EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE (9 –1)

MATHEMATICS A
Student Book 2

David Turner
Ian Potts

A01_IGMA_SB_3059_Prelims.indd 1 10/04/2017 14:49

 NUMBER 6
KEY POINTS y
If two quantities are in direct proportion:
◼ when one is multiplied or divided by a number,
so is the other
◼ their ratio stays the same as they increase or
decrease
◼ the graph of the relationship will always be a
straight line through the origin.

x
0

KEY POINTS
When two quantities are in inverse proportion: y
◼ the graph of the relationship is a reciprocal graph
◼ one quantity increases at the same rate as the
other quantity decreases, for example, as one
doubles (× 2) the other halves (÷ 2)
◼ their product is constant.

x
0

KEY POINTS
◼ Use the rules:
1
–
m __
◼ xm = √x
n __ n m __
◼ x m = ( √x ) = √xn
–
m

◼ Or, write the numbers in prime factor form first.

KEY POINTS
◼ Use the rules:
–
1
m __
◼ xm = √x
n __ n m __
◼ x m = ( √x ) = √xn
–
m

◼ Or, write the numbers in prime factor form first.

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 ALGEBRA 6
KEY POINTS
◼ y is directly proportional to x is written as y ∝ x and this means y = kx, for some constant k.
◼ The graph of y against x is a straight line through the origin.
y

y = kx

0
x

KEY POINTS
◼ If y is proportional to x squared then y ∝ x2 and y = kx2, for some constant k.
◼ If y is proportional to x cubed then y ∝ x3 and y = kx3, for some constant k.
__ __
◼ If y is proportional to the square root of x then y ∝ √ x and y = k√ x , for some constant k.

KEY POINT
◼ If y is inversely proportional to x then y ∝ __ k , for some constant k. The graph
1 and y = __
x x
of y plotted against x looks like this.
y

k
y=
x

0 x

INDICES
For some constant k:
For a negative or fractional index, the laws of indices
◼ When y is inversely proportional to x2 then
still apply:
1 __ n __ n __ y ∝ __ k
1 and y = __
m
◼ a m = ( √a ) = √an x2 x2
–
m –
m
◼ am = √a

1, a ≠ 0 ◼ When y is inversely proportional to x3 then

◼ a 0 = 1, a ≠ 0 ◼ a −1 = __ k
a 1 and y = __
y ∝ __
1 for any number n, a ≠ 0 x3 x3
◼ a −n = __ __
an ◼ When y is inversely proportional to √ x then
(a)
n
◼ (__
b)
a −n = _____
1 = __b for any number n, a, b ≠ 0 k__
1__ and y = __
y ∝ __
(b)
n
a
__ √x √x

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 SEQUENCES
KEY POINT
◼ When a sequence is given by a formula, any term can be worked out.

KEY POINT
◼ The difference method finds patterns in sequences when the patterns are not obvious.

If the pattern in the differences is not clear, add a third row giving the differences between the
terms in the second row. More rows can be inserted until a pattern is found but remember not all
sequences will result in a pattern.

KEY POINT
◼ If the first row of differences is constant and equal to a then the formula for the nth term will
be nth term = an + b where b is another constant.

When the difference between any two consecutive terms

in a sequence is the same, the sequence is called an
arithmetic sequence. The difference between the terms
is called the common difference. The common difference
can be positive or negative.

NOTATION
The letter a is used for the first term, and the letter d is used for the common difference.

1st term 2nd term 3rd term 4th term … nth term
a a+d a + 2d a + 3d … a + (n − 1)d

An arithmetic sequence is given by a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ..., a + (n − 1)d

KEY POINTS
In an arithmetic sequence:
◼ The first term is a
◼ The common difference is d
◼ The nth term is a + (n − 1)d

Gauss was adding up an arithmetic sequence. This is called an arithmetic series.

4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + … is an arithmetic series because the terms are an arithmetic sequence.
The general terms in an arithmetic sequence are a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ..., a + (n − 1)d
The notation Sn is used to mean ‘the sum to n terms’.

KEY POINTS
◼ a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) + ... + (a + (n − 1)d) is an arithmetic series.
◼ The sum to n terms of an arithmetic series is Sn = __ n [2a + (n − 1)d]
2

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 CHAPTER SUMMARY: SEQUENCES
◼ A
 set of numbers that follows a definite pattern is ◼ W
 hen the difference between any two consecutive
called a sequence. terms in a sequence is the same, the sequence is
called an arithmetic sequence. The difference
◼ W
 hen a sequence is given by a formula, any term between the terms is called the common
can be worked out. difference. The common difference can be positive
or negative.
The nth term of a sequence is 3n − 2. Find the 2nd
and 100th terms.
◼ In an arithmetic sequence:
Substituting n = 2 gives the 2nd term as 4
◼ The first term is a
Substituting n = 100 gives the 100th term as 298 ◼ The common difference is d
◼ The nth term is a + (n − 1)d
◼ T
 he difference method finds patterns in sequences
when the patterns are not obvious.
◼ a
 + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) + ... + (a + (n − 1)d)
Sequence: 5 7 11 17 25 is an arithmetic series.
Differences: 2 4 6 8 The sum to n terms of an arithmetic series is
2 2 2 ​​  n ​​[2a + (n − 1 ) d]​​
Sn = __
2
◼ If the first row of differences is constant and equal Find the 20th term and the sum to 20 terms of the
to a then the formula for the nth term will be arithmetic sequence 7, 10, 13, 16, …
nth term = an + b where b is another constant. a = 7, d = 3 and n = 20
 ind a formula for the nth term of the sequence
F
The 20th term is 7 + (20 − 1) × 3 = 64
5, 8, 11, 14, ...
Sequence: 5 8 11 14 ​​ 20 ​​[2 × 7 + (20 − 1 )  × 3]​​ = 710
The sum to 20 terms is ___
2
Differences: 3 3 3
 he first row of differences is constant and equal
T
to 3 so formula is 3n + b.
When n = 1 the formula must equal 5
The formula for the nth term is 3n + 2

◼ The formula can be obvious.

 ind a formula for the nth term of the sequence
F
1, 4, 9, 16, …
 he sequence is square numbers so the nth term
T
is n2.

