CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
In determining water availability for irrigation, information is required on both the
quantity and quality; however, the quality need has often been neglected. Quality should infer
how well a water supply fulfils the needs of the intended user and must be evaluated on the
basis of its suitability for the intended use [Affullo AO, 2009 and Islam MR,et al 2004].
Irrigated agriculture is dependent on the adequate water supply of usable quality.
Water quality concerns have often been neglected because good quality water supplies have
been plentiful and readily available [Ahmed IM, 2013 and Getahun K ,et al 2013].

Irrigation water quality is related to its effects on soils and crops and its management.
High-quality crops can be produced only by using high-quality irrigation water keeping other
inputs optimal. Characteristics of irrigation water that define its quality vary with the source
of the water. Water used for irrigation always contains measurable quantities of dissolved
substances which as a general collective term are called salts. These include relatively small
but essential amounts of dissolved solids originating from dissolution or weathering of the
rocks and soil and dissolving of lime, gypsum and other salt sources as water passes over or
percolates through them.

The amount and kind of salts present will determine the suitability of water for
irrigation. With poor water quality, various soil and cropping problems can be expected to
develop there may also be significant differences in the quality of water available on a local
level depending on whether the source is from surface water bodies (rivers, streams and
ponds) or groundwater aquifers with varying geology, and whether the water has been
chemically treated. The chemical constituents of irrigation water can affect plant growth
directly through toxicity or deficiency, or indirectly by altering plant availability of nutrients
[Ayers RS,et al 1994].

Water has unique chemical properties due to its polarity and hydrogen bonds. It is
able to dissolve, absorb or suspend many different compounds. Thus in nature water is not
pure as it acquires contaminants from its surrounding and those arising from humans and
animals as well as biological activities [Aiyesanmi AF, 2006].

Supplies of good quality water, well-matched to crop irrigation, is highly necessary

for irrigation monitoring for maximum crop production to ensure food security in Africa and

1
the whole world at large. Thus, there is a high dependency on untreated water for irrigation
purposes [Olubanjo OO, 2016]. Huge amounts of low-quality water use in irrigation may
result in various problems such as toxicity for crops, damage to soil quality, diffusion of
parasites, and drawbacks in irrigation systems. Also, poor quality irrigation water will result
in low crop production [Bortolini L, et al 2018,Dhirendra M,et al,2009, Masoudi M, 2006,
and Olubanjo OO, 2016]. This study entails to evaluate water quality in Adamawa state for
irrigating crops and to guide farmers on the use of high-quality irrigation water using specific
recommendations to maximise the yield of crops.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Global water scarcity is caused not only by the physical inadequacy of the resource
but also by the progressive deterioration of water quality in many countries, reducing
thequantity of water that is safe to use [J. Mateo-Sagasta, et el2017]. Streams in urbanized
areas are likely tohave higher levels of oxygen demand, nutrients, and suspended solids [A.
D. Roberts2010].With poor quality water, soil and cropping problems develop, and in turn,
these will reduce yields unless special management practices are adopted to maintain or
restore maximum production capability under given set of condition. Thus, assessment of
irrigation water of some rivers and streams in Adamawa State.

1.3 Justification

This study will contribute to the further understanding of the potentials of the quality of
irrigation water in the study area. The study also will focus on providing information on the
appropriate water source of the study area that should be more suitable for irrigation practices
in order to increase crop growth and to obtain maximum yield.

1.4 Objectives

The objectives of the study are:

i. To assess the irrigation water quality in Bajabure and Chochi in Adamawa State.
ii. To evaluate the soil properties that may be influenced by irrigation water quality.
iii. To evaluate relationships of water and soil parameters of the irrigated fields

2
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY

Irrigated agriculture is dependent on adequate water supply of usable quality. Water quality
concerns have often been neglected because good quality water supplies have been plentiful
and readily available (Shamsad and Islam, 2005; Islam et al., 1999). This situation is now
changing in many areas. Intensive use of nearly all good quality supplies means that new
irrigation projects, and old projects seeking new or supplemental supplies, must rely on lower
quality and less desirable sources (Cuena, 1989).

