SHRI SANT GADGE BABA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECNOLOGY BHUSAWAL.

Subject- BTEEC701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SHRI SANT GADGE BABA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, BHUSAWAL-425203

Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,

LONERE, DIST. RAIGAD, MAHARASHTRA.

Depertment Of Electrical Engineering

BTEEC701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING 04 credits
UNIT 1: Introduction to High Voltage Engineering (02 hours)
Electric Field Stresses,Poisson’s equation, Estimation and Control of Electric Stress, Surge Voltages,
their distribution and control.
UNIT 2: Conduction & breakdown in gases (06 hours)
Gases as insulation media, ionization processes, Townsend’s current growth equation, current growth in
presence of secondary processes, Townsend’s criterion for breakdown in electronegative gases, time
lags for breakdown, Streamers theory, Paschen’s law, breakdown in non-uniform fields and corona
discharge, corona under positive & negative polarities, glow & arc discharge, considerations in using
gases for insulation purpose.
UNIT 3: Breakdown in Dielectric Materials (08 hours)
Conduction & breakdown in liquid dielectrics: Pure and commercial liquids, breakdown in pure and
commercial liquids, theories of breakdown in liquids. Breakdown in solid dielectrics: Intrinsic,
electromechanical& thermal breakdown, chemical, electrochemical deterioration, treeing, tracking,
internal discharges, breakdown in composite insulation, properties of solid insulators & other materials
used in practice. Insulating materials: In power transformers, rotating machines, circuit breakers,
cables, power capacitors & other equipment.
UNIT 4: Over voltage due to lightening phenomenon: (08 hours)
Natural causes for over voltages – Lightning phenomenon, Overvoltage due to switching surges, system
faults and other abnormal conditions, propagation of lightning voltage & current waves on transmission
lines, reflection & transmission of traveling wave at junction, system control of over voltage due to
switching protection of transmission lines against over voltage. Insulation co-ordination, surge
diverters, equipment insulation level & co-ordination of substations.
UNIT 5: Generation& Measurement of high voltages & currents: (10 hours)
Generation of a) high d. c voltage b) power frequency high alternating voltage c) high frequency a. c. d)
impulse voltages Standard impulse waves shapes and it’s equation, multistage impulse generator, marx
circuit, generation of switching surges, tripping & control of impulse generators, generation of impulse
currents.
Measurement of High Direct Current voltages, Abraham Voltmeter Measurement of High Voltages
alternating and impulse, Measurement of High Currents-direct, alternating and Impulse, Oscilloscope
for impulse voltage and current measurements
UNIT 6: Non Destructive Testing (06 hours)
I. E. C. & IS codes for high voltage tests on electrical appliances & power apparatus &electrical
motors, non- destructive testing, testing of insulators, bushings, isolators, circuit breakers, cables,
transformers, surge diverter, layout of high voltage laboratories & test facilities.
Reference Books:
1. High Voltage Engineering: Fundamentals by E.Kuffel, W.S.Zaengl, J.Kuffel by Elsevier, 2nd
Edition
2. High Voltage Insulation Engineering by Ravindra Arora, Wolfgang Mosch, New Age
International (P) Limited, 1995.
3. High Voltage Engineering, Theory and Practice by Mazen Abdel Salam, Hussein Anis, Ahdan
El-Morshedy, RoshdyRadwan, Marcel Dekker

Text Books:
1. Kamaraju V. & Naidu M. S., ‘High Voltage Engineering’, Tata-McGraw Hill
2. C. L. Wadhwa, “High Voltage Engineering”, New Age International Pvt. Ltd
 BTEEC701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

UNIT-1 Introduction to High Voltage

Engineering
Syllubus-Electric Field Stresses,Poisson’s equation, Estimation and
Control of Electric Stress, Surge Voltages,their distribution and
control

Electric Field Stresses

Electric field stress refers to the phenomenon of electrical stress or
strain experienced by materials when subjected to electric fields.
When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material (insulating
material), it can lead to various effects, including the distortion of
the atomic or molecular structure of the material, the movement of
charged particles within the material, and, in extreme cases, the
breakdown of the material.

The electric field stress is quantified by the electric field strength,

which is the force experienced by a positive test charge divided by
the magnitude of the charge. It is measured in volts per meter
(V/m).

Electric field stresses are crucial to consider in various electrical

and electronic applications, such as power systems, capacitors,
transformers, insulators, and semiconductors. Understanding
electric field stresses is important to ensure the safe and efficient
operation of these devices and to prevent electrical breakdown or
failure.

When the electric field strength exceeds a certain threshold, the

dielectric material may experience electrical breakdown. This
phenomenon is known as dielectric breakdown, and it results in the
sudden and rapid flow of electric current through the previously
insulating material. Dielectric breakdown can lead to permanent
damage to the material and surrounding components and can be
hazardous in some cases.

To mitigate electric field stresses and prevent dielectric

breakdown, engineers and designers may use materials with
higher dielectric strength, create smooth and rounded geometries,
use insulating barriers, or introduce stress-relief features in the
design.
 In summary, electric field stresses are essential to consider when
designing and operating electrical and electronic systems, as they
can significantly impact the performance and safety of these
devices. Proper material selection and design considerations are
necessary to ensure the reliable and efficient operation of such
systems.

Poisson’s equation
Poisson's equation is a partial differential equation that appears in
various fields of science and engineering, particularly in
electrostatics and fluid dynamics. It is named after the French
mathematician and physicist Siméon Denis Poisson, who made
significant contributions to mathematical physics in the 19th
century.

In its general form, Poisson's equation relates the Laplacian of a

scalar function to a given source term. The Laplacian of a scalar
function φ in three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) is
defined as the sum of the second partial derivatives with respect to
each coordinate:

∇²φ = ∂²φ/∂x² + ∂²φ/∂y² + ∂²φ/∂z²

Poisson's equation is given by:

∇²φ = -ρ/ε₀

where:

 ∇²φ is the Laplacian of the scalar function φ.

 ρ is the charge density at a point in space (source term).
 ε₀ (epsilon naught) is the permittivity of free space, a fundamental
constant in electromagnetism.

This equation is a fundamental equation in electrostatics and is

used to describe the electric potential φ produced by a given
charge distribution ρ in free space (i.e., in the absence of other
materials or media).

Solving Poisson's equation allows us to determine the electric

potential at any point in space given the charge distribution. In
practical applications, it is often solved alongside the continuity
equation, which describes the conservation of charge and current
flow.
 In addition to electromagnetism, Poisson's equation also appears
in other areas of physics, such as fluid dynamics, heat conduction,
and diffusion problems, where it relates the spatial distribution of a
scalar quantity to its sources or sinks. In these cases, the
interpretation of the variables may differ, but the underlying
mathematical structure remains the same.

Estimation and Control of Electric Stress

Estimation and control of electric stress are crucial aspects of
designing and operating electrical systems to ensure their
reliability, safety, and efficiency. Electric stress refers to the
intensity of the electric field experienced by insulating materials
and components in an electrical system. Excessive electric stress
can lead to electrical breakdown, insulation failure, and potential
damage to the system. Here are some important considerations for
estimating and controlling electric stress:

1. Electric Field Analysis: To estimate electric stress, engineers

use numerical simulations and mathematical modeling to analyze
the electric field distribution in the system. Finite Element Analysis
(FEA) and Finite Difference Method (FDM) are common numerical
techniques used for electric field analysis.
2. Dielectric Material Properties: The choice of dielectric materials
significantly impacts electric stress. Materials with higher dielectric
strength can withstand higher electric fields without experiencing
breakdown. Understanding the dielectric properties of materials
helps in selecting appropriate insulation for different components.
3. Electrode and Insulator Design: The design of electrodes and
insulators affects electric stress. Engineers must design
components with smooth shapes and rounded edges to minimize
stress concentration points where electric field intensity can
become significantly higher.
4. Spacing and Clearances: Adequate spacing and clearances
between conductive parts help in reducing the risk of electrical
breakdown. Properly dimensioning the clearances between
conductors and insulating materials is essential to prevent arcing
and sparking.
5. Shielding: In some applications, shielding conductive materials
can help in containing electric fields and preventing external
interference. This is particularly important in electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) and electromagnetic interference (EMI)
considerations.
6. Voltage Grading: For high-voltage systems, voltage grading
techniques are employed to gradually decrease the electric field
 intensity across insulating structures. This involves using multiple
layers of insulating materials with varying dielectric properties.
7. Surface Conditioning: Smoothing and conditioning the surface of
insulating materials can help reduce stress concentrations and
prevent partial discharges, which can lead to electrical breakdown.
8. Monitoring and Maintenance: Regular monitoring and
maintenance of electrical systems are essential to detect and
address any unexpected changes in electric stress or the
degradation of insulation over time.
9. Control of Overvoltages: Implementing surge protection devices
and using protective devices like fuses and circuit breakers can
help prevent sudden voltage spikes and overvoltages that may
lead to electrical stress exceeding safe limits.

Overall, estimation and control of electric stress involve a

combination of design considerations, material choices, and
protective measures to ensure the reliable and safe operation of
electrical systems. Properly managing electric stress is critical in
high-voltage applications, power transmission, and distribution
systems, as well as in electronic devices and components.

Surge Voltages and their distribution and control.

Surge voltages, also known as transient voltages or voltage
surges, are temporary and sudden increases in voltage that can
occur in electrical systems. They are characterized by their rapid
rise and short duration, typically lasting only a few microseconds to
milliseconds. Surge voltages can have various causes and can
lead to serious consequences if not properly controlled or
protected against. Some common causes of surge voltages
include:

1. Lightning Strikes: Lightning is a natural and powerful source of

surge voltages. When lightning strikes near power lines or
electrical equipment, it can induce extremely high voltages and
currents in the system.
2. Switching Operations: Rapid switching of electrical loads, such
as opening or closing of switches, relays, or circuit breakers, can
generate transient voltages due to inductive or capacitive effects.
3. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): EMI from nearby
equipment, lightning, or other sources can cause voltage surges in
sensitive electronic circuits.
4. Electrostatic Discharges (ESD): ESD events, such as static
electricity buildup and discharge, can lead to surge voltages that
may damage electronic components.
5. Faults in the System: Faults such as short circuits and ground
faults can cause sudden voltage spikes, especially in high-power
systems.
6. Load Changes: Rapid changes in load demand can cause voltage
transients in electrical systems.

Surge voltages can lead to several issues and potential damage in

electrical and electronic systems, including:

 Insulation Breakdown: High surge voltages can exceed the

dielectric strength of insulating materials, leading to insulation
breakdown and damaging equipment.
 Electronic Component Failure: Sensitive electronic components,
such as integrated circuits and semiconductors, can be
permanently damaged by excessive surge voltages.
 Data Loss: In electronic devices, surge voltages can lead to data
corruption and loss.
 Fire Hazard: Extremely high surge voltages may lead to arcing
and sparking, creating a fire hazard.

To protect against surge voltages, various protective devices are

used, including:

1. Surge Protectors: Surge protectors (also known as surge

suppressors) are devices that divert excess voltage to the ground,
protecting equipment connected to them.
2. Transient Voltage Suppressors (TVS): TVS diodes are
semiconductor devices designed to limit voltage spikes and divert
transient currents away from sensitive components.
3. Overvoltage Protection Circuits: These circuits are designed to
monitor and limit the voltage level, triggering protective actions
when voltages exceed safe limits.
4. Isolation Transformers: Isolation transformers can help in
reducing the impact of surge voltages on sensitive equipment.
5. Grounding and Earthing: Proper grounding and earthing of
electrical systems can help dissipate surge currents safely.
6. Fuses and Circuit Breakers: These protective devices can help
disconnect the circuit in case of excessive surge currents.

Overall, understanding and protecting against surge voltages are

essential to ensure the reliability and longevity of electrical and
electronic systems.

Surge voltages, also known as transient voltages or voltage

surges, can have significant consequences if not properly
 controlled. They can damage electrical and electronic equipment,
disrupt power distribution, and pose safety hazards. To mitigate
the impact of surge voltages, their distribution and control are
essential considerations. Here's an overview of surge voltage
distribution and control measures:

1. Surge Voltage Distribution: Surge voltages can propagate

through electrical systems and affect various components. The
distribution of surge voltages depends on factors such as the
source of the surge and the characteristics of the system. Here are
some key points related to surge voltage distribution:

 Transmission Lines: Lightning strikes and other external sources

of surge voltages can induce transient voltages in overhead
transmission lines. These surges can then propagate to
transformers and substations.
 Transformers: Surge voltages can be amplified or attenuated
when passing through transformers, depending on the
transformer's winding configuration and impedance.
 Distribution Lines: Surge voltages can travel through distribution
lines and affect end-user equipment, such as home appliances and
industrial machinery.
 Inductive and Capacitive Coupling: Surge voltages can be
coupled into nearby conductors through electromagnetic induction
or capacitive coupling, potentially affecting nearby electronic
circuits.