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 SHAPE AND SPACE 6
BASIC PRINCIPLES

◼ Triangle OAB is isosceles. ◼ The angle at the centre of a

x y
circle is twice the angle at
the circumference when
O both are subtended by the O O
same arc.
2x 2y

A B

◼ A tangent is a straight line

x x y y
that touches a circle at one
point only.
O OO OO OO
T he angle between a tangent
and the radius is 90° 2x 2x 2y2y 180°
180°

tangent

◼ An angle in a semicircle is A ◼ A figure is cyclic if a circle can be drawn through its
always a right angle. vertices. The vertices are concyclic points.

B
C
◼ Opposite angles of a cyclic ◼ Angles in the same segment
quadrilateral sum to 180°. are equal. x x
a x
a° + b° = 180° y
x x
x° + y° = 180° b

KEY POINTS
When trying to find angles or lengths in circles:
◼ Always draw a neat diagram, and include all the facts. Use a pair of compasses to draw
all circles.
◼ Give a reason, in brackets, after each statement.

KEY POINT
◼ The angle between a chord and a tangent is equal to the
angle in the alternate segment.

This is called the ‘Alternate Segment Theorem’.

T
KEY POINTS
◼ A chord is a straight line connecting two points on a circle.
◼ T
 he perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects
the chord and the line drawn from the centre of a circle to the O
mid-point of a chord is at right angles to the chord.

A M B

KEY POINT
◼ Two chords intersect inside a circle. B

AP × BP = CP × DP D

C P

KEY POINT
◼ Two chords intersecting outside a circle.
A
AP × BP = CP × DP
B

D
C
 CHAPTER SUMMARY: SHAPE AND SPACE 6
ALTERNATE SEGMENT THEOREM INTERSECTING CHORDS THEOREMS

x
y

O
x

y
A M B

The angle between a chord and a tangent is equal to A chord is a straight line connecting two points on
the angle in the alternate segment. a circle.

The perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a

chord bisects the chord and the line drawn from the
centre of a circle to the mid-point of a chord is at right
angles to the chord.

C
A

A
P B

B
C

D
P
D

For two chords intersecting inside or outside a circle:

AP × BP = CP × DP

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 SETS 2
BASIC PRINCIPLES
◼ A set is a collection of objects, described by a list or a rule. A = {1, 3, 5}
◼ Each object is an element or member of the set. 1 ∈ A, 2 ∉ A
◼ Sets are equal if they have exactly the same elements. B = {5, 3, 1}, B = A
◼ The number of elements of set A is given by n(A). n(A) = 3

◼ The empty set is the set with no members. { } or ∅

◼ The universal set contains all the elements being discussed in % %
a particular problem.

◼ B is a subset of A if every member of B is a member of A. B⊂A %

A
B

◼ The complement of set A is the set of all elements not in A. A′ %

A

◼ The intersection of A and B is the set of elements which are A∩B %

in both A and B. A B

◼ The union of A and B is the set of elements which are in A or B A∪B %

or both. A B

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 KEY POINTS
◼ A ∩ B ∩ C is the intersection of A, B and C ◼ A ∪ B ∪ C is the union of A, B and C, that
i.e. where all three sets intersect. is, all three sets combined.

% %
A B A B

C C

A∩B∩C A∪B∪C

SHADING SETS

Sometimes it can be difficult to find the intersection or union of sets in a Venn diagram. If one set is
shaded in one direction and the other set in another direction, then the intersection is given
wherever there is cross shading; the union is given by all the areas that are shaded.

The diagrams show first the % % %

A B A B A B
sets A and B, then the set A′
1
st
shaded one way, then the
set B shaded another way. % % %
A B A B A B
Sets A and B Set A′ shaded one way Set B shaded the other way

KEY POINT
◼ Shading sets differently makes it easier to find the intersection or union.

SET-BUILDER NOTATION

Sets can be described using set-builder notation:

A = {x such that x > 2} means ‘A is the set of all x such that x is greater than 2’.
Rather than write ‘such that’ the notation A = {x: x > 2} is used.

B = {x: x > 2, x is positive integer} means the set of positive integers x such that x is greater than 2.
This means B = {3, 4, 5, 6, …}.

C = {x: x < 2 or x > 2} can be written as {x: x < 2}∪ {x: x > 2}.
The symbol ∪ (union) means that the set includes all values satisfied by either inequality.

Certain sets of numbers are used so frequently that they are given special symbols.
◼ ℕ is the set of natural numbers or positive integers { 1, 2, 3, 4, …}.
◼ ℤ is the set of integers { …, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, …}.
◼ ℚ is the set of rational numbers. These are numbers that__can be written as recurring or
terminating decimals. ℚ does not contain numbers like √ 2 or π .
__
◼ ℝ is the set of real numbers. This contains ℚ and numbers like √ 2 or π.

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 CHAPTER SUMMARY: SETS 2
THREE-SET PROBLEMS SHADING SETS

A ∩ B ∩ C is the intersection of A, B and C i.e. where If one set is shaded in one direction and the other
all three sets intersect. set in another direction, then the intersection is given
wherever there is cross shading; the union is given
%
A B by any shading at all.
% % %
% A B A B A B
A B

C Sets A and B Set A′ shaded one way Set B shaded the other way
% %
A B A B
C
A∩B∩C

A∪B% ∪ C is the union of A, B and C i.e. all three sets

A
combined. A∩B∩C B Shading shows A′ ∩ B Shading shows A′ ∪ B

%
A B
SET-BUILDER NOTATION

C
Certain sets of numbers are used so frequently that
they are given special symbols.

C ◼ ℕ  is the set of natural numbers or positive integers

A∪B∪C
{ 1, 2, 3, 4, …}.
◼ ℤ is the set of integers { …, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, …}.
A∪B∪C
◼ ℚ is the set of rational numbers. These are
numbers that can be written as recurring or
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS terminating
__ decimals. ℚ does not contain numbers
√
like ​​ 2 ​​ or π.
Enter as much information as possible in the Venn ◼ ​ℝ​is the set of real __ numbers. This contains ℚ and
diagram. Sometimes letting the number in a set or √
numbers like ​​ 2 ​​ or π.
subset be x can help solve the problem.
The set A = {x: x ≥ 5, x ∈ ℝ} is the set of all real
n(E ) = 30, n(A) = 20, n(B) = 16 and n(A ∪ B)′ = 0. numbers greater than or equal to five.
Find n(A ∩ B).
B = {x: x ≥ 5, x ∈ ℕ} is the set { 5, 6, 7, 8, …}.