Irrigation water quality is related to its effects on soils and crops and its management. High
quality crops can be produced only by using high-quality irrigation water keeping other inputs
optimal. Characteristics of irrigation water that define its quality vary with the source of the
water. There are regional differences in water characteristics, based mainly on geology and
climate. There may also be great differences in the quality of water available on a local level
depending on whether the source is from surface water bodies (rivers and ponds) or from
groundwater aquifers with varying geology, and whether the water has been chemically treated.
The chemical constituents of irrigation water can affect plant growth directly through toxicity
or deficiency, or indirectly by altering plant availability of nutrients (Ayers and Westcot, 1985;
Rowe et al., 1995).

Water used for irrigation can also vary greatly in quality depending upon the type and
quantity of dissolved salts. In irrigated agriculture, the hazard of salt water is a constant threat.
Poor-quality irrigation water becomes more concern as the climate changes from humid to arid
conditions. Salts are originated from dissolution or weathering of rocks and soil, including
dissolution of lime, gypsum and other slowly dissolved soil minerals. These substances are
carried with the water to wherever it is used (UCCC, 1974; Tanji, 1990).

To evaluate the quality of irrigation water, we need to identify the characteristics that are
important for plant growth, and their acceptable levels of concentrations. Having the water
tested by a reputable laboratory is the first step in this process. A knowledgeable interpretation
of the results can help to correct water quality problems and/or choose fertilizers and irrigation
techniques to avoid crop damage. To avoid problems when using these poor quality water

3
supplies, there must also be sound planning to ensure that the quality of water available is put
to the best use.

Water quality refers to physical, chemicals and biological properties of water; this term is
usually used to express suitability of water to sustain different uses or processes. Each
particular use will have a definite requirement for chemical, physical and biological
characteristics of water (Chapman et al., 1996).

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF IRRIGATION WATER

Shahid and Mahmoudi (2014) have modified the widely used USSL Staff (1954) salinity
and sodium classification diagram for irrigation water. This modified diagram is based on
the EC (expressed in micro Siemens percm–μScm —1) and the sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR).
There are three types of water quality parameters physical, chemical, and biological
[Gray NF 2008, Spellman FR. 2017].

2.2 PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY

2.2.1 Physical parameters of water quality
2.2.1.1 Turbidity
Turbidity is the cloudiness of water [APHA. 2005]. It is a measure of the ability of
light to pass through water. It is caused by suspended material such as clay, silt,
organic material, plankton, and other particulate materials in water [Alley ER. 2007].
Turbidity in drinking water is aesthetically unacceptable, which makes the water look
unappetizing.
Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric turbidimeter, which
expresses turbidity in terms of NTU or TU. A TU is equivalent to 1 mg/L of silica in
suspension [APHA. 2005].
Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be visible to the average person while turbidity in muddy
water, it exceeds 100 NTU [APHA. 2005]. Groundwater normally has very low tur- bidity
because of the natural filtration that occurs as the water penetrates through the soil
[Spellman FR. 2017, Viessman W, Hammer MJ. 2004].
2.2.1.2 Temperature
Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odours, and chemical reactions are influenced by
temperature [APHA. 2005]. Thereby, the sedimentation and chlorination processes and

