to increase cycle time. Concentration of heat
in areas of unusual thickness can be eliminated by insertion of metal-saving cores in these areas.
If none of these measures prevents shrinkage, it may be necessary to enlarge the gate and add one

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 88

or more runners to feed the troublesome spot. In extreme cases, the entire gating system may have
to be revised. For some casting, shrinkage can be overcome if flat or vertical ribs are added to the
cast wall as excess volume that can feed into shrink area to relieve contraction stress. In some
castings, increasing the injection pressure can eliminate shrinkage porosity.

Sometimes, the die can be redesigned so that the shrinkage porosity is an area where it
causes no difficulty. Sometimes surface porosity occurs in combination with blisters or other
surface defects that cause casting to be rejected. The example that follows describes an
application in which major revisions in the gating and overflow system were required for
preventing such surface defects.

9.2.4 Cracks. To the extent that cracks are caused by metal shrinkage, they can be corrected by
measures similar to those used to prevent shrinkage porosity. A cold die sometimes causes cracks
in a casting. The die should be at or above minimum operating temperature. Center cracking (hot
tearing) can sometimes be avoided by slowing the cycle to permit a longer solidification period.
Other approaches are to reduce the velocity of metal flow by reorienting or widening the gates or
to increase local cooling; the objective of either approach is to avoid localized overheating of the
die.

Cracks may be caused by restraint imposed during the cooling of a long expanse of cast
metal terminated by a restarting rib. The metal contracts, creating a stress that exceeds hot
strength and crack forms at the junction of the restraining rib. Using additional ribs to distribute
the shrinkage forces can often eliminate this type of defect. Casting with thick walls that intersects
at right angles may crack in the corners because of restraint. In such castings, adequate corner
radii are important and it may be necessary to increase the metal-injection pressure. Visible cracks
may appear at the junction of a very hot streams of metal and a returning cold streams; this can be
prevented only by redirection of the filling pattern.

Mechanically induced cracks in castings can occur during opening of the die and during
ejection. Since inadequate control of slide motion at moment the die opens may cause cracks,
hydraulic operation with internal locking mechanisms is preferred. A shift in the relative position
of the two die halves during opening can also cause casting to crack.

9.2.5 Blisters. Entrapment of gases in the stream of molten metal can result in the formation of
blisters on the surface of die castings. Blistering can be prevented by reducing the lubrication
particularly in the die face, by adding vents & overflows or by redesigning the gating system.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 89

9.2.6 Galling marks (drags) are usually caused by undercuts in the die; these undercuts can be
polished out. Sometimes, inadequate draft causes drags; then the die cavity must be reworked.
Drags can also result when localized soldering occurs or when the ejector plate advances
unevenly and tilts the casting.

9.2.7 Raised Fins (Heat Checking) A raised fin pattern on the casting near the gate indicates
the die surface is falling by thermal fatigue. Polishing at the first sign of failure can prolong the
life of the die. Thermal fatigue can be delayed by suitable preheating of the die.

9.2.8 Gas-Absorption Porosity. Porosity develops in the molten metal because of gas
absorption during melting, pouring or ejection. Gas absorption during melting causes smooth,
spherical holes evenly distributed throughout the casting. When gas is absorbed during pouring or
ejection, the porosity is concentrated unevenly. Insufficient injection pressure and excess die
lubricant can also cause porosity. Gas absorption in the molten metal can be prevented or reduced
by:

(a) Using clean, dry ingot or scrap additions.

(b) Melting the metal rapidly without overheating and holding it at pouring
temperature for a short period of time before poring.
(c) Degassing the molten metal thoroughly before pouring.
(d) Using dry fluxes.
(e) Ensuring that spent furnace gases and moisture do not contact the molten metal
(f) Chlorinating aluminum casting alloys to eliminate calcium (taking into account
the magnesium content of the alloy)
(g) Using dry lubricants on dies and plunger.
(h) Using vacuum-melted metal.