2. Surge Voltage Control: Controlling surge voltages involves

implementing various protective measures to limit voltage
transients and prevent damage to equipment. Several techniques
and protective devices are used for surge voltage control:

 Surge Protectors (Surge Suppressors): Surge protectors are

devices placed in electrical circuits to divert transient currents
caused by surge voltages to the ground, thereby protecting
connected equipment. They typically use metal oxide varistors
(MOVs) or gas discharge tubes to absorb excess energy.
 Transient Voltage Suppressors (TVS Diodes): TVS diodes are
semiconductor devices designed to clamp voltage spikes and limit
transient currents. They are commonly used in electronic circuits to
protect sensitive components from surge voltages.
 Overvoltage Protection Circuits: These circuits monitor the
voltage level and respond by disconnecting the circuit or triggering
protective actions when voltages exceed safe limits.
 Earthing and Grounding: Proper earthing (grounding) of
electrical systems provides a low-resistance path for surge
currents to dissipate safely into the ground.
 Isolation Transformers: Isolation transformers can provide
galvanic isolation between the power source and the load,
reducing the risk of surge voltages affecting sensitive equipment.
 Fuses and Circuit Breakers: These protective devices can help
interrupt the circuit in the event of excessive surge currents,
preventing damage to equipment.
 Shielding: Shielding sensitive electronic components and circuits
from external sources of surge voltages can help reduce the risk of
damage due to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Surge Arresters: Surge arresters are devices specifically
designed to protect electrical systems from voltage surges,
particularly those caused by lightning strikes.
 Proper Wiring and Layout: Proper wiring and layout techniques
can minimize the coupling of surge voltages into sensitive circuits
and components.
 Grounding Rods: Grounding rods or electrodes can be installed
to enhance the effectiveness of earthing systems.

In critical installations, such as power distribution networks, data

centers, and industrial facilities, surge protection systems are an
integral part of the infrastructure to safeguard against surge
voltages. These systems often employ a combination of the above
protective measures to ensure comprehensive surge voltage
control and protection.

Overall, a well-designed surge voltage control strategy helps to

maintain system reliability, prolong the lifespan of electrical
equipment, and ensure the safety of both personnel and
equipment in various applications.

MCQS
The ideal lightning arrester is the one which:

1. Stops the flow of electric current above rated voltage

2. Conducts electric current above rated voltage
3. Any of these
4. None of these

The IR test of capacitor is performed using

 1. A Schering bridge
2. The Chubb-Fortescue method
3. The standard Ohmmeter
4. A Megger

The test which is performed on circuit breakers:

1. Short time current test

2. Making capacity test
3. Breaking capacity test
4. 2&3
5. All of these

The electrostatic voltmeter using SF6 can measure the voltage

level up to ________:

1. 500 kV
2. 1000 kV
3. 10000 kV
4. 100000 kV

Void discharges are classified as:

1. External partial discharges

2. Internal partial discharges
3. Any of these
4. None of these
QUESTIONS

 What is Electric Field stresses explain in detail

 Explain Poisson’s equation and derive it.
 What are the Estimation and Control of Electric Stress
 Explain in detail Surge Voltages
 Explain distribution and control of surge voltages.
 BTEEC701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

UNIT 2: Conduction & breakdown in gases

Syllubus-Gases as insulation media, ionization processes,
Townsend’s current growth equation, current growth in presence of
secondary processes, Townsend’s criterion for breakdown in
electronegative gases, time lags for breakdown, Streamers theory,
Paschen’s law, breakdown in non-uniform fields and corona
discharge, corona under positive & negative polarities, glow & arc
discharge, considerations in using gases for insulation purpose.

Gases as insulation media

Gases can be used as insulation media in various electrical and
high-voltage applications. When appropriately chosen and
designed, gases can offer several advantages as insulators, such
as high dielectric strength, chemical stability, and environmental
friendliness. Here are some common applications of gases as
insulation media:

1. Gas-Insulated Switchgear (GIS): In high-voltage power

systems, gas-insulated switchgear is used to control and protect
electrical equipment. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is one of the most
commonly used gases in GIS due to its excellent dielectric
properties and high electronegativity. SF6 allows for compact
switchgear designs and enables better control of electric fields,
reducing the risk of electrical breakdown.

2. Gas-Insulated Transmission Lines (GIL): Gas-insulated

transmission lines use a combination of insulating gas (such as
SF6) and an outer metal sheath to provide a compact and efficient
way of transmitting high-voltage power. GIL offers low transmission
losses and reduces the overall footprint compared to conventional
overhead lines.

3. Gas-Insulated Substations (GIS): Gas-insulated substations

utilize SF6 gas to insulate and protect various high-voltage
components, such as circuit breakers, transformers, and busbars.
The compact design of GIS results in smaller substations and
reduced land requirements.

4. Gas Circuit Breakers: Gas circuit breakers use gases such as

SF6 or vacuum as the arc quenching medium. They offer fast
interruption of current and are suitable for high-voltage
applications.
 5. Gas-Insulated Capacitors: Gas-insulated capacitors are used
to store electrical energy in gas-insulated systems. They are
employed in applications where compactness and high energy
storage capacity are required.

6. Surge Arresters: Surge arresters, also known as lightning

arresters, are devices that protect electrical systems from
overvoltages caused by lightning or switching surges. They often
use a combination of insulating gas and metal-oxide-based
elements to divert the surge current to the ground.

7. Bushings: High-voltage bushings provide electrical insulation

for cables or conductors that pass through a grounded barrier.
Gas-insulated bushings use SF6 or other insulating gases to
ensure proper electrical isolation.

Advantages of Gases as Insulation Media:

 High Dielectric Strength: Gases like SF6 have excellent

dielectric properties, allowing for efficient insulation of high-voltage
components.
 Thermal Stability: Gases generally exhibit good thermal stability,
maintaining their insulation properties even under elevated
temperatures.
 Chemical Inertness: Insulating gases are often chemically stable
and do not react with other materials commonly found in electrical
systems.
 Environmental Friendliness: Some gases, such as SF6, are
considered environmentally friendly due to their low global
warming potential (GWP) when used in closed systems. However,
SF6 has a high GWP if released into the atmosphere, and efforts
are made to minimize emissions.
 Compact Designs: The use of gases as insulation media often
enables the design of more compact and space-efficient electrical
systems.

Despite their advantages, the use of insulating gases, particularly

SF6, has come under scrutiny due to its high global warming
potential and potential environmental impact if not handled
properly. Efforts are being made to find alternative,
environmentally friendly insulation media for high-voltage
applications. Nonetheless, gas-insulated systems remain prevalent
in various high-voltage and power transmission applications due to
their technical benefits.
Ionization Processes
Ionization processes refer to the creation of ions from neutral
atoms or molecules by adding or removing one or more electrons.
These processes play a crucial role in various scientific and
technological fields, including plasma physics, chemistry,
atmospheric science, and astrophysics. Here are some common
ionization processes:

1. Electron Impact Ionization: In this process, a high-energy

electron collides with a neutral atom or molecule, transferring
enough energy to eject one or more electrons from the target,
creating positively charged ions. This process is important in
plasma physics and plays a significant role in the ionization of
gases in a discharge or plasma.

2. Photoionization: Photoionization occurs when a photon with

sufficient energy is absorbed by a neutral atom or molecule,
causing the ejection of one or more electrons. The process is
prevalent in the ionization of atoms and molecules by ultraviolet
(UV) and X-ray radiation. Photoionization is also responsible for
the ionization of the Earth's upper atmosphere by solar radiation,
creating the ionosphere.

3. Impact Ionization: Impact ionization typically occurs in

semiconductors and occurs when an electron gains enough energy
from an electric field or high-energy particle collision to liberate
additional electrons from the crystal lattice, creating electron-hole
pairs. This is the principle behind avalanche breakdown in diodes
and avalanche photodiodes.

4. Autoionization: Autoionization is a specific case of

photoionization where a photon is absorbed by an atom or
molecule, leading to the temporary formation of an excited state
that spontaneously ionizes due to instability. The process is
responsible for the formation of Rydberg atoms and plays a role in
spectroscopy.

5. Penning Ionization: Penning ionization is a two-step process

where an atom or molecule is first excited by a collision with a
metastable atom or molecule and then ionized through a
subsequent collision with another particle. This process is used in
certain types of ion sources and plasma sources.

6. Chemical Ionization: Chemical ionization involves the

ionization of atoms or molecules through reactions with ions or
charged species. It is used in mass spectrometry techniques, such
as chemical ionization mass spectrometry (CIMS), to create ions
for analysis.

7. Field Ionization: Field ionization occurs when a neutral atom or

molecule is subjected to an intense electric field, causing an
electron to tunnel through the potential barrier and escape,
resulting in the formation of an ion.

Ionization processes are fundamental to understanding the

behavior of plasmas, the behavior of gases in the presence of
radiation, and various ion-related phenomena in nature and
technology. These processes are critical in fields like plasma
physics, astrophysics, atmospheric science, spectroscopy, and
analytical chemistry. Understanding and controlling ionization
processes are essential for advancing our knowledge and
improving applications in these areas.

Townsend’s current growth equation

Townsend's current growth equation, also known as the Townsend
breakdown equation, describes the growth of electron avalanches
in a gas-filled medium under the influence of an electric field. It
was formulated by the British physicist John Sealy Townsend in
1903 and is an essential concept in gas discharge and plasma
physics.

The Townsend breakdown is a process that occurs in a gas when

the electric field strength exceeds a certain critical value, leading to
the formation of electron avalanches. These avalanches consist of
a cascade of secondary electrons produced through ionization
processes, which, in turn, can further ionize other atoms or
molecules in the gas, resulting in an exponential increase in
electron density.

The Townsend's current growth equation is given by:

dx/dn = α⋅ n⋅ E

where :

dx/dn is the rate of change of electron density (number of

electrons per unit volume) with respect to distance x,
n is the electron density,
E is the applied electric field,
 α is the first Townsend ionization coefficient, which is a measure of
the probability of ionization per unit distance traveled by an
electron in the electric field.

The equation describes how the electron density increases with

the electric field. As the electric field increases, the rate of electron-
ionizing collisions also increases, leading to a higher density of
free electrons. This process can result in a self-sustaining
discharge or spark through the gas when the electron avalanche
reaches a critical density.

The first Townsend ionization coefficient α depends on various

factors such as gas type, pressure, and temperature. It is typically
determined experimentally or can be calculated theoretically using
quantum mechanical and kinetic theory approaches.

Townsend's current growth equation is fundamental in

understanding the breakdown and ionization processes in gases
and is widely used in plasma physics, gas discharge research, and
high-voltage applications, including the operation of gas-filled
electrical devices such as gas-filled tubes, spark gaps, and gas
discharge lamps.

Current growth in presence of secondary processes

When considering current growth in the presence of secondary
processes, we take into account additional ionization processes
that can influence the development of the electron avalanche in a
gas-filled medium under the influence of an electric field. These
secondary processes include both positive feedback mechanisms
(enhancing ionization) and negative feedback mechanisms
(inhibiting ionization). The growth of current in this scenario can be
described by the generalized form of Townsend's equation, which
incorporates the effects of secondary processes.

The generalized form of Townsend's equation, accounting for

secondary processes, is given as:

dx/dn = α⋅n⋅E − β⋅n

where:

 dx/dn is the rate of change of electron density (number of electrons

per unit volume) with respect to distance x,
 n is the electron density,
 E is the applied electric field,
 α is the first Townsend ionization coefficient, representing the
primary ionization process,
 β is the coefficient representing the net effect of secondary
processes on electron density.

The first term, α⋅n⋅E, represents the contribution from the primary
ionization process, where electrons gain energy in the electric field
and undergo ionizing collisions to create additional electrons. This
term leads to exponential growth of the electron density with
distance.

The second term, β⋅n, accounts for the combined effect of

secondary processes, which may include:

1. Attachment: Some electrons may be captured by neutral

molecules, reducing the electron density and inhibiting further
ionization.
2. Recombination: Electrons and positive ions can recombine,
reducing the number of free electrons in the avalanche.
3. Secondary Electron Emission: In some cases, high-energy
electrons can release secondary electrons upon collision with solid
surfaces, which can lead to additional ionization.
4. Impact Ionization by Ions: Ions formed in the primary ionization
process can also ionize additional atoms or molecules in the gas.

The net effect of these secondary processes is represented by the

coefficient β, which can be either positive or negative, depending
on the dominance of positive or negative feedback in the ionization
process.

The generalized Townsend's equation provides a more

comprehensive description of the electron avalanche growth,
considering the interplay between primary and secondary
ionization processes. This equation is essential for understanding
and modeling the behavior of gas discharges, plasmas, and
breakdown phenomena in various electrical and gas-filled systems.

Townsend’s criterion for breakdown in electronegative

gases
Townsend's criterion for breakdown in electronegative gases
extends the original Townsend breakdown criterion to account for
the presence of electronegative gas molecules, which have a
higher electron affinity and tend to capture electrons more readily.
Electronegative gases include gases like oxygen (O2), sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6), and certain halogen-containing gases.
The original Townsend breakdown criterion, which applies to non-
electronegative gases, states that breakdown occurs when the
ionization rate (α) due to the primary ionization process (electron
impact ionization) is equal to the recombination rate (β) of
electrons and positive ions:

α=β

However, in electronegative gases, the presence of

electronegative molecules can significantly impact the breakdown
process. These gases have a higher probability of electron capture
(negative ion formation) compared to non-electronegative gases.
As a result, there can be an excess of negative ions in the electron
avalanche, leading to slower recombination rates.

Townsend's criterion for breakdown in electronegative gases

considers a modified form of the Townsend ionization coefficient
(α) to account for the excess of negative ions. The criterion states
that breakdown occurs when the effective ionization coefficient
(αeff) due to the positive ionization process equals the rate of
electron attachment (αattach) due to the electronegative process:

αeff=α−αattach =β

In this criterion, α represents the ionization coefficient due to the

primary ionization process (electron impact ionization), and αattach
is the coefficient representing the rate of electron attachment to
electronegative molecules.

When αeff is equal to β, the rate of positive ionization is balanced

by the rate of electron attachment, resulting in a steady-state
condition in the electron avalanche, and breakdown occurs.

