20

Current Electricity
Electric Current (I)
The rate of flow of charge through any cross-section of a wire w.r.t.
time is called electric current flowing through it.
q
Electric current ( I ) = . Its SI unit is ampere (A).
t
The conventional direction of electric current is the direction of
motion of positive charge.
The current is the same for all cross-sections of a conductor of
non-uniform cross-section. Similar to the water flow, charge flows
faster where the conductor is smaller in cross-section and slower
where the conductor is larger in cross-section, so that charge rate
remains unchanged.
If a charge q revolves in a circle with frequency f, the equivalent
current,
i = qf
In a metallic conductor current flows due to motion of free electrons
while in electrolytes and ionised gases current flows due to electrons
and positive ions.
According to its magnitude and direction electric current is of two
types
(i) Direct Current (DC) Its magnitude and direction do not
change with time. A cell, battery or DC dynamo are the sources
of direct current.
(ii) Alternating Current (AC) An electric current whose
magnitude changes continuously and changes its direction
periodically is called alternating current. AC dynamo is the
source of alternating current.
 Current Electricity 209
Thermal Velocity of Free Electrons
Free electrons in a metal move randomly with a very high speed of the
order of 105 ms-1. This speed is called thermal velocity of free
electrons. Average thermal velocity of free electrons in any direction
remains zero.

Relaxation Time ( t )
The time interval between two successive collisions of electrons with
the positive ions in the metallic lattice is defined as relaxation time.
mean free path l
t= =
rms velocity of electrons vrms

Drift Velocity of Free Electrons

When a potential difference is applied across the ends of a conductor,
the free electrons in it move with an average velocity opposite to the
direction of electric field, which is called drift velocity of free
electrons.
eEt eVt
Drift velocity vd = =
m ml
where, t = relaxation time,
e = charge on electron,
E = electric field intensity,
l = length of the conductor,
V = potential difference across the ends of the conductor
and m = mass of the electron.
Relation between electric current and drift velocity is given by
I
vd =
An e

Current Density
The electric current flowing per unit area of cross-section of a
conductor is called current density.
I
Current density ( J ) = = nevd
A
Its SI unit is ampere metre -2 (Am -2) and dimensional formula is
[AT -2]. It is a vector quantity and its direction is in the direction of
motion of positive charge or in the direction of flow of current.
210 Handbook of Physics

Mobility
The drift velocity of electron per unit electric field applied is called
mobility of electron.
v et
Mobility of electron (m ) = d =
E m
Its SI unit is m 2s-1V -1 and its dimensional formula is [M-1T 2A ].

Ohm’s Law
If physical conditions of a conductor such as temperature remains
unchanged, then the electric current ( I ) flowing through the
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V )
applied across its ends.
I µ V or V = IR
ml
where, R is the electrical resistance of the conductor and R = .
Ane2t
Ohmic Conductors
Those conductors which obey Ohm’s law, are called I
ohmic conductors, e.g. all metallic conductors are
ohmic conductor.
For ohmic conductors V-I graph is a straight line.
V
Non-ohmic Conductors
Those conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law, I
are called non-ohmic conductors, e.g. diode valve,
triode valve, transistor , vacuum tubes etc.
V
For non-ohmic conductors V-I graph is not a
straight line.

Electrical Resistance
The obstruction offered by any conductor in the path of flow of current
is called its electrical resistance.
V
Electrical resistance, R=
I
Its SI unit is ohm (W ) and its dimensional formula is [ML2 T -3 A -2 ].
rl
Electrical resistance of a conductor, R =
A
where, l = length of the conductor, A = cross-section area
and r = resistivity of the material of the conductor.
 Current Electricity 211
If a resistance wire is stretched to a greater length, keeping volume
constant, then
2
R1 æ l1 ö
R µ l2 Þ =ç ÷
R2 çè l2 ÷ø
4
1 R1 æ r2 ö
and Rµ Þ =ç ÷
r4 R2 çè r1 ÷ø
where, l is the length of wire and r is the radius of cross-section area of
wire.

Resistivity
Resistivity of a material of a conductor is given by
m
r= 2
ne t
where, n = number of free electrons per unit volume.
Resistivity is low for metals, more for semiconductors and very high
for alloys like nichrome, constantan etc.
Resistivity of a material depend on temperature and nature of the
material. It is independent of dimensions of the conductor, i.e. length,
area of cross-section etc.