9.2.9 Die Soldering causes the adherence of castings to the die and results in surface defects
such as pimples and torn skin. These flaws are caused by overheating and wash of the die where
the metal impinges against the die. Die soldering is prevented by:

(a) Lowering the temperature of the molten metal. and die temperature.
(b) Increasing or decreasing the velocity of the metal at the gate.
(c) Preventing direct impingement of the molten metal on the die surface by
modifying the die design.
(d) Polishing of critical area to a high finish.
(e) Maintaining the die coating at critical areas.
(f) When an aluminum alloy is being cast, increasing the amount of iron to a
maximum concentration of 1.7% (an alloy with 1% iron solders less than the same
alloy with 0.2% iron)
(g) Avoiding the use of chlorine-base lubricants.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 90

Chapter 10

Estimation of Die and Product Costing

10.1 Estimation of Die Casting Die cost:

The total estimation Designing & manufacturing of die casting die is made as follows:

1) Calculate cost of all raw materials, which will be required for desired die. Consider
additional cost of 10% for variation in market price, availability of size and
handling cost of material.
2) Calculate cost for manufacturing of these items in shop as well as brought out
items such as mould base, ejector pins and standard hardware required.
3) Add cost of heat treatment depending upon nature of heat treatment required.
4) Add material & manufacturing cost of electrode required for making cavities by
spark erosion operation.
5) Add design cost as 8% to 10% of total of all above.
6) Add fitting and polishing charges as 8% to 10% of total of all above.
7) Add risk allowance as 10% of total of all above.
8) Department overhead for 1 to 6 above.
9) General administrative charges, which included sales cost and profit – usually not
included in overhead.

10.2 Estimation of Product cost:

The total casting cost is made up as follows:

1) Foundry cost, which includes the initial cost of the metal plus the cost of melting,
marinating at temperature and transferring the molten metal.
2) Casting cost, which includes operator time, setup time and tooling cost.
3) Trimming cost, which includes the cost of removing gates, runners and any
required cleaning operation.
4) Inspection cost.
5) Packaging cost, which includes the cost of cartons and other packaging materials
and labour required for preparing casting for transport.
6) Department overhead for 1 to 5 above. General administrative charges, which
included sales cost and profit – usually not included in overhead.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 91

Chapter 11
Trimming and Piercing of Die Castings
Any die-casting has a parting line at the point where the two halves of the casting meet.
This parting line is identified by a thin flash metal that is formed when the molten alloy is forced
under pre between the mating die surfaces. Other parting lines may be caused by movable or
stationary cores and slides. Also, small recesses are incorporated in some dies to permit trapped
air to be forced out of the impressions, and these recesses add the overhanging metal or flashes;
All these flashes and parting lines, together with the gate, must be removed before the die casting
is usable.

The early method of removing the flashes was to use a file or a scraper or merely to break
them away; but as quantity requirements grew, a mechanical method of trimming became
necessary. The trimming die was devised for this purpose. It is an assembly consisting of a
locating plate, on which the casting is placed, and a plate having an opening of the lame shape as
the casting. When the die plate is passed over the casting it shears off the flashes projecting from
the sides.

When trimming flash from a casting, it is general practice to attempt to trim against the
body of the casting. This eliminates, to a great degree, the raising of burrs, which may be
objectionable in handling or assembling. It also prevents "breakouts" (breaking of the adjacent
wall) when gates and fins are exceptionally heavy or when flash must be punched from cast holes.
If this direction of trimming cannot be however, it may be necessary to trim the flash in a
direction away the body of the casting.

The method of trimming plus ease of locating the part in the die control the type of die that
must be used. The castings must be located so that no distortion is possible from the pressure of
the trimming plate and so that no flashes ue turned over onto other surfaces, thus requiring
additional operational operation to remove them.

11.1 Types of Trimming Dies

Trimming dies can be classified into four major types: the through trimming die, the
overhead trimming die, the pressure-pad trimming die, and the combination trimming die.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 92

FIG. 11.1. Push-through trimming die. This type is usually the most economical to build and is used for
small castings that have their largest dimensions on the parting line.