Townsend's criterion for breakdown in electronegative gases is

critical in understanding the breakdown behavior of these gases in
various electrical and high-voltage applications. It is essential for
designing and operating gas-filled electrical devices, such as gas-
insulated switchgear and gas discharge lamps, where
electronegative gases are commonly used. Additionally, this
criterion plays a significant role in the study of electronegative
plasma and gas discharge phenomena in research and industrial
applications.

Time lags for breakdown

The time lag for breakdown refers to the delay between the
application of a high-voltage electric field to a gaseous medium
and the onset of electrical breakdown or the initiation of a
sustained discharge. It is an important concept in understanding
the behavior of gas discharges and the breakdown process in
various electrical systems. The time lag for breakdown depends on
several factors, including the type of gas, gas pressure, electrode
geometry, and the applied voltage.

There are two main types of time lags for breakdown:

1. Inception Time Lag: The inception time lag refers to the delay
between the application of the high electric field and the initiation of
the initial ionization processes. During this time, electrons gain
enough energy to undergo ionizing collisions, leading to the
formation of the first few ion-electron pairs. The inception time lag
is typically in the order of nanoseconds to microseconds and
depends on factors such as the electron mean free path and the
electric field strength.

2. Growth Time Lag: After the initial ionization, the electron

avalanche starts to grow exponentially, leading to a significant
increase in the number of electrons and ions in the gas. The
growth time lag refers to the time taken for the electron avalanche
to reach a critical density where breakdown occurs or a continuous
discharge is sustained. The growth time lag is typically longer than
the inception time lag and can range from microseconds to
milliseconds, depending on the gas pressure, electrode geometry,
and the characteristics of the gas medium.

The time lags for breakdown are essential to consider in the design
and operation of gas-filled electrical devices and high-voltage
systems. Understanding the time lags helps engineers and
researchers predict the behavior of gas discharges and implement
appropriate measures to prevent premature breakdown or control
the initiation of discharges when desired.

The time lags for breakdown can also be influenced by external

factors such as temperature, humidity, and the presence of
impurities in the gas. Additionally, in electronegative gases, the
presence of electronegative molecules can affect the breakdown
process and modify the time lags due to the attachment and
detachment of electrons.

Overall, the study of time lags for breakdown is crucial in various

fields, including gas discharge research, plasma physics, high-
voltage engineering, and the design of electrical insulation
systems.
 Streamers theory
In high voltage engineering, "streamers theory" typically refers to
the phenomenon of electrical discharges and the formation of
streamers in gaseous insulating materials, like air or other gases,
when subjected to high electric fields. These streamers are partial
ionization channels that can develop in the insulating medium
when the electric field strength exceeds a certain critical value.

Here's a brief explanation of streamers theory in high voltage

engineering:

1. Electrical Discharges: When a high voltage is applied across two

conductors separated by an insulating medium (like air), the
electric field in the medium increases with the applied voltage. At a
certain critical electric field strength, the atoms and molecules in
the insulating medium can become ionized, leading to the
formation of charged particles.
2. Streamers Formation: As the electric field increases further,
ionized particles can initiate the formation of streamers. Streamers
are thin, elongated channels of partially ionized gas that propagate
through the insulating medium, following a path of least resistance.
3. Propagation and Breakdown: Once a streamer is initiated, it can
extend and branch out, creating a conductive path between the
electrodes. If left unchecked, this can lead to a complete
breakdown of the insulating medium, resulting in an electrical
discharge or spark.
4. Influence on Insulation Systems: Understanding streamers is
crucial in high voltage engineering because they play a significant
role in the breakdown and insulation properties of electrical
systems. The presence of streamers can lead to unwanted
electrical discharges, which may damage equipment or cause
power system failures.
5. Mitigation: Engineers study streamers to design better insulation
systems and electrical equipment that can withstand high voltages
without excessive streamer formation and breakdown.

Research and understanding of streamers theory are vital for the

safe and efficient operation of high voltage systems, such as
power transmission lines, substations, transformers, and other
electrical devices. By controlling streamers and preventing
excessive electrical discharges, engineers can improve the
reliability and longevity of high voltage equipment.

Paschen’s law
 Paschen's law, named after Friedrich Paschen, is an empirical
formula that describes the breakdown voltage or the minimum
voltage required to initiate electrical breakdown in a gas between
two electrodes at a specific pressure and electrode distance. It
provides insight into the relationship between the breakdown
voltage, the gas pressure, and the gap distance in a simple form.

The formula is given by:

V=B.d.p/ln(A⋅d⋅p)+ln[ln(ln(B.d.p/In(1+1/γ)))

where:

 V is the breakdown voltage (volts),

 d is the gap distance between the electrodes (usually measured in
meters),
 p is the gas pressure (usually measured in pascals or torr),
 A and B are constants specific to the gas and the electrode
configuration,
 γ is the secondary ionization coefficient.

The law is particularly relevant in high voltage engineering and is

commonly used to determine the minimum voltage required for
electrical breakdown and sparking in gas-insulated systems, such
as in gas-filled tubes, spark gaps, and other electrical discharge
devices.

It's important to note that Paschen's law is an empirical formula

and does not provide a fundamental explanation of the breakdown
process. It is derived from experimental observations and is
generally accurate for a wide range of pressures and electrode
distances in many gases, but it may not be valid under extreme
conditions or for all types of gases. As a result, specific gas
mixtures or conditions may require different formulations or
modifications to Paschen's law.

Breakdown in non-uniform fields and corona discharge

Breakdown in Non-Uniform Fields: Breakdown in non-uniform

electric fields refers to the phenomenon where electrical
breakdown or sparking occurs in regions of non-uniform electric
fields, typically near sharp edges or points on electrodes. In such
situations, the electric field strength becomes significantly higher
than the average field strength in the rest of the system. This can
lead to ionization and discharge, causing unwanted sparking and
potential damage to electrical equipment.
 In non-uniform electric fields, the electric field lines tend to
converge, leading to an increased field strength at the converging
points. When the electric field strength exceeds the breakdown
strength of the insulating medium (e.g., air), electrical breakdown
can occur, resulting in localized discharges known as corona
discharges.

Corona Discharge: Corona discharge is a specific type of electrical

discharge that occurs in the presence of strong electric fields
around high-voltage conductors or sharp edges. It is characterized
by a faint luminous glow or corona that appears near the
conductor's surface. Corona discharge is prevalent at high voltage
gradients but below the level required for a full electrical
breakdown.

In corona discharge, the strong electric field around the conductor

causes ionization of the surrounding air molecules, producing a
mix of positive and negative ions. The presence of these ions
contributes to a partial discharge or glow around the conductor.

Corona discharge can have both positive and negative effects:

1. Negative Effects: Corona discharge results in energy losses and

can cause radio interference, audible noise, and ozone production.
It can also lead to material degradation in high-voltage equipment
due to localized heating.
2. Positive Effects: In some cases, corona discharge is intentionally
utilized in electrical systems, such as in corona rings on high-
voltage conductors. The corona rings help distribute the electric
field more evenly, reducing the likelihood of non-uniform
breakdown and corona losses.

In high-voltage power transmission lines and other high-voltage

systems, engineers aim to minimize corona discharge to reduce
power losses and unwanted effects. Proper design, conductor
spacing, and the use of corona rings are among the methods
employed to control and mitigate corona discharge in practical
applications.

Corona under positive & negative polarities

Corona discharge can occur under both positive and negative
polarities, and the characteristics of the corona can vary depending
on the polarity of the voltage applied to the conductor.

1. Corona under Positive Polarity:

 When a high-voltage positive potential is applied to a
conductor, the electric field lines emanate from the
conductor's surface and spread outward into the surrounding
air. As the electric field intensity increases with distance from
the conductor, the air molecules near the conductor may
undergo ionization, creating positive ions and free electrons.
 The positive ions are attracted to the negatively charged
conductor, while the free electrons are repelled and move
away from the conductor.
 The positive ions and free electrons can collide with other air
molecules, leading to further ionization and the formation of
an ionized region around the conductor. This ionized region
is responsible for the faint luminous glow or corona observed
under positive polarity.
 Corona discharge under positive polarity is typically less
intense than under negative polarity.
2. Corona under Negative Polarity:
 When a high-voltage negative potential is applied to a
conductor, the electric field lines converge towards the
conductor's surface.
 The strong electric field at the sharp edges or points of the
conductor can cause significant ionization of the surrounding
air molecules.
 The resulting corona discharge under negative polarity is
more intense and visually distinct compared to the corona
under positive polarity.
 The corona glow is usually more concentrated and localized
around the sharp edges or points of the conductor.

In both cases, the corona discharge is a partial discharge, meaning

it does not lead to a full electrical breakdown or spark. Corona
discharge is often undesirable in high-voltage systems due to
energy losses, radio interference, and other negative effects.
Engineers use various techniques, such as increasing conductor
spacing, using corona rings, or selecting appropriate conductor
shapes, to minimize corona discharge and its associated
drawbacks in practical applications. Additionally, the design and
insulation of high-voltage equipment need to consider the effects of
corona to ensure safe and efficient operation.

Glow & arc discharge

Glow Discharge and Arc Discharge are two distinct types of
electrical discharges that occur in different conditions and have
different characteristics:
1. Glow Discharge:
 Glow discharge is a low-current electrical discharge that
occurs at low to moderate voltages in a gas-filled gap.
 It is characterized by a faint, luminous glow around the
electrodes. The glow can vary in color depending on the gas
and the materials involved.
 Glow discharge occurs when the electric field strength is
below the critical value required for a full electrical
breakdown (arc discharge) but high enough to cause
ionization of the gas molecules.
 It typically occurs in uniform electric fields or in regions with a
gradual increase in the electric field strength, as opposed to
sharp changes seen in arc discharges.
 Glow discharge is commonly observed in neon signs,
fluorescent lamps, and plasma devices like plasma globes.
2. Arc Discharge:
 Arc discharge is a high-current electrical discharge that
occurs at high voltages in a gas-filled gap or between two
electrodes.
 It is characterized by a bright and highly luminous arc that
forms a conductive channel between the electrodes.
 Arc discharge occurs when the electric field strength
exceeds the critical value required for ionization of the gas,
leading to a rapid increase in current flow and a highly
conductive plasma channel.
 It can occur in both uniform and non-uniform electric fields,
but it is more prevalent in regions with sharp variations in
electric field strength, such as near pointed or sharp-edged
electrodes.
 Arc discharges are powerful and can be hazardous, often
leading to high temperatures and significant damage to the
electrodes and surrounding equipment.

In summary, glow discharge is a low-intensity, low-current

discharge that occurs at moderate voltages and results in a faint,
luminous glow around the electrodes. On the other hand, arc
discharge is a high-intensity, high-current discharge that occurs at
high voltages and creates a bright and highly luminous arc
between the electrodes. Both types of discharges are important in
various applications, but arc discharges are more commonly
associated with higher power and higher risk situations due to their
intense nature.

Considerations in using gases for insulation purpose

 When using gases for insulation purposes in high-voltage systems
or electrical equipment, several important considerations need to
be taken into account to ensure safe and efficient operation. Here
are some key considerations:

1. Dielectric Strength: The dielectric strength of the gas is critical as

it determines the maximum electric field the gas can withstand
before breakdown occurs. A gas with a high dielectric strength is
preferred to prevent unwanted electrical discharges.
2. Breakdown Voltage: The gas should have a sufficiently high
breakdown voltage to avoid unintended electrical breakdown and
sparking, especially in regions with non-uniform electric fields.
3. Chemical Stability: The gas should be chemically stable to
prevent degradation or decomposition when exposed to electrical
stress or other environmental factors.
4. Toxicity and Environmental Impact: Safety considerations are
essential. The gas used should be non-toxic, non-flammable, and
environmentally friendly.
5. Availability and Cost: The gas should be readily available and
economically viable for the intended application.
6. Pressure and Temperature: Consideration should be given to the
pressure and temperature conditions in the application. Some
gases may have different dielectric properties at varying pressure
and temperature levels.
7. Gas Purity: High purity gases are often preferred to prevent the
presence of impurities that may affect the insulation performance
or cause chemical reactions.
8. Corona and Partial Discharge: Certain gases may be prone to
corona or partial discharges under specific conditions, leading to
unwanted energy losses and possible damage. This needs to be
assessed for the specific application.
9. Sealing and Leakage: The insulation system must be well-sealed
to prevent gas leakage, which can lead to decreased insulation
performance and safety issues.
10. Pressure Regulation: For gaseous insulation systems,
pressure regulation may be necessary to maintain the required
dielectric strength and prevent over-pressurization.
11. Equipment Design: The design of the equipment needs to
account for gas insulation, including considerations for electrode
spacing, gas flow, and cooling if applicable.

Common gases used for insulation purposes include air, nitrogen,

sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and various fluorinated gases. Each gas
has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice depends on
the specific requirements of the application.
Overall, a thorough understanding of the gas properties, proper
system design, and maintenance are essential to ensure effective
and reliable gas insulation in high-voltage systems.