A = 20 B = 16
Note that, for example, 6.2 ∈ A but 6.2 ∉ B so A ≠ B.

The set {x: x is odd, x ∈ ℕ} is the set {1, 3, 5, 7, …}.

The set {x: x = 2y, y ∈ ℕ} is the set {2, 4, 6, 8, …}.

20 – x x 16 – x
The set C = {x: x < 2 or x > 2} can be written as
{x: x < 2} ∪ {x: x > 2}.
0 The symbol ∪ (union) means that the set includes all
values satisfied by either inequality.
(20 – x) + x + (16 – x) = 30 ⇒ x = 6 so n(A ∩ B) = 6

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 NUMBER 7
BASIC PRINCIPLES
◼ Simplify fractions.

◼ Use a scientific calculator to work out arithmetic calculations (including use of the memory, sign change and
power keys).
◼ All fractions can be written as either terminating decimals or decimals with a set of recurring digits.

◼ Fractions that produce terminating decimals have, in their simplest form, denominators with only 2 or 5 as factors.
This is because 2 and 5 are the only factors of 10 (decimal system).
◼ The dot notation is used to indicate which digits recur. For example,

◼ ​0.​3  ​​ ̇ = 0.333 …

​ .​23 ​​̇ ̇ ​​
◼ 0 = 0.232 323 …
​ .​05 ​̇ 6​ ̇ ​​
◼ 0 = 0.056 056 056 …
​ ◼ 1.2​34 ​​̇ ̇ ​​ = 1.234 343 4 …

RECURRING DECIMALS

Fractions that have an exact decimal equivalent are called terminating decimals.
Fractions that have a decimal equivalent that repeats itself are called recurring decimals.

KEY POINT
◼ To change a recurring decimal to a fraction, first form an equation by putting x
equal to the recurring decimal. Then multiply both sides of the equation by 10 if
one digit recurs, by 100 if two digits recur, and by 1000 if 3 digits recur etc.

NO. OF REPEATING DIGITS MULTIPLY BY

1 10
2 100
3 1000

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 CHAPTER SUMMARY: NUMBER 7
RECURRING DECIMALS

Fractions that have a decimal equivalent that repeats itself are called recurring decimals.
The dot notation of recurring decimals should be clearly understood.
​0.​3̇ ​​ = 0.333 333…
 ​​̇  ​​̇
​0.​32 = 0.323 232…
 ​̇ ​1 ​​̇ = 0.321 321…
​0.​32
All recurring decimals can be written as exact fractions. To change a recurring decimal to a fraction, first form an
equation by putting x equal to the recurring decimal. Then multiply both sides of the equation by 10 if one digit
recurs, by 100 if two digits recur, and by 1000 if 3 digits recur etc.

NO. OF REPEATING DIGITS MULTIPLY BY

1 10
2 100
3 1000

Change ​0.​1 ​​̇ to a fraction. Change ​0.​6̇ ​​3̇ ​​to a fraction. Change ​0 . 7​4 ​​̇ 5̇ ​​to a fraction.
Let x = 0.111 … Let x = 0.636 363... Let x = ​0.7​4̇ ​​5̇ ​​
10x = 1.111… 100x = 63.636 363... 10x = 7.454 545...
9x = 1 99x = 63 1000x = 745.454 545...
​​  1 ​​
x = __ 63 ​ = ___
x = ​​ ___ ​  7  ​​ 990x = 738
9 99 11
738 ​ = ___
x = ​​ ____ ​  41 ​​
990 55

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 ALGEBRA 7
SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS BY FACTORISING

KEY POINTS
◼ There are three types of quadratic equations with a = 1
◼ If b = 0 x² − c = 0 (Rearrange)
⇒ x² = c (Square root both sides)
__
⇒ x = ±​​√ c ​​
◼ If c = 0 x² + bx = 0 (Factorise)
⇒ x(x + b) = 0 (Solve)
⇒ x = 0 or x = −b
◼ If b ≠ 0 and c ≠ 0 x² + bx + c = 0 (Factorise)
⇒ (x + p)(x + q) = 0 (Solve)
⇒ x = −p or x = −q
where p × q = c and p + q = b
◼ If c is negative then p and q have opposite signs to each other.
◼ If c is positive then p and q have the same sign as b.

KEY POINT
◼ Always take out any common factor first.

Any quadratic equation can be written in the form p(x + q)2 + r = 0 by completing the square.
It can then be solved.

KEY POINTS
◼ x 2 + bx + c = (x + __
2) (2)
2 2
b − __ b +c

◼ Take care with the signs if b is negative.

◼ a x 2 + bx + c can be written as a(x 2 + __
a )
b x + c before completing the square for x 2 + __
bx
a
◼ Give your answers in surd form (unless told otherwise) as these answers are exact.

KEY POINT
◼ The quadratic formula ______
− b ± √ b − 4ac
2
If ax² + bx + c = 0 then x = __________
2a

KEY POINTS ◼ a is the coefficient of x², it is not necessarily the first number in the equation. Always rearrange
the equation into the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 before using the formula.
◼ If the question asks for answers to a number of s.f. or d.p. then it is fairly certain that the
quadratic formula is required.

KEY POINT
◼ To solve a quadratic inequality, sketch the graph of the quadratic function.

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 CHAPTER SUMMARY: ALGEBRA 7
SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS BY FACTORISING
The different types of quadratic equation are shown, with examples, below.
No x term: x2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ x2 = 4 ⇒ x = ±2
No number term: x2 + 4x = 0 ⇒ x(x + 4) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or −4
Simple factorising: x2 − x − 2 = 0 ⇒ (x + 1)(x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = −1 or 2
Number factor: 3x2 − 3x − 6 = 0 ⇒ 3(x2 − x − 2) = 0 ⇒ 3(x + 1)(x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = −1 or 2
1 ​​ or −2
More complex factorising: 2x2 + 5x + 2 = 0 ⇒ (2x + 1)(x + 2) = 0 ⇒ x = ​− ​ __
2

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS BY COMPLETING THE SQUARE

​​x​​  2​  + bx + c = ​​(x + ​ __

2) (2)
2 2
b ​  ​​​  ​  − ​​ __
​  b ​  ​​​  ​  + c​

Take care with the signs if b is negative.

