Halliday, Resnick & Walker: Chapter 7-8

Kinetic Energy, Work,

Potential Energy,
Conservation of Energy

Physics 1A – PHYS1121
Professor Michael Burton

7-1 Kinetic Energy

! Energy is required for any sort of motion

! Energy:
o A scalar quantity assigned to an object or system
o Can be changed from one form to another
o Is conserved in a closed system, that is the total amount of
energy of all types is always the same
! Kinetic Energy is the energy associated with motion
7-1 Kinetic Energy

! Kinetic Energy:
o The faster an object moves, the greater its kinetic energy
o Kinetic energy is zero for a stationary object

! For an object with v well below the speed of light:

Eq. (7-1)

! The unit of kinetic energy is a joule (J)

Eq. (7-2)

7-2 Work and Kinetic Energy

! We account for changes in kinetic energy by saying

energy has been transferred to or from the object
! In a transfer of energy via a force, Work is:
o Done on the object by the force

! This is not the common meaning of the word “work”!

o To do work on an object, energy must be transferred
o Throwing a cricket ball does work
o Pushing an immovable wall does not do work
7-2 Work and Kinetic Energy

! Start from force equation and 1-dimensional velocity:

Eq. (7-3) Eq. (7-4)

! Rearrange into kinetic energies:

Eq. (7-5)

! The left side is now the change in kinetic energy

! Therefore the work done is:
Eq. (7-6)

WEM02AN1: Introduction to Work

73 seconds
 F
7-2 Work and Kinetic Energy ! d

! For an angle ! between the force and the displacement:

Eq. (7-7)
! As vectors we can write:
Eq. (7-8)

! Notes on these equations:

o Force must be constant here
o Object is particle-like (rigid)
o Work can be positive or negative

7-2 Work and Kinetic Energy

! For two or more forces, the Net Work is the sum of the
contributions from all the individual forces
! Two methods to calculate net work:
" Sum the individual work terms for each force, or
" Take the vector sum of forces (Fnet)
7-2 Work and Kinetic Energy

! The work-kinetic energy theorem states:

Eq. (7-10)

! i.e. change in kinetic energy = the net work done

! Or we can write it as:

Eq. (7-11)

! i.e. final KE = initial KE + net work

WEM04VD1: Work Done and Change in Speed

48 seconds
 7-2 Work and Kinetic Energy

! Work Done = Force x Distance = Increase in KE

Fx cos " = 1 2 mv 2 # 1 2 mv 02

! Work has the SI unit of joules (J), the same as energy

!
Ignoring friction effects, the amount of energy required to accelerate a car from rest
to a speed v is E. The energy is delivered to the car by burning petrol. What
additional amount of energy is required to accelerate the car to a speed 2v?

a) 0.5E

b) E

c) 2E
v, 2v
d) 3E

e) 4E
Work Done by Gravitational Force

! Calculate the work as for any force

!
!
g Particle thrown upward
! For a rising object:

! For a falling object:

!

7-3 Work Done by the Gravitational Force

! Work done lifting object, applying upwards force:

“a” for “applied”

! For a stationary object (e.g. lifting a book to shelf):

o Kinetic energies are zero
o So:

! Thus, for an applied lifting force:

7-3 Work Done by the Gravitational Force

! Figure shows orientations of

Forces and their associated
Work for upward and downward
Displacement
! In general, we need to know the
initial and final Kinetic Energy to
solve for the Work

Figure 7-7

7-3 Work Done by the Gravitational Force

Work done by Normal Force :
W N = FN d cos90° = 0
Work done by Gravitational Force, Fg = mg, is :
W g = Fg sin " # d# cos180° = $Fg sin " # d
Work done by Tension in rope is given by :
W N + W g + WT = %K = 0 if at rest at start & end

!
Thus WT = –Wg

In this example
Tension does positive work,
Gravity does negative work
 7-3 Work Done by the Gravitational Force

Examples You are a passenger:

o Being lowered down in an elevator
• Tension does negative work,
Gravity does positive work

N2L : Fg " T = ma
Gravity : Fg = mg
Work Done : WT = Td cos # = m(g " a)d cos #
with # = 180° in this case.

7-4 Work Done by a Spring Force

! A spring force is a variable force

! Fig. (a) shows the spring in its

relaxed state: since it is neither
compressed nor extended, no
force is applied.
! If we stretch (b) or compress (c)
the spring it resists, and exerts
a restoring force that attempts
to return the spring to its relaxed
state.