11.1.1 The Push-through Trimming Die (Fig. 11.1). This trimming die is used for casting
whose parting line or flash is no placed that the casting dimensions al flow from the parting line
towards the casting center, i. e., all dimensions on either side of the parting line are smaller than
those at the parting line. This type of trimming die is usually the most economical one to build
and should always be considered first if the casting can be easily placed in the trimming plate, if
the casting will not be distorted while being pressed through the trimming plate, and if the casting
can be protected against nicking and injury after it is pressed through the trimming die. The push
through trimming die is composed of three main parts:

1) The trimming plate, made from high-grade tool steel, into which the shape of the
die-casting outlined is machined. This plate is hardened and ground to a keen edge
and then is doweled and fastened to a die base with screws.
2) A pusher or punch, which is made from low-carbon steel if a simple or flat
surface is to be contacted or pushed, or from a hardened high-carbon tool steel if
the casting surface to be contacted or pushed against is irregular and complex. The
pusher is aligned with the trimming plate and fastened either against the underside
of the upper half of a die set or directly against the ram of a punch press. In most
cases, a close fit or clearance between the pusher and the trimming plate is not
necessary, accurate alignment between these members being of more importance.
3) The die set (Fig. 11.2), which is the means of aligning the two parts of the
trimming die. The bottom or stationary plate of the die set is bolted to the punch
press; the top or movable plate is fastened to the ram of the punch press either with

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 93

a stem or with bolts and is kept in alignment by hardened and ground guide pins
and bushings. By locating and fastening the trimming plate with screws and dowels
to the bottom of the die set, and the pusher or punch to the top of the die set,
perfect alignment is maintained during the trimming operation. Of course, die sets
are not always required, since the trimming plate and punch can be fastened
directly to the base and ram, respectively, of the power press. Thus, on a well-
aligned press, a die set may not be necessary, but for ease, economy, and assurance
of proper alignment, the use of die sets is advisable.

FIG. 11.2. Standard die sets for kick presses (left) and for power presses (right). Use of a die set usually is
advisable since it ensures alignment of the punch and trim dies.

When using this type of trimming die, the die-casting is located by placing it into the
trimming-plate spacing as far as the flash will permit. Power applied against the pusher by the ram
of the press forces the casting through the trimming plate. The flash is pinched off between the
edges of the pusher and the edges of the die. Speed of operation depends upon whether the shape
of the casting permits ease of handling and locating, and also on the dexterity of the operator.

Push-through trimming is usually confined to the smaller die-castings that will pass
through the maximum opening in the bed or table of the power press.

11.1.2 The Overhead Trimming Die (Fig. 11.3). This type of trimming die is used for trimming
die-castings that have a parting line or flash, which can be trimmed against the casting body. The
overhead trimming die requires (1) a locating block fastened to the lower half of the die set, (2) a
trimming plate fastened to the top half of the die set, and (3) an ejector plate.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 94

The locating block is usually made of

low-carbon steel; but when used on long-
running jobs or when thin edges are
unavoidable, hardenable steel is used. This
location block must be constructed so that no
distortion of any part of the die-casting is
possible, so that the die-casting can be easily
located and removed, and so that all surfaces
and openings to be cleaned are well
supported. Whenever the recess is of intricate
shape and/or would require considerable
removal of metal, it can be more
economically cast than it can be machined.
This is done by pouring a molten zinc alloy
into a prepared opening in the locating block
and thus reproducing an exact recess with the
casting as the pattern. The die-casting is
fastened into its proper position in the
prepared location with screws, pins, or
clamps, and molten zinc alloy is poured
through an opening in the bottom of the
location. Often a complete location or nest
Fig. 11.3
can be poured by preparing a casting within a Overhead trim die, which is recommended when
metal enclosure, such as a box with the flash of the die-casting can be trimmed against
the casting body. The recess in the locating plate
removable sides. can be machined or cast.

Care must be exercised that all parts of the form are perfectly dry before the metal is
poured, since moisture will cause it to splatter. It is also advisable to hold the temperature of the
molten metal slightly above the slush stage, so that it will just pour from the ladle. Failure do so
may cause the die casting to burn fast to the poured mold, thus requiring considerable time to
remove it and machine the form at the turned spots.

On long-running jobs it may be desirable to machine the entire recess from a solid steel
block with a milling machine or a die-sinking machine. On the other hand, the nature of the die-
casting may not require a cavity; instead, its concave or internal shape may be located on a
pedestal type of location. In any case, the only finish machining and fitting of the location that is
Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director
 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 95

necessary is at those points where pressure during the trimming operation may distort, mark, or
bend the die casting; the balance of the location may be roughed-milled as clearance.

Fig. 11.4. Single types of overhead trim die and punch. The only finish machining that is necessary on
such a die is at the trim line and at those locating points at which the casting may be distorted.