​a ​x​​  2​  + bx + c​can be written as ​a​(​x​​  2​  + ​ __
a )
b  ​  x  ​ + c​before completing the square for ​​x​​  2​  + ​ __
b  ​  x​
a
Give your answers in surd form (unless told otherwise) as these are exact.
Complete the square for x2 − 4x + 1
x2 − 4x + 1 = (x − 2)2 − (−2)2 + 1 = (x − 2)2 − 3
Therefore solve x² − 4x + 1 = 0 giving exact answers.
x2 − 4x + 1 = 0 ⇒ (x − 2)2 − 3 = 0
⇒ (x − 2)2 = 3__
⇒ x − 2 = ±__√ ​​ 3
 ​​ __
⇒ x = 2 + ​​ 3 ​​ or 2 − √ √ ​​​​  ​​
3

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS USING THE QUADRATIC FORMULA

______
√
​ − b ± ​ ​b​​  ​ − 4ac ​ 2
2 __________
If ax + bx + c = 0 then ​x =     ​​
2a
Write down the values of a, b and c. Take care with the signs. If b = −3 then –b = +3, and b2 must be positive.
If one of a or c is negative then −4ac will be positive.
Solve ​2​x​​  2​ − 5x − 1 = 0​
a = 2, b = −5 and c = −1 ____________
5 ± ​√   
​5​​  2​ −
______________ 4 × ​​
2 × − 1 ​
Substituting into the formula: ​x = ​       
2×2
___
5 ± ​√ ​​
_____
​ x = ​  33 ​
4
SOLVING QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES
To solve a quadratic inequality, sketch the graph of the quadratic function. y
Solve a x2 – x – 2 < 0 b x2 – x – 2 ​≥​0
First sketch y = x2 – x – 2 by finding where the graph intersects the x-axis.
x2 – x – 2 = 0 ⇒ (x + 1)(x – 2) = 0 ⇒ x = −1 and x = 2
So the graph intersects the x-axis at x = −1 and x = 2
The graph is a positive parabola, which is U-shaped. x
21 2
a The required region is below the x-axis. As this is one region, the answer is
one inequality, so −1 < x < 2
b The required region is above the x-axis. As this has two components, the 22
answer is two inequalities, so x ​≤​−1 or x ​≥​ 2

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 GRAPHS 6
BASIC PRINCIPLES
◼ Substitute positive and negative numbers (including ◼ A graph of p against q implies that p is on the vertical
fractions) into algebraic expressions (including those axis and q is on the horizontal axis. These values are
variables and can represent physical quantities such as
involving squares and cubes) and those of the form __ ​​ 1  ​​
x distance, speed, time and many others. Often a range of
◼ Recognise linear and quadratic graphs. values is stated where the graph is a ‘good’
mathematical model and the values can be trusted to
◼ Draw graphs (linear and quadratic) using tables of values. produce accurate results.

CUBIC GRAPHS y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

A cubic function is one in which the highest power of x is x3.

All cubic functions can be written in the form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d where a, b, c and d are constants.
The graphs of cubic functions have distinctive shapes and can be used to model real-life situations.

KEY POINTS
◼ A cubic function is one whose highest power of x is x3
It is written in the form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

When a > 0 the function looks like this or

When a < 0 the function looks like this or

The graph intersects the y-axis at the point y = d

a
RECIPROCAL GRAPHS y = __
x
a where a is a constant.
A reciprocal function is in the form y = __
x
The graph of a reciprocal function produces a curve called a hyperbola.

KEY POINT a is a hyperbola.

◼ The graph of y = __ y y
x
The curve approaches, but never touches,
the axes. The axes are called asymptotes
to the curve. x x

a.0 a,0

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 CHAPTER SUMMARY: GRAPHS 6
CUBIC GRAPHS y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d

A cubic function is one in which the highest power of x is x³.

All cubic functions can be written in the form y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d where a, b, c and d are constants.

y y
a.0 a,0

y y
x x
a.0 a,0

x x
​ a ​ AND y = __
RECIPROCAL GRAPHS ​y = __ ​ a2 ​​
x ​x​​  ​

​​ a ​​ or ​y = __
A reciprocal function is in the form __ ​ a2 ​​ where a is a number.
x ​x​​  ​
y y y y
a.0 a,0 a.0 a,0

x x x x

​ a ​​
y = ​ __ ​ a2 ​​
​y = __
y x y ​x​​  ​
a.0 B  ​  + ​ __ C  ​​ (A, Baand ,0
Graphs of type ​y = Ax + ​ __ C are constants):
​x​​  2​ ​x​​  3​
Draw the graph of ​y = 2x + ​ __ 3  ​  − ​ __ 4  ​​for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2
x ​x​​  2​ ​x​​  3​ x
Create a suitable table of values, plot the points and draw a smooth curve.

y
x −2 −1 0 1 2 50
3  ​  − ​ __
​ = 2x + ​ __
y 4  ​​
​x​​  2​ ​x​​  3​ 40
2x −4 −2 0 2 4 30
20
10
​​  3  ​​
__ 0.75 3 3 0.75
​x​​  2​
–2 –1 0 1 2x
–10
4  ​​
​− ​ __ 0.5 4 −4 −0.5 –20
​x​​  3​
–30
–40
y −2.75 5 1 4.25 –50

M07_IGMA_SB_3059_U07.indd 139 10/04/2017 17:17

 SHAPE AND SPACE 7
BASIC PRINCIPLES
◼ The perimeter of a shape is the distance all the way round the shape.