MCQS
The Townsend mechanism explains the phenomenon of
breakdown

a.Only at low pressure

b. Only at high pressure
c. Only at very high pressure
d. Only bat very low pressure

Formative time lag depends on the mechanism of the

avalanche growth in gap. The formative time lag is usually

a.Much shorter than the statistical time lag

b. Much greater than the statistical time lag
c. Equal to the statistical time lag
d. None of these

Field in case of rod gaps and sphere gaps are

a.Uniform, uniform
b. Uniform, non-uniform
c. Non-uniform, uniform
d. Non-uniform, non-uniform

For the high voltage conductors at high pressures, if the

voltage is positive then the corona appears as a

a. Uniform bluish white sheath

b. Reddish glowing spots
c. Uniform greenish spots
d. None of these

The statistical time lag depends upon the

a. Size of gap
b. Quantity of radiation that produces the primary electrons
c. Amount of pre-ionization preset gap
d. All of these

QUESTIONS
 Explain in detail Gases as an insulation media.
 Explain ionization processes in detail
 Derive Townsend’s current growth equation
 Explain current growth in presence of secondary
processes
 Describe Townsend’s criterion for breakdown in
electronegative gases
 What is Time lags for breakdown
 Explain in detail Streamers theory
 What is Paschen’s law explain in detail
 Explain breakdown in non-uniform fields and corona
discharge in detail
 Describe corona under positive & negative polarities
 What is glow & arc discharge explain .
 What are the considerations in using gases for
insulation purpose.
 BTEEC701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
UNIT 3: Breakdown in Dielectric Materials
Syllubus-Conduction & breakdown in liquid dielectrics: Pure and
commercial liquids, breakdown in pure and commercial liquids,
theories of breakdown in liquids. Breakdown in solid dielectrics:
Intrinsic, electromechanical& thermal breakdown, chemical,
electrochemical deterioration, treeing, tracking, internal discharges,
breakdown in composite insulation, properties of solid insulators &
other materials used in practice. Insulating materials: In power
transformers, rotating machines, circuit breakers, cables, power
capacitors & other equipment.

Conduction & breakdown in liquid dielectrics: Pure and

commercial liquids
Conduction and breakdown in liquid dielectrics, whether pure or
commercial, are crucial factors to consider in high-voltage
applications and electrical equipment that employ liquid insulation.
Liquid dielectrics are used in various applications, such as power
transformers, capacitors, high-voltage cables, and other electrical
devices.

1. Conduction in Liquid Dielectrics:

 Conduction in liquid dielectrics refers to the flow of electrical
current through the liquid medium when a voltage is applied
across it.
 The electrical conduction in liquids is mainly attributed to the
movement of ions and charged particles within the liquid.
 In pure liquids, electrical conduction is typically low due to
the absence of free ions. However, even in pure liquids,
there may be a small level of ionic conduction due to the
presence of dissociated ions from dissolved impurities or
self-ionization.
 Commercial liquid dielectrics may contain additives or
impurities that can significantly influence electrical
conduction. For example, some insulating oils used in power
transformers may contain additives to improve their dielectric
properties, but these additives can also affect the electrical
conductivity.
2. Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics:
 Electrical breakdown in liquid dielectrics refers to the point at
which the liquid can no longer withstand the applied electric
field and leads to a rapid increase in electrical conduction.
  Breakdown can occur in different forms, such as a partial
discharge, a streamer discharge, or a full electrical arc.
 In pure liquids, breakdown usually occurs at high electric
field strengths, and the breakdown voltage can be quite high.
 Commercial liquid dielectrics often have a higher risk of
breakdown due to the presence of impurities or additives.
These impurities can lead to the creation of weak points in
the liquid, where electrical breakdown is more likely to
initiate.
3. Factors Affecting Conduction and Breakdown:
 The purity and chemical composition of the liquid dielectric
play a significant role in determining its conduction and
breakdown characteristics.
 Temperature can influence both conduction and breakdown;
as the temperature increases, the mobility of charged
particles in the liquid also increases.
 The applied electric field strength is a crucial factor in
breakdown. High voltage gradients can lead to local electric
field enhancements, increasing the likelihood of breakdown
initiation.
 The presence of contaminants, moisture, or dissolved gases
in the liquid can affect its dielectric properties and lead to
conduction and breakdown issues.

In high-voltage systems using liquid dielectrics, it is essential to

carefully monitor and maintain the quality of the liquid insulation to
ensure reliable and safe operation. Regular testing, purification,
and preventive maintenance are common practices to mitigate
conduction and breakdown issues in liquid dielectrics.

Breakdown in pure and commercial liquids

Breakdown in pure and commercial liquids refers to the
phenomenon where the liquid dielectric fails to withstand the
applied electric field, resulting in a sudden increase in electrical
conduction. This breakdown can lead to partial discharges,
streamers, or complete electrical arcs, which can be damaging to
electrical equipment and potentially hazardous. The breakdown
characteristics can differ between pure liquids and commercial
liquids due to variations in chemical composition and the presence
of impurities or additives. Here's a more detailed explanation:

1. Breakdown in Pure Liquids:

 Pure liquids, in their ideal form, have a low concentration of
free ions and charged particles, which makes their electrical
conduction relatively low.
  The breakdown in pure liquids usually occurs at high electric
field strengths. When the applied electric field exceeds a
certain critical value, it can cause ionization of the liquid
molecules, resulting in the generation of ions and charged
particles.
 This ionization process creates a conductive path through
the liquid, leading to breakdown and electrical conduction.
 The breakdown voltage in pure liquids is generally quite high
due to the absence of impurities that might facilitate the
ionization process.
2. Breakdown in Commercial Liquids:
 Commercial liquids, used as dielectrics, may contain
impurities, additives, or processing by-products that can
significantly influence their electrical properties.
 These impurities or additives can lower the breakdown
voltage and increase the electrical conduction compared to
pure liquids.
 Impurities can create sites of localized ionization, reducing
the breakdown strength and leading to more frequent
breakdown events.
 The presence of additives in commercial liquid dielectrics is
often intentional to enhance their dielectric properties.
However, some additives might also increase the likelihood
of partial discharges or corona activity.
3. Factors Affecting Breakdown:
 The dielectric strength of a liquid depends on factors such as
the purity of the liquid, its chemical composition,
temperature, pressure, and the applied electric field strength.
 Temperature plays a significant role in the breakdown of
liquids. As the temperature increases, the electrical
conduction and the rate of ionization also increase.
 The presence of moisture or dissolved gases can affect the
breakdown strength of liquids, as they can act as charge
carriers and promote ionization.
 In commercial liquids, the concentration and type of additives
can impact breakdown characteristics. Some additives may
enhance the breakdown voltage, while others may reduce it.

To ensure reliable and safe operation in high-voltage systems

using liquid dielectrics, it is essential to carefully monitor the quality
of the liquid insulation, purify the liquid when necessary, and
adhere to standards and guidelines for selecting and using
dielectric liquids in specific applications. Proper maintenance and
testing are crucial to mitigate breakdown issues in both pure and
commercial liquids.
 Theories of breakdown in liquids
The breakdown in liquids is a complex phenomenon that involves
several theories and mechanisms to explain the process of
electrical conduction and discharge. Here are some of the key
theories of breakdown in liquids:

1. Ionization Theory: This theory is based on the idea that when an

electric field is applied to a liquid dielectric, the electric force on the
charged particles (ions and electrons) can exceed the force of
attraction between the charged particles and the liquid molecules.
As a result, the charged particles gain enough energy to overcome
the molecular forces and move freely in the liquid, leading to
ionization. The formation of ions and charged particles allows
electrical conduction and leads to breakdown in the liquid.
2. Streamers and Partial Discharge Theory: Streamers are thin,
elongated channels of ionized gas or liquid that propagate through
the medium when the electric field is locally enhanced. The
streamer theory explains that in liquids, streamers can form due to
irregularities in the liquid or the presence of impurities. These
streamers act as conductive paths and can lead to partial
discharges, which are localized electrical discharges that occur in
a small region of the liquid.
3. Bubble Nucleation Theory: This theory applies specifically to
breakdown in insulating liquids under the influence of fast-rising
voltage pulses. When a fast-rising voltage is applied, the electric
field can cause nucleation of gas bubbles in the liquid. These
bubbles create conductive paths, leading to breakdown. This
theory is relevant in applications like pulsed power systems.
4. Electrohydrodynamics: In some cases, the movement of
charged particles (ions and electrons) in the liquid under the
influence of an electric field can generate fluid flow and create local
pressure variations. These pressure variations can lead to the
formation of channels through which electrical breakdown occurs.
5. Surface Flashover: This theory is specific to the breakdown at the
surface of the liquid, where the electric field strength is locally
enhanced due to surface irregularities or contaminants. Surface
flashover occurs when the electric field at the liquid surface
exceeds the breakdown strength, causing the breakdown to initiate
at the surface and propagate into the liquid.
6. Thermal Ionization: In some situations, the electric field can
cause local heating in the liquid, which increases the mobility of
charged particles, leading to thermal ionization and breakdown.
 It's important to note that the breakdown in liquids is a complex
phenomenon, and the actual process may involve a combination of
several mechanisms. The specific breakdown mechanisms in a
given liquid can vary depending on factors such as the liquid's
properties, the applied electric field, and the presence of impurities
or additives. Understanding these breakdown theories helps
engineers design better insulating systems and mitigate
breakdown risks in high-voltage applications involving liquid
dielectrics.

Breakdown in solid dielectrics:

Intrinsic,electromechanical& thermal breakdown
Breakdown in solid dielectrics refers to the phenomenon where the
dielectric material, under the influence of an electric field,
experiences a rapid increase in electrical conduction, leading to
electrical breakdown. The breakdown can occur through various
mechanisms, and three primary types are intrinsic breakdown,
electromechanical breakdown, and thermal breakdown. Let's
explore each of them:

1. Intrinsic Breakdown:
 Intrinsic breakdown, also known as electronic breakdown or
material breakdown, occurs due to the intrinsic properties of
the dielectric material.
 In this process, the electric field causes electrons in the
material to gain enough energy to break free from their
atomic bonds, resulting in the formation of charge carriers
(electrons and holes).
 The newly created charge carriers can contribute to electrical
conduction, leading to a rapid increase in current flow.
 Intrinsic breakdown is more common in semiconducting
materials, where the presence of energy bands facilitates the
generation of charge carriers.
 High electric fields can cause impact ionization, tunneling,
and avalanche breakdown, which are all mechanisms
contributing to intrinsic breakdown.
2. Electromechanical Breakdown:
 Electromechanical breakdown, also known as mechanical
breakdown, occurs in dielectric materials that have
mechanical defects or weak points.
 When subjected to high electric fields, these defects can
experience mechanical stress due to the forces exerted by
the electric field on the charged particles.
 The mechanical stress can lead to the deformation, cracking,
or rupture of the material, creating conductive paths and
initiating breakdown.
 Electromechanical breakdown is often observed in materials
like ceramics, glasses, and composite dielectrics.
3. Thermal Breakdown:
 Thermal breakdown occurs when the heat generated within
the dielectric material under the influence of the electric field
causes localized or overall temperature rise.
 At elevated temperatures, the material's electrical properties
can change, and it may undergo thermal decomposition or
chemical reactions.
 The changes in electrical properties, such as reduced
resistivity, can cause an increase in current flow, leading to
further heating and a positive feedback loop that accelerates
breakdown.
 Thermal breakdown is often observed in polymer-based
dielectric materials and other organic compounds.

The breakdown in solid dielectrics is a complex phenomenon

influenced by various factors, including material properties,
geometry, temperature, and the applied electric field. Engineers
and designers must consider these breakdown mechanisms to
ensure the reliable and safe operation of electrical equipment and
high-voltage systems that use solid dielectrics as insulating
materials. Measures such as material selection, design
optimization, and temperature control are taken to mitigate the risk
of breakdown and enhance the dielectric performance of solid
insulating materials.

Breakdown in solid dielectrics:

Intrinsic,electromechanical& thermal breakdown,
chemical, electrochemical deterioration, treeing,
tracking,internal discharges, breakdown in composite
insulation

Let's continue exploring additional breakdown mechanisms that

can occur in solid dielectrics:

4. Chemical Breakdown:
 Chemical breakdown refers to the degradation or
decomposition of the dielectric material due to the presence
of aggressive chemicals, moisture, or other environmental
factors.
  The chemical reactions can weaken the material's structure,
alter its electrical properties, and promote the formation of
conductive paths, leading to electrical breakdown.
5. Electrochemical Deterioration:
 Electrochemical deterioration occurs when the dielectric
material comes into contact with electrically conductive
substances, leading to electrochemical reactions.
 The electrochemical reactions can corrode the material,
reduce its insulation properties, and contribute to localized
breakdown.
6. Treeing:
 Treeing is a form of electrical breakdown that occurs in solid
insulating materials, particularly in polymers, under the
influence of continuous high electric fields.
 It appears as tree-like patterns within the material, caused by
the growth of microscopic voids filled with ionized gas and
conductive materials.
 Treeing can weaken the dielectric strength and eventually
lead to complete breakdown if not addressed.
7. Tracking:
 Tracking is another form of electrical breakdown that occurs
on the surface of solid insulating materials due to the
presence of moisture, contaminants, or conducting particles.
 Under the influence of high voltage, the conductive path
forms on the surface, resembling tracking marks.
 Tracking can result in short circuits and cause localized or
overall breakdown.
8. Internal Discharges:
 Internal discharges occur when partial discharges take place
within the bulk of the solid dielectric material.
 These discharges can initiate due to impurities, voids, or
defects within the material and contribute to material
degradation and breakdown.
9. Breakdown in Composite Insulation:
 Composite insulation refers to a combination of different
dielectric materials in layers or blends to optimize electrical
properties.
 The breakdown behavior of composite insulation is
influenced by the interaction of its constituent materials and
the interface between them.
 This interaction can affect the overall breakdown strength
and susceptibility to breakdown mechanisms.