Two types of trimming plates are used for overhead trimming die:

(1) A plain, flat steel plate (Fig. 11.4), and (2) a bridge-type plate. The flat steel plate is
employed when the nature of the casting is such that it will not stick to the punches (no ejection
plate is necessary) or does not require any trimming in the region of the ram of the punch press or
around the stem of the die set to which the trimming die is attached. On large trimming dies, the
plate is made in sections to facilitate shaping the cavity to the die-casting outline and to minimize
shrinkage and warpage in the hardening process. These sections are held in their proper
relationship to one another and to the die casting with hardened dowel pins and screws. The die
plates are made either from water hardening or an oil-hardening tool steel.

The bridge-type trimming plate (Fig. 11.5) is used on all small dies and on the large dies
when ejection of the die casting is interfered with by the die-set stem or ram of the punch press.
This type of trimming plate consists mainly of a plate that is separated from the die-set surface by
narrow metal strips. A steel plate onto which ejector pins or blocks can be fastened then is placed
between this trimming plate and the die surface.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 96

An ejector plate is necessary with an

overhead-trimming die to eject the die
casting from the trimming plate after the die-
casting has been trimmed. The ejector plate
must function in such a manner that the die-
casting is not marred, bent, or distorted in
any way. The conventional and most
commonly used ejector plate is made from
cold-rolled low-carbon steel. It is usually
placed above the upper half of the die set, so
that the ejector pins or blocks pass through
the die set and beyond the trimming plate to
engage the surface of the die-casting. On the
return stroke of the press, the ejector plate
engages a pair of stationary bars or stems that
Fig. 11.5 Overhead trim die with bridge-type
force the plate containing the pins or bars ejector plate. This type of trimming plate is used on
against the casting, thus freeing it from the all small dies and on large dies when the ram of the
press or the stem of the die set interferes with
trimming plate. ejection of the casting.

A bridge-type ejector plate is employed when the die-casting must be all small dies and on
large dies ejected in the region of the clearance hole in the conventional ejector plate. To permit
this type of ejection, the plate must function on the opposite side of the die-set upper half or
opposite the conventional-type ejector plate, i.e., in the space provided by the bridge-type
trimming-die plate. This eliminates the' necessity of the clearance hole for the die-set stem and
provides the necessary metal to fasten ejector pins or blocks. Contact bars or studs that pass
through the upper half of the die set and engage the same stationary bars that are used for the
conventional-type ejector plate are provided on the outer edges of the ejector plate.

In the operation of the overhead-trimming die, the die-casting is placed on the locating
plate. The press ram lowers the trimming plate, and the casting is trimmed. On the return stroke of
the press, the trimming plate is raised to its normal position and ejector plate engages stationary
bars to eject the casting.

This type of trimming die should not be used when the casting may be marred, bent, or
injured when it drops from the punch to the locating plate; heavy castings are usually 'in this
category.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 97

1.1.3 The Pressure-pad Trimming Die

(Fig. 11.6). A trimming die of this type is
required when the die-casting must be
located and pressed through the trimming
plate in the same direction. Die-castings,
which have thin walls and no locating surface
for overhead trimming dies, which are heavy,
or which must be highly polished and plated,
are usually trimmed in a pressure-pad die.
This type of trimming die is composed of (1)
a trimming plate; (2) a movable locating
pressure pad; (3) an ejector or pressure plate;
and (4) a pusher pad. The trimming plate is
similar in construction to that used on an
overhead-trimming die, except that it is
fastened to the lower half of the die set. It
also keeps the locating pressure pad raised to
Fig. 11.6 Pressure-pad trim die. Although springs
the proper position for receiving the die- are shown as the pressure source, rubber pads or
compressed air may be used to accomplish the
casting. same purpose.