◼ Circle
The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference. r
If C is the circumference, A the area and r the radius, then
C = 2πr
A = πr²
◼ Semicircle
A semicircle is half a circle cut along a diameter. r
The perimeter is half the circumference of the circle plus the diameter, so P = π r + 2r
π ​r ​​​​  2​
The area is half of the area of the circle, so ​A = ​ ___
2
◼ Quadrant
A quadrant is quarter of a circle.
πr ​ + 2r​
The perimeter is a quarter of the circumference of the circle plus twice the radius, so ​P = ​ __ r
2
​ π ​r ​​​​  ​
2
The area is a quarter of the area of the circle, so ​A = ___
4
◼ Find the perimeter of rectangles and triangles.
◼ Use Pythagoras’ theorem.
◼ Recognise similar shapes.
◼ Use the ratio of corresponding sides to work out scale factors.
◼ Find missing lengths on similar shapes.

ARCS
An arc is part of the circumference of a circle. r
x of the whole circumference.
The arc shown is the fraction ____ Arc x°
360
x × 2πr
So the arc length is ____ r
360

KEY POINT x × 2πr

◼ Arc length = ____
360

SECTORS
r
A sector of a circle is a region whose perimeter is an arc and two radii.
Sector x°
x of the whole circle.
The sector shown is the fraction ____ of circle
360 r
x × π r2
So the sector area is ____
360

KEY POINT x × π r2
◼ Sector area = ____
360

M07_IGMA_SB_3059_U07.indd 140 10/04/2017 17:17

 SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME OF A PRISM
KEY POINTS
◼ A
 ny solid with parallel sides that has a constant
cross-section is called a prism.

◼ Volume of a prism = area of cross-section × length

Length

◼ A cuboid is a prism with a rectangular cross-section. Cross-section

Cross-sectional area

Height

Depth

Width Cross-sectional area

◼ Volume of a cuboid = width × depth × height

◼ A cylinder is a prism with a circular cross-section. Height

◼ If the height is h and the radius r, then volume of a cylinder = πr2h

◼ Curved surface area of a cylinder = 2πrh

VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA OF A PYRAMID, CONE AND SPHERE

KEY POINTS 1 × area of base × vertical height
◼ Volume of a pyramid = __
3 Base
area
◼ A cone is a pyramid with Height
a circular base.
l
h

1 × area of base × vertical height

◼ Volume of a cone = __
3
1 × πr² × h, where r = radius and h = vertical height
= __
3
◼ Curved surface area of a cone = πrl, where l is the slant (sloped) height

◼ For a sphere of radius r,

4 πr³
◼ Volume = __
3
◼ Surface area = 4πr²

M07_IGMA_SB_3059_U07.indd 148 10/04/2017 17:17

 SIMILAR SHAPES

AREAS OF SIMILAR SHAPES

When a shape doubles in size, then the area does NOT double, but increases by a factor of four.

Length
doubles Area = 4 cm2
Area =1 cm2 1 cm 2 cm

1 cm
2 cm

The linear scale factor is 2, and the area scale factor is 4.

If the shape triples in size, then the area increases by a factor of nine.

Length
triples
Area = 1 cm2 1 cm Area = 9 cm2
3 cm

1 cm

3 cm

If a shape increases by a linear scale factor of k, then the area scale factor is k².
This applies even if the shape is irregular.

Length doubles
Area = 2 cm2 Area = 2 × 4 = 8 cm2
Area Scale Factor = 4

KEY POINT
◼ When a shape is enlarged by linear scale factor k, the area of the shape is enlarged
by scale factor k².

M07_IGMA_SB_3059_U07.indd 154 10/04/2017 17:17

 VOLUMES OF SIMILAR SHAPES

When a solid doubles in size, the volume does NOT double, but increases by a factor of eight.

1 cm Length
doubles
Volume = 1 cm 3
2 cm
1 cm
1 cm Volume = 8 cm3

2 cm

2 cm

The linear scale factor is 2, and the volume scale factor is 8.

If the solid triples in size, then the volume increases by a factor of 27.

Length
1 cm
triples
Volume =1 cm 3 Volume = 27 cm3
1 cm
1 cm 3 cm

3 cm

3 cm

If a solid increases by a linear scale factor of k, then the volume scale factor is k³.
This applies even if the solid is irregular.

Length doubles
Volume = 2 cm3 Volume = 2 × 8 = 16 cm3
Volume
Scale Factor = 8

Note: The two solids must be similar.

KEY POINT
◼ When a shape is enlarged by linear scale factor k, the volume of the shape is enlarged
by scale factor k³.

M07_IGMA_SB_3059_U07.indd 158 10/04/2017 17:17

 CHAPTER SUMMARY: SHAPE AND SPACE 7
CIRCLES For a pyramid,
Vertical
The perimeter of a circle is 1 × area of
Volume = __
C 3
height
called the circumference. r base × vertical height
A
Circumference,
C = πd or C = 2πr
Area, A = πr² For a cone,

1 πr²h
Volume = __
3 h
l
Sector
Curved surface area = πrl
x × 2πr
Arc length = ____
360 r
r

x × π r2
Sector area = ____
360 Arc x° For a sphere,

r 4 πr³
Volume = __ Surface area = 4πr²
3

SIMILAR SHAPES
SOLIDS When a shape is enlarged by linear scale factor k, the
For a prism, Length
area of the shape is enlarged by scale factor k².

Cross-sectional When a shape is enlarged by linear scale factor k, the

area volume of the shape is enlarged by scale factor k³.
When the linear scale factor is k:
◼ Lengths are multiplied by k
◼ Area is multiplied by k²
◼ Volume is multiplied by k³
Volume = area of cross-section × length V = 1000 cm3
v cm3
Surface area = total area of all its faces

A cylinder is a prism with a circular cross-section.

8 cm 16 cm
I II

Cross-sectional area

Height a = 40 cm2
A cm2

The linear scale factor (k) from I to II is 8k = 16 ⇒ k = 2

The area scale factor (k²) is 22 = 4
⇒ A = 40 × 4 = 160 cm²
Volume = πr²h
The volume scale factor (k³) is 23 = 8
Curved surface area = 2πrh
⇒ v × 8 = 1000 ⇒ v = 125 cm³

M07_IGMA_SB_3059_U07.indd 165 10/04/2017 17:17

 SETS 3
BASIC PRINCIPLES
◼ A set is a collection of objects, described by a list ◼ The intersection of A and %
or a rule. A = {1, 3, 5} B is the set of elements A B
which are in both A and B.
◼ The number of elements of set A is given by n(A).
A∩B
n(A) = 3
◼ The universal set contains all the elements being
discussed in a particular problem. % ◼ The union of A and B is %
the set of elements which A B
% are in A or B or both.
A∪B

◼ Use Venn diagrams to represent two or three sets.