4
biological oxygen demand (BOD) are temperature dependent [Davis ML. 2010]. It also
affects the biosorption process of the dissolved heavy metals in water [Abbas SH, Ismail
IM, et el 2014, White C, Sayer J, 1997]. Most people find water at temperatures of 10–15°C
most palatable [APHA. 2005, Tchobanoglous G, 1985].
2.2.1.3 Color
Materials decayed from organic matter, namely, vegetation and inorganic matter such as
soil, stones, and rocks impart colour to water, which is objectionable for aesthetic reasons,
not for health reasons [APHA. 2005, Tomar M. 1999].
Colour is measured by comparing the water sample with standard colour solutions or
colours glass disks [APHA. 2005]. One colour unit is equivalent to the colour produced by
a 1 mg/L solution of platinum (potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl6)) [APHA. 2005].
The colour of a water sample can be reported as follows:
• Apparent colour is the entire water sample colour and consists of both dissolved and
suspended components colour [APHA. 2005].
• True colour is measured after filtering the water sample to remove all suspended
material [Tchobanoglous G, 1985].
Colour is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70 colour units. Pure water is colourless, which is
equivalent to 0 colour units [APHA. 2005].
2.2.1.4 Taste and odor
Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic materials,
inorganic compounds, or dissolved gasses [Tchobanoglous G, 1985]. These materials may
come from natural, domestic, or agricultural sources [DeZuane J. 1997].
The numerical value of odor or taste is determined quantitatively by measuring a volume
of sample A and diluting it with a volume of sample B of an odor-free distilled water so that
the odor of the resulting mixture is just detectable at a total mixture volume of 200 ml
[Tchobanoglous G, 1985, Tchobanoglous G, et el 2003]. The unit of odor or taste is
expressed in terms of a threshold number as follows:
TON or TTN = (A + B)/A where TON is the threshold odor number and TTN is the
threshold taste number.
2.2.1.5 Solids
Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension [Tchobanoglous G, et. el 2003].
These two types of solids can be identified by using a glass fiber filter that the water sample
passes through [Tchobanoglous G, et. el 2003]. By definition, the suspended solids are
retained on the top of the filter and the dissolved solids pass through the filter with the water

5
[APHA. 2005].
If the filtered portion of the water sample is placed in a small dish and then evaporated,
the solids as a residue. This material is usually called total dissolved solids or TDS [APHA.
2005].
Total solid (TS) = Total dissolved solid (TDS) + Total suspended solid (TSS) Water can
be classified by the amount of TDS per liter as follows:
• freshwater: <1500 mg/L TDS;
• brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS;
• saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS.
The residue of TSS and TDS after heating to dryness for a defined period of time and at a
specific temperature is defined as fixed solids. Volatile solids are those solids lost on
ignition (heating to 550°C) [APHA. 2005].
These measures are helpful to the operators of the wastewater treatment plant because
they roughly approximate the amount of organic matter existing in the total solids of
wastewater, activated sludge, and industrial wastes [Spellman FR. 2013, Tchobanoglous G,
et. el 2003]. Figure 1 describes the interrelationship of solids found in water
[Tchobanoglous G, et. el 2003]. They are calculated as follows [APHA. 2005]:
• Total solids:
Total solids (mg/L) = [(TSA–TSB)] × 1000/sample (mL) where TSA = weight of dried
residue + dish in milligrams and TSB = weight of dish in milligrams.
• Total dissolved solids:
Total dissolved solids (mg/L) = [(TDSA – TDSB)] × 1000/sample (mL) where TDSA =
weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TDSB = weight
of dish in milligrams.
• Total suspended solids:
Total suspended solids (mg/L) = [(TSSA – TSSB)] × 1000/sample (mL) where TSSA =
weight of dish and filter paper + dried residue and TSSB = weight
of dish and filter paper in milligram.
• Fixed and volatile suspended solids:
Volatile suspended solids (mg/L) = [(VSSA – VSSB)] × 1000/sample (mL) where VSSA
= weight of residue + dish and filter before ignition, mg and
VSSB = weight of residue + dish and filter after ignition, mg.
2.2.2 Chemical parameters of water quality
2.2.2.1 pH