Figure 7-10
7-4 Work Done by a Spring Force

! The Spring Force is given by Hooke's law:

Eq. (7-20)

! The negative sign means the force always opposes

the displacement
! The spring constant k is a measure of the stiffness of
the spring
! This is a variable force (a function of position). It
exhibits a linear relationship between F and d.
! For a spring along the x-axis we can write:
Eq. (7-21)

7-4 Work Done by a Spring Force

! We find the work by integrating:

xf

WS = " F dx
x
Eq. (7-23)
xi
! Substitute -kx for Fx:
Eq. (7-25)

! The work: !
o Can be positive or negative
o Depends on the net energy transfer
A block is in contact with a rough surface. The block has a rope attached to one side.
You pull the rope with a force as shown. The force is directed at angle ! with respect
to the horizontal. Its magnitude is equal to two times the magnitude of the frictional
force, f. For what value of ! is the net work on the block equal to zero joules?

a) 0° 2f

b) 30°
f
c) 45°

d) 60°

e) Net work will be done in the object for all values of !.

7-5 Work Done by a General Variable Force

! Take a 1D example
! Need to integrate the Work
equation over the change
in position
! Can be approximated with
rectangles under the curve

xf

WS = " F dx
x
W = lim $ F j,avg "x
"x # 0
xi

!
!
7-6 Power

! Power is the time rate at which a Force does Work

! If a Force does Work W in a time "t
the Average Power due to the Force is:

! The Instantaneous Power at a particular time is:

! The SI unit for Power is the watt (W): 1 W = 1 J/s

! Therefore work-energy can be written as:
(power) x (time) e.g. kWh, the kilowatt-hour

Potential Energy
8-1 Potential Energy

! Potential energy U is energy that can be associated

with the configuration of a system of objects that exert
forces on one another
! A system of objects may be:
o Earth and a bungee jumper
o Gravitational potential energy accounts for kinetic energy
increase during the fall
o Elastic potential energy accounts for deceleration by the
bungee cord
! Physics determines how potential energy is calculated,
to account for the stored energy

8-1 Potential Energy, U

! For an object being raised or lowered:

Eq. (8-1)

! The change in gravitational potential energy is the

negative of the work done
! This also applies to an elastic block-spring system

Figure 8-2 Figure 8-3

 8-1 Potential Energy

! Key points:
1. The system consists of two or more objects
2. A force acts between an object and rest of the system
3. When the configuration changes, the force does work
W1, changing kinetic energy to another form
4. When this is reversed, the force reverses the energy
transfer, doing work W2
! Thus the kinetic energy of the object is converted to
potential energy, and then back to kinetic energy, etc.

W1

8-1 Potential Energy

W2

! Conservative forces are forces where W1 = -W2

whatever paths are travelled from a to b and back to a.
o Examples: gravitational force, spring force
o Otherwise we could not speak of their potential energies
! Nonconservative forces are those for which this is false
o Examples: kinetic friction force, drag force
o Kinetic energy of a moving particle is transferred to heat by friction
o Thermal energy cannot be recovered back into kinetic energy of
the object via the friction force
o Therefore the force is not conservative, thermal energy is not a
potential energy
8-1 Potential Energy

! When only conservative forces act on a particle, we

find that many problems can be simplified:

! A result of this is that:

Figure 8-4

8-1 Potential Energy

! Mathematically: Eq. (8-2)

! This result allows you to substitute a simpler path for a

more complex one if only conservative forces are
involved

Path 1 Path 2
8-1 Potential Energy

a) Yes, F is a conservative force.

b) No, F is not conservative.

8-1 Potential Energy

! For the general case, we calculate work as:

Eq. (8-5)

! So we calculate potential energy as:

Eq. (8-6)

! For F=-mg then the Gravitational PE at height y above

a reference point yi = 0 is:
Eq. (8-9)
8-1 Potential Energy

! To calculate the PE of a spring:

Eq. (8-10)

! With reference point xi = 0 for a relaxed spring:

Eq. (8-11)

8-1 Potential Energy U = "W

!
a) Largest change in PE – (1), (2) or (3)?
b) Middle change in PE – (1), (2) or (3)?
c) Smallest change in PE – (1), (2) or (3)?
WEM05VD2: Conversion of PE into KE

8-2 Conservation of Energy

! The total energy of a system is the sum of its potential

energy U and kinetic energy K:
E = K +U Eq. (8-12)

! Work done by conservative forces that increases K

decreases U by the same amount, so:
Eq. (8-15)

!
! to refer to different instants of time:
Using subscripts
Eq. (8-17)

! In other words:
total .
E
 8-2 Conservation of Energy

! This is the principle of Conservation of Energy:

"E = "K + "U = 0
Eq. (8-18)
! This is very powerful tool:

! One application:
o Choose the lowest point in the system as U = 0
o Then at the highest point U = max, and K = min

8-3 Reading a Potential Energy Curve

! (a) is Potential U(x)

! (b) is Force F(x)=-dU/dx
! Draw a horizontal line for
the Total Energy, E=U+K
! In (c), (d) & (e) x < x1 is
forbidden: the particle
does not have the energy
to reach these points
 8-3 Reading a Potential Energy Curve