Understanding these different breakdown mechanisms is crucial

for designing reliable and safe electrical systems using solid
 dielectric materials. Engineers must carefully select materials,
optimize designs, and employ proper testing and maintenance
practices to mitigate the risks associated with breakdown in solid
dielectrics. Applying suitable insulating techniques and using
appropriate materials can help ensure the longevity and
performance of electrical equipment and systems.

properties of solid insulators & other materials used in

practice
Solid insulators and other materials used in practice for electrical
applications possess various properties that make them suitable
for their respective roles. Here are some important properties of
solid insulators and other commonly used materials:

1. Dielectric Strength: The dielectric strength is a crucial property

for insulating materials. It represents the maximum electric field the
material can withstand before experiencing electrical breakdown.
High dielectric strength is essential to prevent unwanted
conduction and breakdown.
2. Dielectric Constant (Relative Permittivity): The dielectric
constant indicates how well a material can store electrical energy
in an electric field. Higher dielectric constants are favorable for
capacitors and energy storage applications.
3. Insulation Resistance: The insulation resistance measures how
well a material resists the flow of electric current. High insulation
resistance ensures minimal leakage currents and enhanced
electrical insulation.
4. Volume Resistivity: Volume resistivity refers to the resistance
offered by a material across its entire volume. High volume
resistivity is crucial for preventing current leakage in insulating
materials.
5. Surface Resistivity: Surface resistivity represents the resistance
along the surface of a material. It is essential for maintaining
surface insulation integrity and preventing surface leakage.
6. Thermal Conductivity: For materials used in electrical devices,
low thermal conductivity is often preferred to minimize heat
dissipation and energy losses.
7. Thermal Stability: Materials used in electrical applications should
exhibit good thermal stability to maintain their electrical and
mechanical properties under varying temperature conditions.
8. Mechanical Strength: Mechanical strength is vital, especially for
materials used in support structures, casings, and other
components that require mechanical stability.
9. Chemical Stability: Chemical stability ensures that the material
remains unaffected by the surrounding environment and does not
degrade over time due to chemical reactions.
10. Moisture Resistance: Materials should have good moisture
resistance to prevent the absorption of moisture that could affect
their electrical properties.
11. Flame Resistance: In some applications, such as in
electrical enclosures, flame-resistant materials are preferred to
enhance safety in case of fire incidents.

Common solid insulators and other materials used in practice

include:

 Polymers: Polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC),

epoxy resins, and silicone rubbers are common polymer-based
insulating materials used in cables, capacitors, and electrical
enclosures.
 Ceramics: Alumina, porcelain, and other ceramic materials are
used in high-voltage applications like insulators and bushings.
 Glass: Glass is used for insulating windows, optical components,
and high-voltage insulators.
 Paper: Insulating paper is used in transformer windings and
electrical insulation systems.
 Mica: Mica is used in electrical and thermal insulation due to its
excellent dielectric and thermal properties.
 Mineral Oil and SF6 (Sulfur Hexafluoride): These are common
insulating liquids used in power transformers and circuit breakers.

Selecting the appropriate material for a specific application

requires considering the desired electrical, mechanical, thermal,
and chemical properties to ensure safe and efficient operation of
electrical systems and equipment.

Insulating materials: In power transformers, rotating

machines, circuit breakers,cables, power capacitors &
other equipment.
Insulating materials play a crucial role in various electrical
equipment to ensure safe and reliable operation. Here are some
common insulating materials used in specific electrical equipment:
1. Power Transformers:
 Insulating Paper: Power transformers use insulating paper,
such as kraft paper or pressboard, as the primary insulation
in the windings. The paper is impregnated with transformer
oil to enhance its dielectric strength and flexibility.
  Mineral Oil: Mineral oil is commonly used as the insulating
liquid in power transformers. It provides both electrical
insulation and cooling for the transformer. The oil acts as a
dielectric medium and helps dissipate heat generated during
operation.
 Insulating Pressboard: Pressboard is used as a
mechanical support for the transformer windings. It is a rigid
insulating material made from compressed insulating paper.
2. Rotating Machines (e.g., Motors and Generators):
 Insulating Varnish: Rotating machines have windings
coated with insulating varnish (also known as enamel). The
varnish provides a thin layer of insulation to protect the
windings and enhance electrical insulation.
 Epoxy Resins: Epoxy resins are commonly used for
encapsulating and insulating electrical components in
rotating machines. They provide excellent mechanical and
electrical properties, protecting the components from
moisture and contaminants.
 Mica: Mica is used as slot liners and insulating separators in
rotating machines. It provides a high dielectric strength and
thermal stability.
3. Circuit Breakers:
 SF6 (Sulfur Hexafluoride): SF6 gas is used as an arc
quenching medium in high-voltage circuit breakers. When
the circuit breaker trips, SF6 gas extinguishes the electric arc
quickly and efficiently.
 Vacuum: Some circuit breakers use vacuum technology for
arc interruption. The absence of gas or liquid dielectrics in
vacuum interrupters reduces the risk of dielectric breakdown.
 Porcelain or Polymer Insulators: Circuit breakers use
porcelain or polymer insulators to support and isolate various
components within the breaker.
4. Cables:
 Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE): XLPE is a popular
insulating material used in high-voltage power cables. It
offers excellent electrical properties and resistance to
moisture and environmental stress.
 Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR): EPR is commonly used
in medium-voltage cables for its good electrical and
mechanical properties.
 Paper-Insulated Lead-Sheathed (PILC) Cables: PILC
cables are older technology that uses paper insulation and
lead sheathing for underground power cables.
5. Power Capacitors:
  Metallized Polypropylene Film: Metallized polypropylene
film is widely used as the dielectric material in power
capacitors. It offers low losses and high dielectric strength.
 Oil-Impregnated Paper: Older power capacitors used oil-
impregnated paper as the dielectric material.
6. Busbars and Insulators:
 Epoxy Glass Laminate: Epoxy glass laminate, such as G10
or FR4, is commonly used for busbars and as support
structures due to its mechanical strength and insulation
properties.
7. Switchgear and Control Panels:
 Insulating Plastics: Switchgear and control panels use
insulating plastics, such as ABS, PVC, and polycarbonate,
for housing and insulating electrical components.
8. Current and Potential Transformers:
 Epoxy Resin Castings: Current and potential transformers
often use epoxy resin castings to insulate and encapsulate
their windings.

The selection of insulating materials is based on various factors,

including the application's voltage levels, operating conditions,
environmental factors, mechanical stress, and safety regulations.
The choice of proper insulating materials is critical to ensure the
long-term reliability and efficiency of electrical equipment in power
systems. Advances in materials science continue to introduce
newer and better insulating materials with enhanced properties for
different electrical equipment applications.

MCQS
Which of the following is the correct expression for the dielectric
strength?
a) d/Vb
b) Vb/d
c) Vbd
d) Vb/d2

Mica has a dielectric strength of _____________

a) 50 X 106 V/m
b) 100 X 106 V/m
c) 150 X 106 V/m
d) 200 X 106 V/m

Dielectric breakdown occurs in gases due to ____________

a) Corona Discharge
b) Dielectric heating
c) Intrinsic breakdown
d) Defect breakdown

In which type of breakdown, an avalanche of electrons is formed?

a) Defect Breakdown
b) Thermal Breakdown
c) Intrinsic Breakdown
d) Electrochemical Breakdown

The process of breakdown is accelerated by the presence of

____________
a) Impurities
b) Conduction
c) Humidity
d) Magnetic Field

The most common mode of breakdown in ceramic insulators is

_____________
a) Defect Breakdown
b) Thermal Breakdown
c) Intrinsic Breakdown
d) Electrochemical Breakdown

QUESTIONS

 What is Conduction & breakdown in liquid dielectrics

 What is Pure and commercial liquids
 Explain breakdown in pure and commercial liquids
 What are the theories of breakdown in liquids.explain
 Explain Breakdown in solid dielectrics: Intrinsic,
electromechanical& thermal breakdown
 Explain in detail - chemical, electrochemical deterioration,
treeing, tracking, internal discharges
 What do you mean by breakdown in composite insulation
explain
 What are the properties of solid insulators & other materials
used in practice
 Describe Insulating materials: In power transformers,
rotating machines, circuit breakers, cables, power
capacitors & other equipment.
 BTEEC701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
UNIT 4: Over voltage due to lightening
phenomenon
Syllubus-Natural causes for over voltages – Lightning phenomenon,
Overvoltage due to switching surges, system faults and other
abnormal conditions, propagation of lightning voltage & current
waves on transmission lines, reflection & transmission of traveling
wave at junction, system control of over voltage due to switching
protection of transmission lines against over voltage. Insulation co-
ordination, surge diverters, equipment insulation level & co-
ordination of substations

Natural causes for over voltages – Lightning phenomenon

Lightning is a natural cause of overvoltages that can occur in
electrical and electronic systems. When lightning strikes, it
generates an enormous amount of electrical energy in a short
period, which can lead to sudden and significant voltage surges.
These overvoltages can pose a serious threat to electrical
equipment and systems. There are primarily two ways lightning
can cause overvoltages:

1. Direct Lightning Strike: When lightning directly strikes a power line,

utility pole, or any other conductor connected to a building or
facility, it can cause a massive surge in voltage. This surge can
travel through the power distribution network and affect connected
devices and systems, leading to severe damage.
2. Indirect Lightning Strike: Even if lightning doesn't directly strike a
power line or conductor, it can induce voltage surges in nearby
conductive structures through electromagnetic fields. These
induced surges can propagate through power lines,
communication lines, and other conductors, affecting connected
equipment and electronics.

To protect against lightning-induced overvoltages, various

protective measures can be taken, such as:

1. Surge Protectors: Installing surge protectors or surge suppressors

can help divert excessive voltage away from sensitive equipment,
preventing damage.
2. Lightning Rods: Lightning rods are designed to attract lightning
strikes and conduct the electrical energy safely to the ground,
bypassing sensitive equipment.
3. Grounding: Proper grounding of electrical systems and equipment
helps dissipate the energy from lightning strikes and reduce the
risk of damage.
4. Shielding: For critical electronic systems, shielding the cables and
equipment can minimize the effects of electromagnetic induction
from nearby lightning strikes.
5. Isolation: Isolating sensitive equipment from power and
communication lines can prevent voltage surges from propagating
through the system.

Remember that lightning is a powerful and unpredictable natural

phenomenon. Taking appropriate precautions and implementing
robust protective measures are essential to safeguarding electrical
and electronic equipment from the damaging effects of lightning-
induced overvoltages.

Overvoltage due to switching surges

Switching surges, also known as transient overvoltages or
switching transients, are another common cause of overvoltages in
electrical and electronic systems. They occur when there is a
sudden change in the electrical circuit, such as turning on or off a
high-power device, energizing or de-energizing a transformer, or
interrupting current flow in a circuit.

The rapid change in current or voltage during switching events can

induce high voltage spikes in the circuit. These transient
overvoltages can potentially exceed the voltage ratings of
connected devices and components, leading to equipment damage
or failure. Some common causes of switching surges include:

1. Capacitive Coupling: When a switch or a circuit breaker opens or

closes, it can cause a rapid change in voltage, leading to
capacitive coupling with nearby conductors or circuits. This
coupling can result in transient overvoltages in those neighboring
circuits.
2. Inductive Coupling: Switching events involving inductive loads,
such as motors or transformers, can generate back-emf
(electromotive force) when the current is interrupted. The inductive
energy gets discharged, leading to transient voltage spikes.
3. Resonance: The combination of inductance and capacitance in a
system can create resonance conditions during switching events,
amplifying the transient overvoltages.
4. Electromagnetic Interference: Switching events in electronic
devices or power electronics can generate electromagnetic
interference, leading to voltage spikes in other parts of the circuit.

To protect against switching surges, various measures can be

implemented:

1. Surge Arresters: Installing surge arresters or surge protectors can

divert the transient overvoltage away from sensitive equipment and
protect them from damage.
2. Snubber Circuits: Snubber circuits can be used to reduce the rate
of voltage change during switching events, mitigating the impact of
overvoltages.
3. RC or RL Snubbers: Adding RC (Resistor-Capacitor) or RL
(Resistor-Inductor) snubbers across the switch contacts can
suppress voltage spikes by absorbing and dissipating the energy.
4. Shielding and Grounding: Proper grounding and shielding can help
reduce the effects of electromagnetic interference and improve the
overall system's immunity to switching surges.
5. Soft Start/Stop: Implementing soft start and stop mechanisms for
high-power equipment can help reduce the impact of sudden
current changes during switching.

By taking appropriate precautions and incorporating protective

measures, engineers can minimize the risk of equipment damage
due to transient overvoltages caused by switching events in
electrical and electronic systems.

System faults and other abnormal conditions

System faults and other abnormal conditions in electrical and
electronic systems can lead to various issues, including potential
equipment damage, system failures, and safety hazards. Some
common types of system faults and abnormal conditions include:

1. Short Circuits: A short circuit occurs when there is an unintended

low-resistance connection between two points in a circuit. It results
in a sudden increase in current flow, which can lead to
overheating, equipment damage, and potential fire hazards.
2. Overcurrents: Overcurrents happen when the current in a circuit
exceeds its normal operating value. They can be caused by short
circuits, overloads, or faults in the system. Overcurrents can
 damage equipment, trip circuit breakers or fuses, and disrupt the
normal functioning of the system.
3. Overloads: Overloads occur when a circuit is carrying more current
than it can handle safely over an extended period. Prolonged
overloads can lead to overheating of wires, transformers, and other
components, resulting in system failures or fires.
4. Ground Faults: Ground faults happen when an unintended
electrical connection occurs between a live conductor and the
ground. They can lead to excessive current flow, equipment
damage, and pose a safety risk to people in contact with the faulty
equipment.
5. Voltage Fluctuations: Voltage fluctuations are rapid and short-term
variations in the electrical supply voltage. These fluctuations can
cause electronic devices to malfunction or fail, particularly sensitive
equipment like computers and microprocessors.
6. Voltage Sags and Swells: Voltage sags (dips) and swells are
momentary decreases or increases in voltage levels, respectively.
They can lead to equipment malfunctions, data loss, and damage
to electronic devices.
7. Harmonics: Harmonics are distortion components of the power
system's voltage and current waveforms. They can cause
overheating in transformers, motors, and other equipment, leading
to reduced efficiency and increased wear and tear.
8. Frequency Variations: Frequency variations occur when the power
system's frequency deviates from its normal value. These
deviations can adversely affect the operation of time-sensitive
equipment like clocks and synchronization systems.
9. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): EMI refers to the disturbance
caused by electromagnetic fields from nearby electrical devices or
equipment. EMI can lead to malfunctions in sensitive electronic
circuits.