6
 pH is one of the most important parameters of water quality. It is defined as the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration [Spellman FR. 2017, Edzwald JK. 2010]. It is a
dimensionless number indicating the strength of an acidic or a basic solution [Hammer MJ.
2011].
Actually, pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic water is [Tchobanoglous G, et. El
1985, Tomar M. 1999]. Acidic water contains extra hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water
contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions [Alley ER. 2007].
pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity, whereas
a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution [Alley ER. 2007, WHO; 2011]. Pure water
is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a pH of approximately 5.6
(slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric carbon dioxide gas [APHA. 2005]. Safe ranges of pH
for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for domestic use and living organisms need [WHO;
2011].
A change of 1 unit on a pH scale represents a 10-fold change in the pH [APHA. 2005], so
that water with pH of 7 is 10 times more acidic than water with a pH of 8, and water with a
pH of 5 is 100 times more acidic than water with a pH of 7. There are two methods
available for the determination of pH: electrometric and colorimetric methods [APHA.
2005].
Excessively high and low pH can be detrimental for the use of water. A high pH makes
the taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection, thereby causing
the need for additional chlorine [DeZuane J. 1997]. The amount of oxygen in water
increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances
[APHA. 2005].
Pollution can modify the pH of water, which can damage animals and plants that live in
the water [APHA. 2005].
2.2.2.2 Electrical conductivity (EC)
The electrical conductivity (EC) of water is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry
or conduct an electrical current [Tchobanoglous G, et.el 2003]. Since the electrical current
is carried by ions in solution, the conductivity increases as the concentration [APHA. 2005]
of ions increases. Therefore, it is one of the main parameters used to determine the
suitability of water for irrigation and fire fighting.
Units of its measurement are as follows:
• U.S. units = micromhos/cm
• S.I. units = milliSiemens/m (mS/m) or dS/m (deciSiemens/m) where (mS/m) = 10

7
umho/cm (1000 μS/cm = 1 dS/m).
Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity [Alley ER. 2007, APHA. 2005]. Typical
conductivity of water is as follows:
• Ultra-pure water: 5.5 × 10−6 S/m;
• Drinking water: 0.005–0.05 S/m;
• Seawater: 5 S/m.
The electrical conductivity can be used to estimate the TDS value of water as follows
[APHA. 2005, Tchobanoglous G, et.el 2003]:
TDS (mg/L) ≅ EC (dS/m or umho/cm) × (0.55–0.7)
TDS can be used to estimate the ionic strength of water in the applications of groundwater
recharging by treated wastewater [Tchobanoglous G, et.el 2003]. The normal method of
measurement is electrometric method [APHA. 2005].
2.2.2.3 Acidity
Acidity is the measure of acids in a solution. The acidity of water is its quantitative
capacity to neutralize a strong base to a selected pH level [APHA. 2005]. Acidity in water is
usually due to carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and
aluminum sulfates [APHA. 2005]. Acids can influence many processes such as corrosion,
chemical reactions and biological activities [APHA. 2005].
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the respiration of aquatic organ- isms causes
acidity when dissolved in water by forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). The level of acidity is
determined by titration with standard sodium hydroxide (0.02 N) using phenolphthalein as
an indicator [APHA. 2005, 20].
2.2.2.4 Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity comprised of the total of all
titratable bases [APHA. 2005]. The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to
determine the amount of lime and soda needed for water softening [Tchobanoglous G, et.el
2003]. Alkalinity of water is mainly caused by the presence of hydroxide ions (OH−),
bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), and carbonate ions (CO 2−), or a mixture of two of these ions in
water. As stated in the following equation, the possibility of OH− and HCO3− ions together
are not possible because they react together to produce CO 2− ions:
Alkalinity is determined by titration with a standard acid solution (H2SO4 of 0.02 N)
using selective indicators (methyl orange or phenolphthalein).
The high levels of either acidity or alkalinity in water may be an indication of industrial or
chemical pollution. Alkalinity or acidity can also occur from natural sources such as
8
volcanoes. The acidity and alkalinity in natural waters provide a buffering action that
protects fish and other aquatic organisms from sudden changes in pH. For instance, if an
acidic chemical has somehow contaminated a lake that had natural alkalinity, a
neutralization reaction occurs between the acid and alkaline substances; the pH of the lake
water remains unchanged. For the protection of aquatic life, the buffering capacity should
be at least 20 mg/L as calcium carbonate.
2.2.2.5 Chloride
Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but the presence of
relatively high chloride concentration in freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate
wastewater pollution [Chatterjee A. 2001]. Chlorides may enter surface water from several
sources including chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff, and wastewater.
Chloride ions Cl− in drinking water do not cause any harmful effects on public health, but
high concentrations can cause an unpleasant salty taste for most people. Chlorides are not
usually harmful to people; however, the sodium part of table salt has been connected to
kidney and heart diseases [WHO; 1996]. Small amounts of chlorides are essential for
ordinary cell functions in animal and plant life.
Sodium chloride may impart a salty taste at 250 mg/L; however, magnesium or calcium
chloride are generally not detected by taste until reaching levels of 1000 mg/L [APHA.
2005]. Standards for public drinking water require chloride levels that do not exceed 250
mg/L. There are many methods to measure the chloride concentration in water, but the
normal one is the titration method by silver nitrate [APHA. 2005].
2.2.2.6 Hardness
Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters [APHA.
2005]. The dissolved minerals in water cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water
pipes and difficulty in producing lather with soap [Davis ML. 2010].
Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions cause the greatest portion of hard- ness in
naturally occurring waters [Spellman FR.2017]. They enter water mainly from contact with
soil and rock, particularly limestone deposits [APHA. 2005, McGhee TJ, Steel EW. 1991].
These ions are present as bicarbonates, sulfates, and sometimes as chlorides and nitrates
[APHA. 2005, Davis ML, David A. 2008]. Generally, groundwater is harder than surface
water. There are two types of hardness:
• Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates and bicarbonates can be removed
by boiling, and
• Permanent hardness which is remaining after boiling is caused mainly by sulfates