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity

Resistivity of metals increases with increase in temperature as
r t = r 0 (1 + at )
where, r 0 and r t are resistivity of metals at 0°C and t°C and
a = temperature coefficient of resistivity of the material.
For metals a is positive, for some alloys like nichrome, manganin and
constantan, a is positive but very low.
For semiconductors and insulators, a is negative.
Therefore, resistivity of metal increases with increase in
temperature. However, for semiconductors, it decreases with
increase in temperature. But in the case of alloy, dependence on
temperature is weak.

In magnetic field, the resistivity of metals increases. But resistivity of

ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt etc decreases in
magnetic field.
212 Handbook of Physics

Electrical Conductivity
The reciprocal of resistivity is called electrical conductivity.
1 l ne2t
Electrical conductivity ( s) = = =
r RA m
Its SI units is ohm -1m -1 or mho m -1 or siemen m -1.
Relation between current density ( J ) and electrical conductivity ( s) is
given by J =sE
where, E = electric field intensity.

Superconductors
When few metals are cooled, then below a certain critical
temperature their electrical resistance suddenly becomes zero. In this
state, these substances are called superconductors and this
phenomena is called superconductivity.
Mercury become superconductor at 4.2 K, lead at 7.25 K and niobium
at 9.2 K.

Colour Coding of Carbon Resistors

The resistance of a carbon resistor can be calculated by the code given
on it in the form of coloured strips.
Decimal multiplier

Tolerance power
First two significant figures

Colour coding
Colour Figure Multiplier
Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 10 3
Yellow 4 10 4
Green 5 10 5
Blue 6 10 6
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 10 8
White 9 10 9
 Current Electricity 213
Tolerance power
Colour Tolerance
Gold 5%
Silver 10%
No colour 20%

This colour coding can be easily learned in the sequence “B B ROY

Great Britain Very Good Wife”.

Combination of Resistors
1. In Series
(i) Equivalent resistance, R = R1 + R2 + R3
(ii) Current through each resistor is same.
(iii) Sum of potential differences across individual resistors is equal to
the potential difference applied by the source.
R1 R2 R3
A B

2. In Parallel
(i) Equivalent resistance,
1 1 1 1 R1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3 R2
(ii) Potential difference across each A B
R3
resistor is same.
(iii) Sum of electric currents flowing through individual resistors is
equal to the electric current drawn from the source.
If n identical resistances are first connected in series and then in
parallel, the ratio of the equivalent resistance
Rs n 2
=
Rp 1
If a skeleton cube is made with 12 equal resistors, each having a
resistance R, then the net resistance across
5
(a) the diagonal of cube = R
6
3
(b) the diagonal of a face = R
4
7
(c) along a side = R
12
214 Handbook of Physics

Electric Cell
An electric cell is a device which converts chemical energy into
electrical energy.
Electric cells are of two types
(i) Primary Cells Primary cells cannot be charged again.
Voltaic, Daniel and Leclanche cells are primary cells.
(ii) Secondary Cells Secondary cells can be charged again and
again. Acid and alkali accumulators are secondary cells.

Electromotive Force (emf) of a Cell

The energy given by a cell in flowing unit positive charge throughout
the circuit completely one time is equal to the emf of a cell.
W
Emf of a cell ( e) = .
q
Its SI unit is volt.

Terminal Potential Difference of a Cell

The energy given by a cell in flowing unit positive charge through the
outer circuit one time from one terminal of the cell to the other
terminal of the cell.
Its SI unit is also volt. It is always less than the emf of a cell.