◼ B is a subset of A if % ◼ Use algebra to solve problems involving sets.
every member of B is a A
B
member of A. ◼ Calculate the probability of an event.
B⊂A ◼ Calculate the probability that something will not happen
given the probability that it will happen.
◼ The complement of set
%
A is the set of all A
elements not in A.
A′

KEY POINTS
◼ Venn diagrams can be used to work out probabilities if all the outcomes are equally likely.
n(A)
The probability of event A, written P(A), is ____
n(%)
◼ Venn diagrams are very useful in problems that ask for the probability of A and B or the
probability of A or B.
n(A ∩ B )
◼ The probability of A and B, written P(A ∩ B), is _______
n(%)
n(A ∪ B )
◼ The probability of A or B (or both), written P(A ∪ B), is _______
n(%)

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY USING VENN DIAGRAMS

Sometimes additional information is given which makes the calculated probabilities conditional on
an event having happened.

When you are given further information, then you are selecting from a subset rather than from the
universal set. This subset becomes the new universal set for that part of the question.

The notation P(A|B) means ‘the probability of A given B has occurred’ or more simply ‘the
probability of A given B’.

KEY POINTS
◼ Conditional probability means selecting from a subset of the Venn diagram.
◼ P(A|B) means ‘the probability of A given B’.
 NUMBER 8
BASIC PRINCIPLES
◼ Rearrange formulae

◼ You will be expected to remember these conversions:

◼ 1000 metres (m) = 1 kilometre (km)

◼ 1000 millimetres (mm) = 1 metre (m)

◼ 100 centimetres (cm) = 1 metre (m)

◼ 10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm)

◼ 1 millilitre (ml) = 1 cm3

◼ 1 litre = 1000 ml = 1000 cm3

◼ 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)

◼ 1 tonne (t) = 1000 kilograms (kg)

KEY POINTS 1m
◼ A diagram can help convert areas.
◼ 1 m2 = 106 mm2

1m 103 mm

103 mm

KEY POINTS
◼ A diagram can help convert volumes. 102 cm
1m
◼ 1 m3 = 106 cm3

102 cm
1m

102 cm
1m

KEY POINTS
distance
◼ speed = _______ usually measured in m/s or km/hr
time
mass
◼ density = _______ usually measured in g/cm3 or kg/m3
volume
force
◼ pressure = _____ usually measured in N/cm2 or N/m2
area

M08_IGMA_SB_3059_U08.indd 181 10/04/2017 17:30

 GRAPHS 7
KEY POINTS
◼ The graph of y = x2 can be used to solve quadratic equations of the form ax2 + bx = c = 0
◼ Rearrange the equation so that x2 = f(x), where f(x) is a linear function.
◼ Draw y = f(x) and find the x co-ordinates of the intersection points of the curve y = x2 and the
line y = f(x)

KEY POINT
◼ The graph of one quadratic equation can be used to solve other quadratic equations with
suitable rearrangement.

KEY POINT
◼ To solve simultaneous equations graphically, draw both graphs on one set of axes.
The co-ordinates of the intersection points are the solutions of the simultaneous equations.

KEY POINTS
◼ Some numbers cannot be used for the domain as they lead to impossible operations.
◼ These operations are usually division by zero or the square root of a negative number.

KEY POINTS
◼ fg(x) and gf(x) are composite functions.
◼ To work out fg(x), first work out g(x) and then substitute the answer into f(x).
◼ To work out gf(x), first work out f(x) and then substitute the answer into g(x).

KEY POINT
◼ To find the inverse function:
◼ Step 1 Write the function as y = …
◼ Step 2 Change any x to y and any y to x.
◼ Step 3 Make y the subject giving the inverse function and use the correct f −1(x) notation.
◼ The graph of the inverse function is the reflection of the function in the line y = x.

M08_IGMA_SB_3059_U08.indd 216 10/04/2017 17:30

 SHAPE AND SPACE 8
_____
◼ The magnitude of the vector (y) is its length: √ x 2 + y 2
KEY POINT x

KEY POINTS
◼ a = 2b ⇒ a is parallel to b and a is twice as long as b.
◼ a = kb ⇒ a is parallel to b and a is k times as long as b.

a ka

KEY POINTS ⟶ ⟶
◼ PQ = kQR shows that the lines PQ and QR are parallel. Also they R
both pass through point Q so PQ and QR are part of the same P Q
straight line.
◼ P, Q and R are said to be collinear (they all lie on the same straight line).

M08_IGMA_SB_3059_U08.indd 228 10/04/2017 17:30

 HANDLING DATA 5
BASIC PRINCIPLES
   
   number of successful outcomes  ​​
◼ For equally likely outcomes, ​probability = ​ ____________________________
total number of possible outcomes
◼ P(A) means the probability of event A occurring.

◼ P(A′) means the probability of event A not occurring.

◼ 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1

◼ P(A) + P(A′) = 1, so P(A′) = 1 − P(A)

◼ P(A|B) means the probability of A occurring given that B has already happened.

KEY POINT
◼ For two independent events A and B, P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)

KEY POINT
◼ For mutually exclusive events A and B, P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
 NUMBER 9
BASIC PRINCIPLES
◼ Global financial processes can be complex. The ones in this section involve the simple day-to-day concepts of
comparative costs, salaries and taxes, sales tax and foreign currency.

◼ The mathematical processes involved in this section have all been met before.

◼ The key skills all involve percentages.

​​  x ​ × 100​

◼ To calculate x as a percentage of y: __
y
y
◼ To calculate x per cent of y: 1% of y = ____
​​   ​​
100
y
so x% of y = ​x × ​ ____ ​ = y × ​(____
​  x  ​) ​​
100 100
​​  5  ​​ or 0.05
◼ 5% of a quantity can be found by multiplying by ____
100
◼ 95% of a quantity can be found by multiplying by ____ ​​  95  ​​ or 0.95
100
◼ ​​  1  ​​= 0.01
1% = ____ ​​  10  ​ = ___
10% = ____ ​  1  ​​= 0.1
100 100 10
◼ 50% = ____​​  50  ​ = __
​  1 ​​= 0.5 75% = ​​ ____ 75  ​ = __​  3 ​​ = 0.75
100 2 100 4
value of change
◼ Percentage change = _____________  
​​      ​ × 100​
original value
◼ Per annum (p.a.) is frequently used and means ‘per year’.