9
and chlorides [APHA. 2005, DeZuane J. 1997, Tchobanoglous G, et el 2003].
Water with more than 300 mg/L of hardness is generally considered to be hard, and more
than 150 mg/L of hardness is noticed by most people, and water with less than 75 mg/L is
considered to be soft.
From health viewpoint, hardness up to 500 mg/L is safe, but more than that may cause a
laxative effect [APHA. 2005]. Hardness is normally determined by titration with ethylene
diamine tetra acidic acid or (EDTA) and Eriochrome Black and Blue indicators. It is usually
expressed in terms of mg/L of CaCO3 [APHA. 2005, Tchobanoglous G, et.el 1985].
Total hardness mg/L as CaCO3 = calcium hardness mg/L as CaCO3 + magnesium
hardness mg/L as CaCO3 an accepted water classification according to its hardness
[Tchobanoglous G, et.el 1985].

2.3 CONTAMINANTS OF IRRIGATION WATER

The use of sewage sludge in agriculture provides a means of disposing an unwanted waste
product, supplying valuable plant nutrients and organic matter (OM), which can help to meet
crop fertilizer requirements and to reclaim degraded soils (Bernal et al. 1998; Smith et al. 1998;
Speir et al. 2003). However, the application of sewage sludge can lead to environmental or
human health problems via leaching of nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals and organic
compounds to groundwater (Vogeler et al. 2006).

It is well known that both the amounts and form of nutrients and OM present in different
types of organic wastes will vary and, consequently, may influence nutrient and OM loss
(Shepherd 1996; Cooke et al. 2001). However, few have been the attempts to evaluate the
influence of soil properties on the mobility of these substances following organic waste
applications, always using a reduced set of soils (Siddique et al. 2000; Wong et al. 2000;
Kaschl et al. 2002; Barton et al. 2005; Toribio and Romanyà 2006). The leaching of nutrients
and OM after sewage sludge application is controlled by many soil properties (Wong et al.
2000; Yang et al. 2008), consequently, and for a proper management of sewage sludge
applications, it is necessary to evaluate the relative influence of soil properties on the nutrient
and OM leaching

2.4 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT IRRIGATION WATER QUALITIES ON SOIL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

10
 Under field conditions, irrigated soils are exposed to sequential periods of rapid wetting
followed by drying. Soils which are subjected to these wetting and drying cycles have been
found to exhibit low aggregate stability(Caron et al.; Rasiah et al.) resulting in the release of
colloidal material and the collapse of soil pores (Levy and Miller ). However, the quality of the
irrigation water applied will also affect the soil chemical properties which influence soil
dispersion and aggregate breakdown, surface sealing and crust formation (Shainberg and
Letey ).

Hence, few workers have been able to distinguish the physico-chemical impacts associated
with the quality of the water applied (e.g. dispersion) from the physical impacts associated with
wetting and consolidation (i.e. slumping, hydraulic sealing).

Furrow irrigation water quality affected soil cohesivity by altering clay dispersion (Malik et
al.; Shainberg et al.) and aggregate stability characteristics (Smith et al.).

11