To mitigate the impact of system faults and abnormal conditions,

various protective measures and strategies can be implemented,
such as:

 Circuit Breakers and Fuses: These devices are used to protect

against overcurrents and short circuits by interrupting the circuit
when necessary.
 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs): GFCIs are designed to
detect ground faults and quickly disconnect the power to prevent
electric shocks.
 Surge Protectors: Surge protectors help safeguard electronic
equipment from voltage spikes and transient overvoltages.
 Protective Relays: Protective relays are used to detect abnormal
conditions and initiate appropriate actions, such as tripping circuit
breakers to isolate faulty sections.
 Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS): UPS systems provide
backup power during voltage sags, swells, or power interruptions,
ensuring continuous operation of critical equipment.
 Proper Earthing/Grounding: Ensuring proper grounding and
earthing of equipment helps prevent ground faults and provides a
safe path for fault currents.

By implementing these protective measures and regularly

inspecting and maintaining electrical and electronic systems, the
risk of equipment damage and safety hazards due to system faults
and abnormal conditions can be significantly reduced.

Propagation of lightning voltage & current waves on

transmission lines
When lightning strikes a transmission line or its vicinity, it
generates voltage and current waves that propagate along the line.
The interaction between the lightning-induced electromagnetic
fields and the transmission line results in these waves. The
propagation of lightning voltage and current waves on transmission
lines can be complex and can lead to various phenomena,
including reflections, refractions, and standing waves. Here's a
general overview of the process:

1. Initial Lightning Strike: When lightning strikes the ground or a

nearby object, it creates a surge of current that propagates through
the ground and surrounding air. This surge generates an
electromagnetic field that interacts with nearby transmission lines.
2. Induced Voltage and Current Waves: The changing
electromagnetic field induces voltage and current waves on the
transmission line conductors. The induced voltage wave will cause
a potential difference along the line, while the induced current
wave will flow through the conductors.
3. Reflections and Refractions: As the voltage and current waves
travel along the transmission line, they may encounter impedance
changes at various points along the line. These impedance
changes can lead to reflections and refractions of the waves,
causing the waves to bounce back and forth along the line.
4. Standing Waves: In some cases, the reflected waves can interfere
with the incident waves, leading to standing waves. Standing
waves occur when the incoming and reflected waves have specific
frequencies that align, resulting in regions of high and low voltage
and current amplitudes along the transmission line.
5. Transient Overvoltages and Overcurrents: The propagation of
lightning voltage and current waves can result in transient
overvoltages and overcurrents in the transmission line and
connected equipment. These transient overvoltages and
overcurrents can pose a risk to the integrity of the transmission line
and the electrical equipment connected to it.

To mitigate the impact of lightning on transmission lines, various

protective measures can be employed:

 Lightning Arresters: Lightning arresters (surge arresters) are

installed at strategic points along the transmission line to divert the
lightning-induced surges to the ground, protecting the line and
equipment from overvoltages.
 Grounding: Proper grounding of the transmission line and
associated equipment helps to dissipate lightning-induced currents
safely into the ground.
 Shielding: Using shielding methods, such as overhead ground
wires (shield wires) or shield cables, can help reduce the induced
voltage and current levels on the transmission line.
 Insulation: Ensuring adequate insulation of the transmission line
and equipment can minimize the risk of flashovers and equipment
damage caused by lightning-induced overvoltages.

Overall, lightning-induced voltage and current waves can have

significant effects on transmission lines, and proper protective
measures are essential to maintain the reliability and safety of the
power grid.

Reflection & transmission of traveling wave at junction

When a traveling wave encounters a junction where two
transmission lines meet, it can undergo both reflection and
transmission. The behavior of the wave at the junction depends on
the impedance of the transmission lines and the impedance of the
load connected to the junction. The process of reflection and
transmission can be understood using the concepts of impedance
matching and the reflection coefficient.

1. Reflection: If there is an impedance mismatch at the junction, a

portion of the traveling wave is reflected back towards the source.
This phenomenon is similar to what happens when light reflects off
a mirror. The amount of reflection depends on the difference in
impedance between the two transmission lines and the load
impedance. A higher mismatch in impedance leads to a larger
amount of reflection.
2. Transmission: The remaining portion of the traveling wave that is
not reflected is transmitted through the junction and continues
along the new transmission line. This transmission occurs when
the impedance of the load and the new transmission line are
matched or have minimal impedance mismatch.

The reflection and transmission behavior at the junction can be

quantified using the reflection coefficient (Γ). The reflection
coefficient is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the reflected
wave to the amplitude of the incident wave. It is expressed as a
complex number and is determined by the impedance mismatch.

If Zin is the input impedance of the load connected to the junction,

and Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line, the
reflection coefficient (Γ) is given by:

Γ = (Zin - Z0) / (Zin + Z0)

The magnitude of the reflection coefficient (|Γ|) ranges from 0 to 1,

representing the percentage of the incident wave that is reflected.
A reflection coefficient of 0 indicates complete impedance
matching and no reflection, while a reflection coefficient of 1
indicates total reflection due to a complete impedance mismatch.

To minimize reflections and ensure efficient power transfer through

the junction, impedance matching techniques can be employed.
These techniques involve adjusting the impedance of the load or
using appropriate impedance transformers to achieve a better
match between the transmission lines and the load.

In summary, at a junction where two transmission lines meet, a

traveling wave can undergo both reflection and transmission
depending on the impedance mismatch. Reflection occurs when
there is a significant mismatch, while transmission occurs when the
impedance is well-matched or minimally mismatched. Impedance
matching is crucial for optimizing power transfer and minimizing
losses in transmission line systems.

System control of over voltage due to switching protection

of transmission lines against over voltage
To control overvoltage due to switching events and protect
transmission lines against overvoltage, various measures can be
implemented. These measures aim to reduce the amplitude and
duration of voltage transients and ensure the safe operation of the
transmission system. Here are some common methods for
overvoltage control and protection:
1. Surge Arresters: Surge arresters, also known as surge protectors,
are essential devices used to protect transmission lines and
substation equipment from overvoltages caused by switching
events or lightning strikes. Surge arresters are placed at strategic
points along the transmission line to provide a low-impedance path
to ground for transient overvoltages. When a voltage surge occurs,
the surge arrester quickly conducts the excess current to the
ground, preventing the voltage from reaching damaging levels.
2. Circuit Breakers and Disconnectors: High-speed circuit breakers
and disconnectors are employed in substations and switching
stations to interrupt the circuit during switching events. They are
designed to open and close rapidly to minimize the duration and
amplitude of voltage transients during switching operations.
3. Shunt Reactors and Capacitors: Shunt reactors and capacitors are
used to improve the power factor and voltage regulation in the
transmission system. Properly designed shunt reactors and
capacitors can help reduce the rate of voltage change during
switching events, mitigating overvoltage issues.
4. Pre-insertion Resistors: Pre-insertion resistors (PIRs) are resistors
connected in series with circuit breakers to slow down the rate of
voltage rise during switching operations. By gradually closing the
circuit, PIRs reduce the amplitude of voltage transients.
5. Snubber Circuits: Snubber circuits can be added across the
switching contacts to limit the voltage and current transients during
switching. Snubbers use combinations of resistors, capacitors, and
inductors to dampen the effects of overvoltage.
6. Controlled Switching: Controlled switching techniques involve
synchronizing the switching operations with the power system's
voltage zero crossings. This reduces the likelihood of voltage
transients occurring during switching events.
7. Power Electronics-Based Devices: Modern power electronics
devices, such as FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems)
devices and HVDC (High-Voltage Direct Current) systems, can be
used to control and stabilize the power system, mitigating voltage
transients and overvoltage issues.
8. Grid Monitoring and Control: Real-time monitoring and control
systems can continuously monitor the transmission grid for
abnormal voltage conditions and automatically take corrective
actions, such as activating protective devices or adjusting
equipment settings.

By implementing these overvoltage control and protection

measures, transmission lines can be safeguarded against the
detrimental effects of switching overvoltages, ensuring the
reliability and safety of the power transmission system.
 Insulation co-ordination
Insulation coordination is an essential aspect of electrical power
systems to ensure their reliable and safe operation. It involves the
selection and coordination of insulation levels for various electrical
equipment and components within a power system. The main
objective of insulation coordination is to prevent electrical
breakdowns and withstand transient overvoltages that may occur
during normal operation or under abnormal conditions such as
lightning strikes or switching events.

Here are some key concepts and components related to insulation

coordination:

1. Insulation Level: The insulation level refers to the maximum

voltage that an insulation system can withstand without
experiencing a breakdown. Different electrical equipment, such as
transformers, circuit breakers, cables, and surge arresters, have
specific insulation level requirements.
2. Basic Insulation Level (BIL): The Basic Insulation Level is the
highest voltage that a piece of equipment is expected to encounter
during its lifetime. It is a fundamental parameter used in insulation
coordination.
3. Overvoltage: Overvoltage events can occur due to lightning
strikes, switching operations, or other external factors. These
events can cause temporary voltage surges, and the insulation
must be able to withstand them without failing.
4. Transient Overvoltages: Transient overvoltages are sudden and
short-lived voltage spikes that can arise during switching
operations or lightning strikes. These overvoltages can lead to
insulation failure if not adequately managed.
5. Surge Arresters: Surge arresters are devices used to protect
electrical equipment from transient overvoltages. They divert the
excess voltage to the ground and protect the insulation from being
damaged.
6. Clearance and Creepage Distances: Clearance distance is the
shortest air distance between two conductive parts, while creepage
distance is the shortest path along the surface of an insulating
material between two conductive parts. Ensuring sufficient
clearance and creepage distances between components helps
prevent flashover and insulation breakdown.
7. Insulation Coordination Studies: Insulation coordination studies
involve analyzing the electrical network to identify potential
overvoltage events and determining suitable insulation levels for
equipment to withstand those events. Computer simulations and
modeling techniques are used to perform these studies.
8. IEC Standard 60071: This standard provides guidance and
recommendations for insulation coordination in electrical power
systems. It outlines various aspects, including insulation levels,
surge arrester selection, and clearances, to achieve reliable and
safe operation.
9. Pollution and Contamination: Outdoor insulation systems can be
affected by environmental factors such as pollution and
contamination. These factors can reduce the effective insulation
strength, and proper measures should be taken to address them.

Insulation coordination is a crucial aspect of power system design

and operation, ensuring the reliability and longevity of electrical
equipment while protecting against electrical breakdowns and
failures. It requires a thorough understanding of the system's
operating conditions, environmental factors, and the characteristics
of the equipment involved.

Surge diverters
Surge diverters, also known as surge protectors or surge arresters,
are devices used to protect electrical and electronic equipment
from transient overvoltages or surges. These overvoltages can be
caused by various factors, such as lightning strikes, switching
operations, or other electrical disturbances. Surge diverters work
by providing a low-impedance path for the excess voltage to
bypass the protected equipment and divert it safely to the ground.

Here are some key points about surge diverters:

1. Surge Diverter Types:

 Type 1 Surge Diverter: Also known as a "Class I" surge
diverter, this type is installed at the main electrical entrance
to protect against direct lightning strikes and high-energy
surges.
 Type 2 Surge Diverter: Also known as a "Class II" surge
diverter, this type is installed downstream from the main
distribution panel to protect against surges that occur due to
lightning or switching events in the vicinity of the installation.
 Type 3 Surge Diverter: Also known as a "Class III" surge
diverter, this type provides protection for sensitive electronic
equipment. It is typically used to protect individual devices
like computers, televisions, and other electronics.
2. Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs):
 Most surge diverters use Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs) as
their core components. MOVs are voltage-dependent
resistors that have high resistance at normal operating
 voltages but become highly conductive when subjected to
overvoltages. This allows them to divert the surge current
away from the protected equipment.
3. Installation Locations:
 Surge diverters can be installed at various points in an
electrical system, depending on the type and level of
protection required.
 Type 1 surge diverters are installed at the service entrance
to protect the entire installation.
 Type 2 surge diverters are typically installed at distribution
boards or sub-distribution panels to protect individual circuits
or equipment.
 Type 3 surge diverters are installed directly at the point of
use, protecting sensitive electronic devices.
4. Coordination with Other Protection Devices:
 Surge diverters work in conjunction with other protective
devices such as fuses, circuit breakers, and lightning rods.
 Proper coordination ensures that surge diverters absorb
excessive energy while the other devices handle larger faults
and current interruptions.
5. Maintenance and Replacement:
 Surge diverters have a finite lifespan and can degrade over
time due to repeated surges or age.
 Periodic inspection and testing are necessary to ensure the
surge diverters remain effective, and they may need
replacement after a certain number of surge events or after a
specific period recommended by the manufacturer.

Surge diverters play a vital role in safeguarding electrical and

electronic equipment from voltage surges, helping to prevent
damage, downtime, and data loss. Properly installed and
maintained surge diverters can significantly enhance the overall
reliability of electrical systems and protect valuable assets.