The movable locating pressure pad is so called because it locates the die casting
throughout the downward stroke of the press. The lower half of the die set is recessed to
accommodate the pressure pad and to provide the necessary space for the die casting to enter the
trimming plate. Die pins in the lower half of the die set locate the pressure pad, and a machined
shoulder permits it to be raised against the lower surface of the trimming plate to locate the die
casting. Pressure applied by springs located between the pressure pads and the ejector or pressure
plate maintains the normal position of the pressure pad and functions to eject the die casting on
the upward stroke of the press. Some die-casting plants prefer to use rubber pads or compressed
air in place of the conventional springs. In any case, the functioning of the die is identical. The
pusher pad, usually made of steel, is shaped to conform to the contour of the die casting opposite
the locating side. It is attached to the underside of the upper half of the die set and its function is
to press the casting against the movable locating pressure pad to force both the casting and the pad
into the trimming plate; it must pass within the trimming-plate opening. It is important that the
pusher fit the die-casting contour to avoid marring or bending it; and on long-running jobs,
hardening the pusher pad is advisable.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 98

Fig. 11.7 Spring-pad trim die for trimming the horn rim of an automobile steering wheel. Pressure-pad dies
are used when the casting must be located and passed through the trimming die in the same direction.

The operation of this type of trimming die is as follows: The casting is located on the
pressure pad when the press ram lowers the pusher against the casting; the springs under the
pressure pad are compressed, thus pressing the pad and casting through the trimming-die plate.
When the pusher is then raised to its normal position, the pressure pad also returns to its normal
position, thus ejecting the casting from the trimming plate. The casting is then ready to be lifted
from the location and placed in a container.

11.1.4 The Combination Trimming Die. Some die-castings, because of their shape, cannot be
cast with one common flash line. The casting die may be so constructed that the parting line is
partly on one half and partly on the other half of the die, thus forming flashes that must be
trimmed in opposite directions. To make this possible, the function and features of the two
trimming dies-the overhead and pressure-pad types-are incorporated in a combination-trimming
die (Fig. 11.8). The die casting first is trimmed from the bottom upward as in the pressure-pad die.
When the pressure pad arrives at the adjusted stops on the bottom half of the die set, the overhead
trimming plate performs its function.

11.1.5 Multiple Trimming Dies. Trimming of more than one casting in the same die is often
more economical than trimming each one individually. Multiple trimming dies, such as shown in
Fig. 11.9, may be used to trim two or more impressions of identical castings or two or more
different castings having a common parting line. They are used (1) when a single production

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 99

demands; (2) to eliminate extra handling; (3) to simplify location in the trimming die; or (4) for
economy of operation. The dies can be of any of the previously described types or can be
combinations of push-through and overhead-trimming dies, of push-through and pressure-pad
trimming dies, or of overhead and pressure-pad trimming dies. The kind of casting determines the
combination; for example, two identical castings to be trimmed overhead and two mating castings
that must be trimmed with a pressure-pad die would require a four-impression trimming die, one -
half of which would be of the overhead type and one-half of which would be of the pressure-pad
type. The size and number of impressions are limited only by the capacity of available equipment.

Fig. 11.8 Fig. 11.9

Combination trim die, which incorporates the Multiple trimming die, which often is used to trim a
features of both the overhead and pressure-pad number of castings simultaneously. The number
trimming dies. It is used when the casting cannot and size of impressions are limited only by the size
be cast with one common flash line. of presses and die sets that are available

Multiple trimming dies are adapted to the same types of presses as single trimming dies.
The construction of the dies is identical to the single dies except that ejection is usually
accomplished with one large plate for all impressions, and the pressure pads are controlled by one
pressure unit.
Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director
 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 100

11.2 Special Trimming Fixtures and Attachments

When castings need additional cleaning operations other than those possible with one of
the trimming dies previously described, hand-operated side slides can be attached to the trimming
die as shown in Fig. 11.10. This illustration shows a simple type of side slide consisting of a.
round bar sliding through a hole in a block that is fastened to the lower half of the trimming-die
set. The trimming plate or punch is fastened to the locating end of the round bar and is engaged
with the casting by means of a lever that is actuated by the press operator. When the effort
required moving the slide be above normal, a cam or compounded-lever mechanism can be
incorporated in the design. If this is not feasible or will not bring the effort expended by the
operator within reason, a hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder can be attached to the slide.

Fig. 11.10 Trim die with hand-operated side punches.

Hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders also may actuate
such side punches if conditions so warrant.
Fig. 10.11 Hand-operated bench fixtures for removing
light fins from die-cast parts. When size and power
requirements are heavier, kick or power presses Fig. 10.11
are utilised.