PERCENTAGE INCREASE AND DECREASE

R
To increase a quantity by R%, multiply it by 1 + ____
100
R
To decrease a quantity by R%, multiply it by 1 − ____
100

PERCENTAGE CHANGE MULTIPLY BY

+ 5% 1.05
+ 95% 1.95
− 5% 0.95
− 95% 0.05

M09_IGMA_SB_3059_U09.indd 265 10/04/2017 15:57

 ALGEBRA 9
KEY POINTS
◼ When solving simultaneous equations where one equation is linear and the other is non-linear:
◼ If there is one solution, the line is a tangent to the curve.
◼ If there is no solution, the line does not intersect the curve.

KEY POINTS
◼ If the two equations are of the form y = f(x) and y = g(x):
◼ Solve the equation f(x) = g(x) to find x.
◼ When x has been found, find y using the easier of the original equations.
◼ Write out your solutions in the correct pairs.

KEY POINT
◼ When n is an integer, consecutive integers can be written in the form
…, n − 1, n, n + 1, n + 2, …

KEY POINTS
◼ When n is an integer
◼ Any even number can be written in the form 2n.
◼ Consecutive even numbers can be written in the form 2n, 2n + 2, 2n + 4, …
◼ Any odd number can be written in the form 2n + 1.
◼ Consecutive odd numbers can be written in the form 2n + 1, 2n + 3, 2n + 5, …

KEY POINTS
◼ (x − a)2 ≥ 0 and (x + a)2 ≥ 0 for all x.
◼ (x − a)2 = 0 when x = a and (x + a)2 = 0 when x = −a.
◼ To prove a quadratic function is greater or less than zero, write it in completed square form.
◼ To find the co-ordinates of the turning point of a quadratic graph, write it in completed
square form y = a(x + b)2 + c. The turning point is then (−b, c).

M09_IGMA_SB_3059_U09.indd 276 10/04/2017 15:57

 GRAPHS 8
KEY POINTS
◼ To estimate the gradient of a curve at a point
◼ draw the best estimate of the tangent at the point
◼ find the gradient of this tangent.
◼ Be careful finding the rise and run when the scales on the axes are different.

KEY POINTS
◼ The graph of y = f(x) + a is a translation of the graph y
f(x) + a
of y = f(x) by (0)
a

((0
a f(x)

x
0

◼ The graph of y = f(x − a) is a translation of the graph of y = f(x) by ( )

a
0
◼ The graph of y = f(x + a) is a translation of the graph of y = f(x) by ( )
−a
0
◼ Be very careful with the signs, they are the opposite y
to what most people expect.

f(x) f(x – a)

((
0
a

x
0

KEY POINTS
◼ The graph of y = −f(x) is a reflection of the graph of y = f(x) in the x-axis.
◼ The graph of y = f(−x) is a reflection of the graph of y = f(x) in the y-axis.

M09_IGMA_SB_3059_U09.indd 293 10/04/2017 15:57

KEY POINTS
◼ The graph of y = kf(x) is a stretch of the ◼ The graph of y = f(kx) is a stretch of the
graph y = f(x) with a scale factor of k 1
graph y = f(x) with a scale factor of __
parallel to the y-axis (all y-co-ordinates k
are multiplied by k). parallel to the x-axis (all x-co-ordinates
1 ).
are multiplied by __
◼ If k > 1 the graph is stretched by k. k
y ◼ If k > 1 the graph is compressed by __ 1
k
kf(x) f(x)
◼ If 0 < k < 1 the graph is stretched by __ 1
k
y

f(kx) f(x)
x
0

x
k>1 0

k>1
◼ If 0 < k < 1 the graph is
compressed by k.
y y
f(x) kf(x) f(kx)
f(x)

x x
0 0

0<k<1 0<k<1
 SHAPE AND SPACE 9
BASIC PRINCIPLES

Hypotenuse h Opposite a
b
side o
x
c
Adjacent side a

◼ Trig ratios: ◼ Pythagoras’ Theorem: a2 + b2 = c2

opp opp adj
   ​tan x = ____
​   ​  sin x = ​ ____ ​  cos x = ​ ____ ​​
adj hyp hyp
◼ Identify the hypotenuse. This is the longest side: the
side opposite the right angle. Then the opposite side
is opposite the angle. And the adjacent side is
adjacent to (next to) the angle.

KEY POINTS
When solving problems in 3D:
◼ Draw clear, large diagrams including all the facts.
◼ Redraw the appropriate triangle (usually right-angled) including all the facts. This simplifies
a 3D problem into a 2D problem using Pythagoras’ Theorem and trigonometry to solve for
angles and lengths.
◼ Use all the decimal places shown on your calculator at each stage in your working to
avoid errors in your final answer caused by rounding too soon.
 HANDLING DATA 6
DRAWING HISTOGRAMS

Histograms appear similar to bar charts, but there are clear differences.

Bar charts have frequency on the vertical axis and the frequency equals the height of the bar.

Histograms have frequency density on the vertical axis, which makes the frequency proportional to the area of the bar.
When data is presented in groups of different class widths (such as 0 ​≤​x < 2, 2 ​≤​ x < 10 etc.) a histogram is drawn to
display the information.

KEY POINTS
◼ For data grouped in unequal class intervals, you need a histogram.
◼ In a histogram, the area of the bar represents the frequency.
◼ The height of each bar is the frequency density.
frequency
◼ Frequency density = __________
class width

M09_IGMA_SB_3059_U09.indd 333 10/04/2017 15:58

 NUMBER 10
RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

The decimal expansion of irrational numbers is infinite with no pattern. An infinite decimal
expansion where the digits recur is rational because it can be written as a fraction
(see Number 7).
Together the rational numbers and the irrational numbers form the set of real numbers.
All these sets can be shown on a Venn diagram where
◼ ℕ is the set of natural numbers or positive integers {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
◼ ℤ is the set of integers {…, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, …} %
◼ ℚ is the set of rational numbers R
Q
◼ ℝ is the set of real numbers. Z
N

KEY POINTS a
◼ Rational numbers can be written as a fraction in the form __
b
where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0
4
◼ 4 is rational as it can be written as __
1
4
◼ 0.4̇ is rational as it can be written as __
9
◼ An irrational numbers cannot be written as a fraction.
__
◼ √ 2 and are π both irrational.
◼ The decimal expansion of irrational numbers is infinite and shows no pattern.