Equipment insulation level & co-ordination of substations

Equipment insulation level and coordination are crucial aspects of
designing and operating electrical substations. Substations are key
components in power systems that facilitate the transmission and
distribution of electrical energy. Insulation coordination ensures
that the equipment within a substation can withstand overvoltages
and operate safely under various conditions.

Here are some key points related to equipment insulation level and
coordination in substations:
1. Equipment Insulation Level:
 The insulation level of substation equipment refers to the
maximum voltage that the equipment can withstand without
experiencing a breakdown.
 Different types of equipment in a substation, such as
transformers, circuit breakers, disconnectors, surge
arresters, and busbars, have specific insulation level
requirements based on their function and location within the
substation.
2. Basic Insulation Level (BIL):
 The Basic Insulation Level is the highest voltage that
equipment is expected to encounter during its normal service
life.
 BIL is a fundamental parameter used in insulation
coordination to determine the appropriate insulation levels for
the equipment.
3. Insulation Coordination:
 Insulation coordination in substations involves selecting
appropriate insulation levels for all the equipment to ensure
the substation's overall reliability and safety.
 It includes evaluating the transient overvoltage events that
can occur in the substation, such as lightning strikes,
switching operations, and other disturbances.
 Insulation coordination studies help identify potential
weaknesses in the insulation system and propose measures
to mitigate overvoltage stresses.
4. Surge Arresters:
 Surge arresters are crucial components in substation
insulation coordination. They protect equipment from
transient overvoltages by providing a low-impedance path to
ground for the excess energy.
 Surge arresters should be selected and installed based on
the substation's specific requirements and expected
overvoltage stresses.
5. Clearances and Creepage Distances:
 Adequate clearance and creepage distances between
conductive parts are essential in preventing flashovers and
ensuring insulation integrity in a substation.
 Proper design and maintenance of insulation structures help
avoid electrical breakdowns caused by pollution,
contamination, or humidity.
6. Testing and Monitoring:
 Regular testing and monitoring of insulation levels and surge
arresters are essential to verify the effectiveness of the
insulation coordination measures.
  Periodic inspections and diagnostic tests help identify
potential issues and allow for proactive maintenance to
prevent failures.
7. Standards and Guidelines:
 Various international standards and guidelines, such as IEC
60071, provide recommendations and procedures for
insulation coordination in substations.

Proper equipment insulation level and coordination are crucial to

ensure the reliable and safe operation of electrical substations. By
choosing appropriate insulation levels, implementing surge
protection measures, and conducting regular inspections,
substations can maintain their functionality and mitigate the risks
associated with overvoltage events.

MCQS
Lightening arrester should be located
(a) Near the circuit breaker
(b) Away from the circuit breaker
(c) Near the transformer
(d) Away from the transformer

In a power system lightning arresters are used to protect the electrical equipment a
(a) Power frequency of over voltage
(b) Direct stroke of lightning
(c) Over current due to lightening stroke
(d) Over voltage due to indirect lightening stroke

Which of the following statements is correct?

(a) Surge impedance is the impedance at the time of breakdown of voltage
(b) Surge impedance and characteristic impedance for a transmission line are the
(c) Surge impedance is the impedance of transmission line when corona takes pla
(d) None of above

In an extra high voltage overhead transmission line earth wire is provided to protec
(a) Switching surges
(b) Lightening surges
(c) Corona effect
(d) Ensure fault voltages

Characteristic impedance of transmission line depends upon

(a) Shape of the conductor
(b) Conductivity of the conductor material
(c) Geometrical configuration of the conductor
(d) None of above
QUESTIONS

 Describe Natural causes for over voltages and explain

Lightning phenomenon
 Explain in detail Overvoltage due to switching surges,
 What is system faults and other abnormal conditions,
 Explain propagation of lightning voltage & current waves on
transmission lines,
 Explain reflection & transmission of traveling wave at
junction,
 What are system control of over voltage due to switching
protection of transmission lines against over voltage.
 Describe Insulation co-ordination,
 Explain in detail surge diverters,
 What is equipment insulation level & co-ordination of
substations.
 BTEEC701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
UNIT 5: Generation& Measurement of
high voltages & currents
Syllubus-Generation of a) high d. c voltage b) power frequency high
alternating voltage c) high frequency a. c. d) impulse voltages
Standard impulse waves shapes and it’s equation, multistage
impulse generator, marx circuit, generation of switching surges,
tripping & control of impulse generators, generation of impulse
currents.
Measurement of High Direct Current voltages, Abraham Voltmeter
Measurement of High Voltages alternating and impulse,
Measurement of High Currents-direct, alternating and Impulse,
Oscilloscope for impulse voltage and current measurements

Generation of a) high d. c voltage b) power frequency high

alternating voltage c) high frequency a. c. d) impulse
voltages
The generation of high voltages, whether DC, power frequency
AC, high-frequency AC, or impulse voltages, involves specialized
techniques and equipment designed to handle the increased
electrical stress and potential hazards associated with these
voltage levels. Below are brief explanations of each type of high
voltage generation:

a) High DC Voltage:

 High DC voltages are typically required in various applications

such as electrostatic precipitators, X-ray tubes, high-voltage
testing, and high-voltage power transmission.
 To generate high DC voltages, specialized devices called DC
generators or voltage multipliers are used.
 Voltage multipliers, such as Cockcroft-Walton voltage multipliers or
Villard cascade circuits, are used to increase the voltage from an
AC power source to the desired high DC voltage level.

b) Power Frequency High Alternating Voltage:

 Power frequency high alternating voltages are commonly used in

high-voltage testing of power equipment like transformers, cables,
and insulators.
 Transformers are used to step up the voltage from the power
supply to the desired high voltage level. For extremely high
 voltages, specialized transformers, such as resonant transformers
or Tesla transformers, may be employed.
 High-voltage testing laboratories utilize dedicated high-voltage
transformers and capacitors to achieve the required power
frequency high alternating voltages.

c) High-Frequency AC Voltage:

 High-frequency AC voltages are commonly used in applications

like induction heating, dielectric heating, and high-frequency
testing of electrical equipment.
 High-frequency AC voltages are generated using electronic
devices such as high-frequency oscillators and inverters.
 Specialized transformers and capacitors are used to step up the
voltage to the desired level and provide impedance matching.

d) Impulse Voltages:

 Impulse voltages are short-duration voltage surges used for testing

the insulation strength of high-voltage equipment against lightning
or switching overvoltages.
 Impulse voltage generators, also known as impulse generators or
Marx generators, are employed to generate impulse voltages.
 These generators charge capacitors to high voltages and then
discharge them rapidly through the test object, creating a high-
energy impulse voltage.

It is important to note that handling high voltages can be

dangerous and requires proper safety measures. Specialized
equipment, insulation, and grounding are essential to ensure the
safety of personnel and equipment during the generation and
application of high voltages. Qualified personnel with expertise in
high-voltage engineering and safety protocols should be involved
in the design and operation of high-voltage generation systems.

Standard impulse waves shapes and it’s equation

Standard impulse waves used in high-voltage testing are defined
by specific waveform shapes that represent lightning or switching
overvoltages. The most commonly used standard impulse wave is
the 1.2/50 μs waveform. The numbers 1.2 and 50 in the
designation represent the time to front (1.2 μs) and time to half-
value (50 μs) of the waveform, respectively.

The equation for the standard 1.2/50 μs impulse waveform can be

represented as follows:
 For t ≤ 1.2 μs: V(t) = Vp

For t > 1.2 μs: V(t) = Vp * (1 - (t - 1.2 μs) / 50 μs)

Where:

 V(t) is the voltage at time t.

 Vp is the peak value of the impulse voltage (expressed in kilovolts,
kV).

This waveform represents a rapid rise to peak voltage (Vp) within

1.2 microseconds (μs) followed by a slower decay to half-value
(Vp/2) over the next 50 microseconds (μs).

The 1.2/50 μs impulse waveform is commonly used to test the

insulation strength and withstand capability of high-voltage
equipment against lightning-induced surges. Other standard
impulse waves, such as the 8/20 μs waveform, may also be used
in specific testing applications. These standard waveforms are
essential for comparing test results obtained from different
laboratories and for ensuring standardized testing procedures in
high-voltage engineering.

Multistage impulse generator

A multistage impulse generator, also known as a multistage Marx
generator, is a type of high-voltage impulse generator used to
produce high-energy impulse voltages for testing the insulation
strength of electrical equipment, such as transformers, cables, and
surge arresters, against lightning or switching overvoltages. It is
named after Erwin Marx, who first proposed the concept in 1924.

The multistage impulse generator is designed to produce a high-

voltage impulse with a rapid rise time and a relatively slow decay.
The basic principle involves charging a series of capacitors in
parallel and then discharging them in series through a spark gap or
a switching device. Each stage of the generator adds to the
voltage, resulting in a cumulative effect that produces a high-
energy impulse.

Here is a simplified explanation of how a multistage impulse

generator works:

1. Charging Stage:
 Initially, all the capacitors in the generator are charged in
parallel through a charging system, such as a high-voltage
power supply.
  The charging system applies the voltage across the
capacitors, and the capacitors store electrical energy.
2. Triggering and Discharging Stage:
 Once the capacitors are fully charged, a triggering
mechanism, such as a spark gap or a semiconductor switch,
is activated to initiate the discharge process.
 The triggering mechanism causes the first stage to discharge
its energy through the load (the test object) and the
subsequent stages.
 As the discharge travels through each stage, the capacitors
in that stage are connected in series, leading to an additive
effect on the output voltage.
3. Impulse Formation:
 The discharging process progresses from stage to stage,
creating a cascading effect that produces a high-energy
impulse waveform.
 The impulse waveform generated by the multistage impulse
generator has a rapid rise time and a relatively slow decay,
as desired for high-voltage testing applications.

The number of stages in a multistage impulse generator

determines the peak impulse voltage that it can achieve. By adding
more stages, the generator can produce higher impulse voltages
for testing purposes.

Multistage impulse generators are commonly used in high-voltage

testing laboratories to subject electrical equipment to standardized
impulse tests and assess their insulation strength. They play a
critical role in ensuring the reliability and safety of electrical
systems operating under high-voltage conditions.

Marx circuit
A Marx circuit, also known as a Marx generator or Marx multiplier,
is a type of electrical circuit used to generate high-voltage pulses
or impulses. It is named after Erwin Marx, who first proposed the
concept in 1924. The Marx circuit is a specific implementation of a
multistage impulse generator, which I explained in a previous
response.

The Marx circuit consists of multiple capacitors arranged in a

series-parallel configuration and a series of spark gaps or
switching devices. When the circuit is triggered, the capacitors are
charged in parallel and then discharged in series through the spark
gaps, creating a high-voltage impulse.
 Here's how a Marx circuit typically works:

1. Charging Stage:
 Initially, all the capacitors in the Marx circuit are charged in
parallel through a charging system, such as a high-voltage
power supply or charging resistor network.
 Each capacitor stores electrical energy, and the total energy
stored in the capacitors is the sum of the energy stored in
each individual capacitor.
2. Triggering and Discharging Stage:
 Once the capacitors are fully charged, a triggering
mechanism, such as a spark gap or a semiconductor switch,
is activated to initiate the discharge process.
 The triggering mechanism causes the first stage (first set of
capacitors) to discharge its energy through the load (the test
object) and the subsequent stages.
 As the discharge progresses from stage to stage, each
capacitor in that stage is connected in series with the
capacitors from previous stages. This results in an additive
effect on the output voltage, and the voltage across the load
increases.
3. Impulse Formation:
 The discharge process continues from stage to stage,
creating a cascading effect that generates a high-energy
impulse waveform at the output.
 The impulse waveform produced by the Marx circuit has a
rapid rise time and a relatively slow decay, making it suitable
for high-voltage testing applications.

The number of stages in the Marx circuit determines the peak

impulse voltage that it can achieve. By adding more stages, the
Marx circuit can generate higher impulse voltages for testing
purposes.

Marx circuits are widely used in high-voltage laboratories and

industrial applications for testing the insulation strength of electrical
equipment, evaluating surge protection devices, and studying the
behavior of materials and devices under high-voltage conditions.
They are valuable tools for ensuring the reliability and safety of
electrical systems operating at high voltages.

Generation of switching surges

Switching surges, also known as transient recovery voltage (TRV),
are voltage surges that occur during the switching operations of
electrical power equipment, such as circuit breakers and
 disconnectors. These surges are caused by the rapid change in
current flow when these devices interrupt or close a circuit.
Generating switching surges for testing purposes involves
simulating switching operations in a controlled environment.

The process of generating switching surges typically involves the

following steps:

1. Setup of the Test Circuit:

 A test circuit is set up to simulate the electrical system in
which the switching operation will occur.
 The circuit may include a power source, circuit breaker or
switch, test object (such as a capacitor bank or inductive
load), and appropriate measuring instruments.
2. Charging the Test Circuit:
 The test circuit is initially charged to a steady-state condition
with a specific voltage level.
 The circuit breaker or switch is in the closed position, and the
load may be energized.
3. Triggering the Switching Operation:
 At a precise time, the circuit breaker or switch is rapidly
opened or closed, simulating a switching operation.
 This rapid change in the circuit's configuration causes a
sudden interruption or restoration of the current flow.
4. Measurement of Switching Surges:
 High-voltage oscilloscopes or transient recorders are used to
measure and capture the voltage waveform during the
switching operation.
 The measured waveform represents the switching surge,
which includes the transient overvoltages or oscillations that
occur due to the sudden change in current flow.
5. Analysis and Evaluation:
 The recorded switching surge waveform is analyzed to
determine its amplitude, duration, and other characteristics.
 The testing results are compared with the equipment's
design specifications and relevant standards to assess its
ability to withstand switching surges.