Most trimming fixtures require sturdier slides than those shown in Fig. 10.10, in which
case the punches are attached to rails that slide between locating blocks, as illustrated in Fig.
11.11. In this fixture, four slides move in a horizontal direction, and one slide in a vertical di-
rection. When multiple-slide fixtures of this type are employed, several important factors must be
considered and provided for. For example, the vertical slide must be held in the upward position
while the operator is loading or unloading the fixture; the die casting must be located to avoid
injury to the operator's hands; and provision must be made to keep the slides free from flash and
chips. Also, the levers must be arranged to be operated in proper sequence to avoid injury to die
castings or trimming-die edges; motions should be combined to require as few levers as possible.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 101

11.3 Trimming Presses

Standard, motor-driven punch presses are usually suited for trimming die-castings;
however, those with a long ram stroke and adjustable knee are preferable. For some castings, an
inclined-type press is very efficient since it allows the die casting to fall away from the operator
through the back of the press after it has been ejected from the trimming die. Some trimming is
performed in hydraulically operated presses such as shown in Fig. 11.12, some in foot or kick
presses, and some in arbor presses. In any type of press, it is necessary to provide adequate safety
devices to guard the operator from hand injuries. It must be remembered that the operator has to
locate and remove the casting and that some presses can be operated at the rate of 600 strokes/hr
on larger castings and 1,500 strokes/hr on small castings.

For removing light fins, small hand presses or special tools operated by a rack and pinion
are usually used. Kick presses are also employed for such operations. For large castings, power
presses are used extensively (Fig. 11.13). In all cases, the time required per piece is chiefly that
needed to insert and remove the casting, the stroke of the press being almost instantaneous.

Fig. 11.12
Special hydraulically operated press for
trimming the gate and flash from a cluster of
small die castings. Presses with a long stroke
are necessary for trimming operations so that Fig. 11.13
the castings can be easily inserted and Power-operated trimming press for automotive grille parts.
removed from the die.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 102

11.4 Punching and Piercing Operations

Frequently it is more economical to pierce holes and openings in a die-cast part than to
cast them. This is especially true of thin sections of die-castings. The combined cost of providing
cores in the casting die and providing cleaning punches in the trimming die to remove the flash
from the hole or opening makes it more economical to pierce the hole or opening in piercing dies
such as are shown in Figs. 11.14 and 11.15. The thickness of metal and the diameter of holes that
can be pierced are governed by the same standards as for sheet metals. Standards tables are
obtainable from any of the metalworking handbooks.

In addition, cored holes usually contain a casting flash or fin that is conveniently removed
by a punching operation. If fins are to be punched from such holes, it is sometimes an advantage
to use a sufficient taper in the hole to permit using the hole itself as the die. By punching the fin
toward the large end of the hole, objectionable burrs can often be eliminated. A lubricant should
always be used, either on the punch or the casting, when aluminum-alloy die-castings are
punched.

Fig. 11.14 Hand-operated piercing die for piercing holes in

a die-cast zinc automotive grille.

Fig. 10.15 Piercing die for power operated press showing

the part in position after the operation has been completed.
It frequently is more economical to pierce small holes than
to cast them.
Fig. 11.15

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director

 Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments, Mumbai – 22. 103

11.5 Steel for Trimming Dies

The type of steel used for trimming dies varies widely with different die-casting
companies and often even within the same company, depending upon the particular job to be
done. Very often a single trimming die is made up of a number of different materials. Generally,
the steels used fall into the following types:

1) Nondeforming oil-hardening steels such as a high-carbon-manganese tool steel

(carbon, 0.9 percent; silicon, 0.3 per cent; manganese, 1.5 per cent; and chromium,
0.2 per cent). This type of steel is used when a fully hardened die is required with a
hard (60 Rockwell C) cutting edge.
2) Nondeforming air- or oil-hardening steel such as a high carbon high-chromium
steel (carbon, 1.5 to 2.0 per cent; chromium, 10 to 13 per cent). This type of steel is
used when good wear resistance and a hard cutting edge are important factors.
3) Flame-hardening steel, such as high-carbon tool steel (carbon, 1.0 to 1.2 per cent).
These steels are used for very complex dies that are hazardous to heat-treat or that
may require some adjustment during their service life. They are flame hardened at
the cutting edge to a hardness of about 60 Rockwell C.
4) Soft steel, such as SAE 1020, and, in some cases, hubbing steel, is used for nests.
Cast nests of zinc are also used occasionally, as previously mentioned.

Die Casting Dies: Notes compiled by S. V. RASAL – Principal Director