! A particle in unstable equilibrium is stationary, with

potential energy only, and net force = 0
o If displaced slightly to one direction, it will feel a force
propelling it in that direction
o Example: a marble balanced on a bowling ball
! A particle in stable equilibrium is stationary, with
potential energy only, and net force = 0
o If displaced to one side slightly, it will feel a force returning it
to its original position
o Example: a marble placed at the bottom of a bowl

The graph shows the potential energy as a function of distance for an object
moving along the x axis. At which of the labeled points does the force acting
on the object have the largest magnitude?

a) A

b) B

c) C

d) D

e) E
The graph shows the potential energy as a function of distance for an object
moving along the x axis. At which of the labeled points does the force acting on
the object have the least magnitude?

a) A

b) B

c) C

d) D

e) The force is the same at each of the four points.

The graph shows the potential energy as a function of distance for an object
moving along the x axis. At which of the labeled points does the object have
greatest speed?

a) A

b) B

c) C

d) D

e) E
8-4 Work Done on a System by an External Force

! For a system of more than 1 particle, work can change

both K and U, or other forms of energy of the system
! Consider lifting a ball in a frictionless system:

Eq. (8-25)

So W = "E Eq. (8-26)

Figure 8-12

8-4 Work Done on a System by an External Force

! For a system with friction force fk:

Eq. (8-31)

Fd = W = "E mec + "E th Eq. (8-33)

! The thermal energy (“heat”) comes from the forming

and breaking of the welds between the sliding surfaces

Figure 8-13
8-5 Conservation of Energy

! Energy transferred between systems can always be

accounted for
! The Law of Conservation of Energy concerns
o The total energy E of a system
o This includes mechanical, thermal, and other internal energy

! Considering only energy transfer through work:

Eq. (8-35)

8-5 Conservation of Energy

! An isolated system is one for which there can be no

external energy transfer

! Energy transfers may happen internal to the system

! We can write:
Eq. (8-36)
8-5 Conservation of Energy

! External forces can act on a system without doing work:

! The skater pushes herself away from the wall

! Turns internal chemical energy in muscles into KE, K
! The change in K is caused by the force from the wall,
but the wall does not provide the energy
("U+) "K = Fd cos #

8-5 Conservation of Energy

!
•Engine causes the tyres to push backward on the road.

•Produces frictional forces which push forward, moving the car.

•Net external force comes from the road, but it does not transfer energy to the
car, and so does no work. The KE is increased due to the transfer of chemical
energy from the combustion of petrol.
 8-5 Conservation of Energy

! Now we expand our definition of Power.

! Power is the rate at which energy is transferred by a force
from one type to another
! If energy "E transferred in time "t, the average power is:

! And the instantaneous power is:

WEA09AN1: Gravitational PE and Escape Speed

7 Summary

Kinetic Energy Work

! The energy associated with ! Energy transferred to or from an
motion object via a force

Eq. (7-1) ! Can be positive or negative

Work Done by a Constant Work and Kinetic Energy

Force
Eq. (7-10)
Eq. (7-7)

Eq. (7-8) Eq. (7-11)

! The net work is the sum of the

individual contributions

7 Summary

Work Done by the Work Done in Lifting and

Gravitational Force Lowering an Object
Eq. (7-12)
Eq. (7-16)

Spring Force Spring Force

! Relaxed state: applies no force ! For an initial position x = 0:
! Spring constant k measures
stiffness Eq. (7-26)

Eq. (7-20)
7 Summary

Work Done by a Variable Power

Force ! The rate at which a force does
! Found by integrating the work on an object
constant-force work equation ! Average power:
Eq. (7-42)
Eq. (7-32)
! Instantaneous power:
Eq. (7-43)

! For a force acting on a moving

object:
Eq. (7-47)
Eq. (7-48)

8 Summary

Conservative Forces Potential Energy

! Net work on a particle over a ! Energy associated with the
closed path is 0 configuration of a system and a
conservative force

Eq. (8-6)

Gravitational Potential Elastic Potential Energy

Energy ! Energy associated with
! Energy associated with Earth + compression or extension of a
a nearby particle spring
Eq. (8-9)
Eq. (8-11)
8 Summary

Mechanical Energy Potential Energy Curves

Eq. (8-12) Eq. (8-22)

! For only conservative forces ! At turning points a particle

within an isolated system, reverses direction
mechanical energy is
conserved ! At equilibrium, slope of U(x) is 0

Work Done on a System by Conservation of Energy

an External Force ! The total energy can change
! Without/with friction: only by amounts transferred in
or out of the system
Eq. (8-26)

Eq. (8-33) Eq. (8-35)

8 Summary

Power
! The rate at which a force
transfers energy
! Average power:
Eq. (8-40)

! Instantaneous power:

Eq. (8-41)