Internal Resistance of a Cell

The obstruction offered by the electrolyte of a cell in the path of
electric current is called internal resistance (r ) of the cell. Internal
resistance of a cell
(i) increases with increase in concentration of the electrolyte.
(ii) increases with increase in distance between the electrodes.
(iii) decreases with increase in area of electrodes dipped in
electrolyte.
Relation between e, V and r
e = V + Ir
æ e ö
r = ç - 1÷ R
èV ø
If cell is in charging state, then
e = V - Ir
 Current Electricity 215
Grouping of Cells
(i) In Series If n cells, each of emf e and internal resistance r are
connected in series to a resistance R, then equivalent emf
e, r e, r e, r e, r

I
R

eeq = e1 + e2 + ¼ + en = ne
Equivalent internal resistance,
req = r1 + r2 + ¼ + rn = nr
eeq ne
Current in the circuit I = =
( R + req ) ( R + nr )
(ii) In Parallel If n cells, each of emf e and internal resistance r are
connected to in parallel, then equivalent emf, eeq = e
e, r

e, r

e, r
I
R

Equivalent internal resistance,

1 1 1 1 n r
= + + ¼+ = or req =
req r1 r1 rn r n
e
Current in the circuit, I =
(R + r/ n )
(iii) Mixed Grouping of Cells If n cells, each of emf e and internal
resistance r are connected in series and such m rows are connected
in parallel, then
e, r e, r e, r
1 1 2 n
2

I m
V

R
216 Handbook of Physics

Equivalent emf, eeq = ne

Equivalent internal resistance,
nr
req =
m
ne mne
Current in the circuit, I = or I =
æ nr ö mR + nr
çR + ÷
è mø
Note Current in this circuit will be maximum when external resistance is equal to
the equivalent internal resistance, i.e.,
nr
R= Þ mR = nr
m

Kirchhoff’s Laws
There are two Kirchhoff’s laws for solving complicated electrical
circuits
(i) Junction Rule The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at
a junction in a closed circuit is zero, i.e. S I = 0.
This law follows law of conservation of charge.
(ii) Loop Rule The algebraic sum of all the potential differences in
any closed circuit is zero, i.e.
SDV = 0
This law follows law of conservation of energy.

Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is also known as a meter bridge or slide wire
bridge.
This is an arrangement of four resistances in which one resistance is
unknown but rest are known. The Wheatstone bridge is as shown in
figure below.

P Q

I R S I

e
 Current Electricity 217
Principle of Wheatstone Bridge
The bridge is said to be balanced when deflection in galvanometer is
zero, i.e. IG = 0.
P R
Thus, we have the balance condition as =
Q S
The value of unknown resistance S can found, as we know the value of
P , Q and R. It may be remembered that the bridge is most sensitive,
when all the four resistances are of the same order.

Meter Bridge
This is the simplest form of Wheatstone bridge. It is specially useful
for comparing resistances more accurately and for measuring an
unknown resistance.
R S

l1 (100 – l1)

Meter scale
( )
e K1

R l1
At balancing situation of bridge, =
S (100 - l1 )
where, l1 is the length of wire from one end where null point is
obtained.
K
Potentiometer e
– + + –
Potentiometer is an ideal device A
Rh
voltmeter to measure the potential
difference between two points or the 400
B
internal resistance of an unknown J 300
source.
200
It consists of a long resistance wire AB
of uniform cross-section in which a
steady direct current is set up by A 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

means of a battery.
Meter rod
G –
+
218 Handbook of Physics

The principle of potentiometer states that, when a constant amount

of current flows through a wire of uniform cross-section, then the
potential drop across the wire is directly proportional to its length,
i.e.
V µl
Þ V = kl
where, k is known as potential gradient.
SI unit of k is Vm -1.
Sensitivity of potentiometer is increased by increasing length of
potentiometer wire.

To Compare the emf’s of two Cells using Potentiometer

The arrangement of two cells of emfs e1 and e2 which are to be
compared is shown in the figure below.
K
e
– + + –
A
Rh
400
B
J 300

200

A 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
+ – 1
e1 Meter rod
G R
+ – 3
e2 2

If the plug is put in the gap between 1 and 3, we get

e1 = ( x l1 ) I …(i)
where, x = resistance per unit length
Similarly, when the plug is put in the gap between 2 and 3, we get
e2 = ( x l2 ) I …(ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
e1 l1
or =
e2 l2
 Current Electricity 219
Determination of Internal Resistance of a
Cell using Potentiometer
The arrangement is shown in figure.
e¢ K1
– + + –
A
Rh
400
B
J 300

200

A 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

E
g R
K2
S

When K 2 is kept out, e = xl1I

But if by inserting key K 2 and introducing some resistance S (say),
then potential difference V is balanced by a length l2, where
V = kl2
Internal resistance of cell,
e -V l -l
r= R= 1 2 R
V l2