_____ __ __ __
√__ab = __
√a
KEY POINTS
◼ √a × b = a × √b ◼ __
√b

__
KEY POINT √__
b
a__ multiply by __
◼ To rationalise the denominator of __
√b √b
__
KEY POINTS a + √__
1 __ multiply by ____
◼ To rationalise the denominator of ____ b
a − √b a + √b
__
a − √__
1 __ multiply by ____
◼ To rationalise the denominator of ____ b
a + √b a − √b

M010_IGMA_SB_3059_U010.indd 349 10/04/2017 15:38

 ALGEBRA 10
KEY POINTS
◼ To simplify, factorise as much as possible before ‘cancelling’.
◼ Whole brackets can be cancelled, not the individual terms in the brackets.

KEY POINTS
◼ Find the lowest common denominator when adding or subtracting.
◼ Multiply out the numerator after adding or subtracting.

KEY POINTS
◼ Factorise and then multiply or divide.
◼ To divide, turn the second fraction upside down and multiply.

KEY POINTS
◼ Clear fractions by multiplying both sides by the lowest common denominator.
◼ Always check your answer by substituting it into the original equation.
GRAPHS 9
KEY POINT
◼ First write the function in index notation.
dy
◼ If y = kxn, ___ = nk x n−1
dx
dy dy
◼ If y = kx, ___ = k ◼ If y = k, ___ = 0
dx dx
y y

y = kx (0, k)
y=k

x
0

x
0

STATIONARY POINTS
dy
The point where a curve has zero gradient is where ___ = 0
dx
These are called stationary points or turning points and can be classified as either maximum
points or minimum points.
Maximum point Minimum point

dy dy
Gradient = ___ = 0 Gradient = ___ = 0
dx dx
Gradient is decreasing from +ve, Gradient is increasing from −ve,
through zero, to –ve through zero, to +ve
Gradient is positive just before and Gradient is negative just before and
negative just after. positive just after.

Knowing how to classify each turning point is important.

When the curve is drawn in the question it can be used to describe the nature of the points
dy
where ___ = 0
dx
The following four curves should be recognised and used to classify turning points.

Quadratic curves of type y = ax2 + bx + c Cubic curves of type y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

have the following shapes depending on have the following shapes depending on the
the value of the coefficient a. value of the coefficient a.

Maximum point
Maximum point Maximum point

Minimum point Minimum point

Minimum point

A quadratic function A quadratic function A cubic function A cubic function

KEY POINTS dy
◼ At a stationary point, the gradient = 0 and is found at the point where ___ = 0
dx
◼ It can be classified as a maximum or a minimum point by
◼ Knowing the shape of the curve
◼ Finding the gradient close to the stationary point on either side of it using the gradient
dy
function ___
dx

MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Consider a particle moving in a straight line which produces the following graphs against time.

Position Velocity Acceleration

Constant velocity = 0 acceleration = 0

position

Constant velocity = constant acceleration = 0

velocity

Constant velocity = increasing acceleration = constant

acceleration

KEY POINTS
◼ Velocity is the rate at which displacement changes with time.
ds (Gradient of distance–time graph is velocity)
◼ v = ___
dt
◼ Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes with time.
dv (Gradient of velocity–time graph is acceleration)
◼ a = ___
dt
◼ displacement differentiate velocity differentiate acceleration

(s) → ds )
( v = ___ → dv )
( a = ___
dt dt
 SHAPE AND SPACE 10
BASIC PRINCIPLES
◼ Trig. ratios: Identify the hypotenuse. This is the longest side: the side opposite the right
angle. Then the opposite side is opposite the angle. And the adjacent side is
adjacent to (next to) the angle.
Hypotenuse h Opposite
◼ Bearings are measured clockwise from North.
side o
x ◼ When drawing bearings, start by drawing an arrow to indicate North.
Adjacent side a ◼ When calculating angles on a bearings diagram, look for ‘alternate angles’.

​ o  ​
◼ sin   x = __ d
h
a ​ e
◼ cos   x = ​ __
h
o ​
◼ tan   x = ​ __ ◼ e is the angle of elevation. ◼ d is the angle
a of depression.

KEY POINT
◼ The sine rule: A

b c

C a B
a = _____
◼ _____ c
b = _____ Use this to calculate an unknown side.
sin A sin B sin C

◼ sin A = sin
_____ B = sin
_____ C
_____ Use this to calculate an unknown angle.
a b c

KEY POINT ◼ The cosine rule:

A
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A Use this to calculate an unknown side.
b c b +c −a
cos A = ________
2 2 2
Use this to calculate an unknown angle.
2bc

C a B

KEY POINT
◼ When the problem involves
◼ two sides and two angles (SASA) use the sine rule
◼ three sides and one angle (SSSA) use the cosine rule.

KEY POINT 1 ab sin C

◼ The area of this triangle = __ A
2

A simple formula to remember this is b

‘Area of a triangle = half the product of two sides × sine

of the included angle’ C B
a

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 HANDLING DATA 7
BASIC PRINCIPLES
◼ P(E) means the probability of event E occurring.

◼ P(Eʹ ) means the probability of event E not occurring.

◼ All probabilities have values between 0 and 1 inclusive, therefore 0 ≤ P(E ) ≤ 1

◼ P(E) + P(Eʹ ) = 1, so P(Eʹ ) = 1 − P(E)

◼ Multiplication ‘and’ rule:

◼ If two events A and B can occur without being affected by each another (for example, a die is thrown and it starts
to rain), they are independent.
◼ For two independent events A and B, P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)

◼ A
 ddition ‘or’ rule:
◼ If two events A and B cannot occur at the same time (for example, a card drawn from a pack cannot be an Ace and
a Queen) they are called mutually exclusive.
◼ For mutually exclusive events A and B, P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

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