Generating switching surges for testing purposes is essential to

ensure the reliable operation of power equipment under real-world
conditions. It allows manufacturers to validate the performance of
their devices and ensure they meet safety and operational
requirements. Additionally, utilities and power system operators
use switching surge tests to verify the compatibility of protective
devices and equipment in their networks.
 Tripping & control of impulse generators
The tripping and control of impulse generators are essential
aspects of ensuring their safe and effective operation during high-
voltage testing. Impulse generators are used to produce high-
energy impulse voltages for testing the insulation strength of
electrical equipment against lightning or switching overvoltages.
Tripping and control mechanisms play a vital role in initiating and
terminating the impulse generation process accurately.

Here are the typical methods used for tripping and control of
impulse generators:

1. Triggering Mechanism:
 The triggering mechanism is used to initiate the discharge
process in the impulse generator. It can be either manually
or automatically operated.
 Manual triggering involves a dedicated operator who triggers
the impulse generator at the desired moment.
 Automatic triggering can be based on pre-set timing or an
external signal, such as a synchronized trigger from another
test instrument or system.
2. Spark Gap or Switching Devices:
 Spark gaps or switching devices are used to initiate the
discharge in the impulse generator.
 In manual triggering, the operator closes the spark gap or
switches the device to initiate the discharge.
 For automatic triggering, a control circuit or timer may be
employed to close the spark gap or activate the switching
device at the specified time.
3. Charging and Discharging Circuit:
 The charging and discharging circuits in the impulse
generator control the energy storage and release process.
 Before each impulse test, the charging circuit charges the
capacitors to the desired voltage level.
 The discharging circuit controls the discharge of the
capacitors, directing the energy through the load (the test
object) and generating the impulse waveform.
4. Safety Interlocks and Protections:
 Impulse generators incorporate safety interlocks and
protection systems to ensure safe operation and prevent
potential hazards.
 Interlocks may include safety switches that prevent the
triggering process until all safety conditions are met, such as
proper grounding and closed doors.
  Overcurrent and overvoltage protection mechanisms are also
integrated to protect the impulse generator and connected
equipment.
5. Control Systems:
 Advanced impulse generators may have computer-based
control systems that allow precise timing, automated testing
sequences, and data acquisition.
 Control systems can enable efficient coordination of multiple
impulse generators and other test instruments for complex
testing scenarios.

Proper tripping and control mechanisms are essential to ensure

the reliable and safe operation of impulse generators during high-
voltage testing. Regular maintenance, testing, and adherence to
safety protocols are necessary to keep the impulse generators in
optimal working condition and minimize risks during testing
operations.

Generation of impulse currents

Generating impulse currents for testing purposes involves
producing short-duration, high-amplitude current surges that
simulate the effects of lightning or other transient current events on
electrical equipment. Impulse currents are commonly used to test
the withstand capability of devices such as surge arresters, cables,
and circuit breakers.

The generation of impulse currents is a challenging task due to the

short duration and high magnitude of the currents involved. There
are several methods to generate impulse currents:

1. Capacitive Discharge Method:

 In this method, a high-energy capacitor bank is charged to a
specific voltage level. When the test is initiated, the
capacitors are rapidly discharged through the test object,
producing a high-current impulse.
 Spark gaps or semiconductor switches are used to trigger
the discharge process.
2. Explosive and Magnetic Flux Compression Method:
 In some specialized applications, explosive-driven magnetic
flux compression generators can be used to generate very
high impulse currents.
 The explosion creates a rapidly expanding metal plasma that
compresses a magnetic field, inducing a high-current pulse
in the output coil.
3. Pulsed Power Systems:
  Pulsed power systems are capable of generating high-
power, short-duration pulses, including impulse currents.
 These systems use specialized components such as
capacitors, inductors, and switches to generate and control
the pulse.
4. Hydraulic Impulse Current Generators:
 Hydraulic impulse generators use a rapidly moving plunger
or piston driven by high-pressure hydraulic fluid to generate
the impulse current.
 The piston strikes an anvil, creating a transient electrical
circuit that produces the impulse current.
5. Pulse Transformer Technique:
 The pulse transformer technique uses a step-up transformer
energized by a high-current source.
 When the primary current is interrupted rapidly, the
transformer generates a high-current impulse in the
secondary winding.

Generating impulse currents requires specialized equipment and

safety precautions due to the high energy and potential hazards
involved. The equipment used for generating impulse currents
must be designed to handle the high power levels and fast rise
times characteristic of these currents. Careful calibration and
synchronization are also crucial to ensure accurate and repeatable
testing results.

Impulse current testing is an essential part of the qualification

process for various electrical devices and equipment to verify their
capability to withstand transient overcurrent events and ensure
reliable operation in power systems.

Measurement of High Direct Current voltages

Measuring high direct current (DC) voltages requires specialized
equipment capable of handling high voltage levels safely and
accurately. Various techniques and instruments are used for
measuring high DC voltages, ranging from traditional analog
methods to modern digital technologies.

Here are some common methods and instruments used for

measuring high DC voltages:

1. Analog Voltmeters (Electrostatic Voltmeters):

 Electrostatic voltmeters are analog instruments specifically
designed for high-voltage measurements.
  They use the principle of electrostatic attraction or repulsion
to deflect a pointer on a scale, indicating the voltage value.
 Analog voltmeters are simple and can handle high DC
voltages, but they may have limitations in accuracy and
resolution.
2. Digital Multimeters (DMM):
 Digital multimeters are versatile instruments that can
measure various electrical parameters, including DC voltage.
 Some DMMs are designed to handle high DC voltage
measurements, and they come with voltage ranges suitable
for higher voltage levels.
 DMMs provide a digital readout, offering better accuracy and
resolution compared to analog voltmeters.
3. High-Voltage Probes:
 High-voltage probes are specifically designed to extend the
voltage measurement capability of standard DMMs and
oscilloscopes.
 They include a voltage divider network to reduce the voltage
applied to the instrument's input.
 High-voltage probes enable safe measurements of high DC
voltages with standard measuring instruments.
4. Sphere Gaps:
 Sphere gaps are a traditional method for measuring high DC
voltages, especially in laboratory settings.
 The voltage is applied across two conductive spheres
separated by a specific air gap.
 The gap length is adjusted until a spark occurs, and the
voltage is determined based on the spark-over voltage.
5. Dividers and Resistor Networks:
 Voltage dividers and resistor networks are used to reduce
high DC voltages to lower levels that can be safely measured
by standard instruments.
 These devices use a combination of high-resistance resistors
to create a proportional voltage drop.
6. Digital High-Voltage Meters (DHVM):
 Digital high-voltage meters are specialized instruments
designed specifically for measuring high DC voltages.
 They provide high accuracy, resolution, and safety features
suitable for high-voltage measurements.

When measuring high DC voltages, safety is paramount due to the

potential risks associated with high voltages. Appropriate safety
precautions and proper insulation are necessary to ensure the
safety of personnel and equipment during measurements.
 It's essential to choose the appropriate measuring instrument
based on the specific requirements of the high DC voltage
measurement application. Always refer to the manufacturer's
guidelines and specifications for the instruments to ensure they are
suitable for the intended voltage range and application.

Abraham Voltmeter Measurement of High Voltages

alternating and impulse
The Abraham voltmeter is a type of high-voltage measurement
device that can be used to measure alternating voltages (AC) and
impulse voltages. It operates based on the principle of electrostatic
attraction and repulsion of charged plates.

Measurement of High Voltages - AC:

 The Abraham voltmeter is a suitable instrument for measuring high

AC voltages.
 In the case of AC voltage measurement, the instrument's plates
are connected to the high-voltage terminals.
 The voltage induces an electric field between the plates, causing
them to experience an electrostatic force.
 This force results in a mechanical displacement of the plates,
which is proportional to the applied AC voltage.
 The deflection of the plates can be calibrated to provide a direct
reading of the AC voltage magnitude on a scale.

Measurement of High Voltages - Impulse:

 The Abraham voltmeter can also be used to measure high impulse

voltages, such as lightning surges or switching surges.
 Impulse voltages are short-duration, high-energy pulses, and
measuring them accurately requires specialized instruments.
 To measure impulse voltages using the Abraham voltmeter, the
voltage pulses are rectified or converted to a direct current.
 The rectified impulse voltage is then applied to the Abraham
voltmeter's plates as if it were a steady DC voltage.
 The voltage induces an electrostatic force between the plates,
causing a mechanical deflection that is proportional to the impulse
voltage magnitude.

It's important to note that Abraham voltmeters are limited in their

frequency response and are more suitable for measuring power
frequency AC voltages and low-frequency impulse voltages. For
high-frequency AC or impulse measurements, other specialized
 instruments like oscilloscopes or impulse voltage dividers may be
more appropriate.

When measuring high voltages, safety considerations are critical.

High-voltage measurement requires proper insulation and safety
precautions to protect both the operator and the measurement
equipment. Qualified personnel and specialized equipment should
be used to conduct high-voltage measurements safely and
accurately.

Measurement of High Currents-direct

Measuring high direct currents (DC) requires specialized
equipment capable of handling high current levels safely and
accurately. The measurement of high DC currents is essential in
various applications, such as electrical power systems, industrial
processes, and research laboratories. Several methods and
instruments are available for measuring high DC currents:

1. Current Shunts:
 Current shunts are resistors with a known low resistance
value designed to be inserted in series with the high-current
path.
 The voltage drop across the shunt resistor is proportional to
the current passing through it.
 By measuring the voltage drop across the shunt using a
voltmeter, the current can be calculated using Ohm's law (I =
V/R), where I is the current, V is the voltage across the
shunt, and R is the shunt resistance.
2. Hall Effect Sensors:
 Hall effect sensors use the principle of the Hall effect to
measure the magnetic field generated by the high-current
flow.
 When a current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field
is induced around it.
 The Hall effect sensor detects this magnetic field, and the
output voltage is proportional to the current passing through
the conductor.
3. Rogowski Coils:
 Rogowski coils are flexible current measurement devices
that encircle the conductor carrying the high current.
 They generate an output voltage proportional to the rate of
change of current, and integration is required to obtain the
total current.
 Rogowski coils are non-invasive and can be easily installed
around the conductor.
4. Current Transformers (CT):
 Current transformers are widely used for high-current
measurements in power systems and industrial applications.
 They consist of a primary winding connected in series with
the high-current path and a secondary winding.
 The secondary winding output is proportional to the primary
current and can be easily measured using standard
instruments.
5. Digital Multimeters (DMM):
 Some digital multimeters are capable of measuring high DC
currents directly.
 DMMs equipped with a high-current range and an
appropriate current probe can measure high currents
accurately.
6. Clamp Meters:
 Clamp meters are portable instruments that can measure AC
and DC currents non-invasively.
 They use a clamp mechanism that clamps around the
conductor, allowing current measurements without breaking
the circuit.

When measuring high DC currents, it is crucial to consider safety

and proper isolation to avoid electrical hazards. High-current
measurement applications often involve working with heavy
currents, which may generate significant heat and magnetic fields.
Therefore, appropriate safety equipment, protective clothing, and
safety procedures must be followed to ensure the safety of
personnel and equipment during measurements.

Alternating and Impulse

To measure high alternating currents (AC) and impulse currents,
specialized instruments and techniques are used due to the high
energy and transient nature of these currents. Here are some
methods and instruments for measuring high AC and impulse
currents:

1. High-Current Clamps:

 High-current clamps are non-invasive instruments used to

measure AC and DC currents in power systems and industrial
applications.
 They consist of a clamp mechanism that can be clamped around
the conductor carrying the current.
 The clamp contains a current transformer that measures the
magnetic field induced by the current, and the output is directly
proportional to the current being measured.

2. Current Transformers (CT):

 Current transformers are widely used to measure high AC currents

in power systems.
 They consist of a primary winding connected in series with the
high-current path and a secondary winding.
 The secondary winding output is proportional to the primary current
and can be easily measured using standard instruments.

3. Rogowski Coils:

 Rogowski coils are flexible current measurement devices that

encircle the conductor carrying the high current.
 They generate an output voltage proportional to the rate of change
of current, making them suitable for measuring impulse currents.
 Integration is required to obtain the total current waveform from the
rate of change output.

4. Current Shunts:

 For impulse currents, specialized current shunts can be used to

measure the current waveform during the impulse event.
 Current shunts for impulse currents are designed to handle high-
speed, high-energy transients.

5. Digital Oscilloscopes:

 Digital oscilloscopes equipped with high-bandwidth current probes

or shunts can be used to capture and analyze the current
waveforms.
 High-bandwidth current probes are specifically designed to handle
fast transient waveforms, making them suitable for impulse current
measurements.

6. Transient Recorders:

 Transient recorders are specialized instruments designed to

capture fast transient events such as impulse currents.
 They have a high sampling rate and sufficient bandwidth to
accurately record the fast-changing current waveforms.
 It's important to note that measuring high AC and impulse currents
requires proper calibration, accuracy, and attention to safety. The
instruments used for these measurements should be able to
handle the high energy levels and fast rise times associated with
these currents. Careful consideration of the measurement setup
and safety precautions is necessary to ensure reliable and safe
measurements of high AC and impulse currents.

Oscilloscope for impulse voltage and current

measurements
When measuring impulse voltages and currents, it is essential to
use oscilloscopes with specific features suitable for capturing fast
transient events accurately. Oscilloscopes used for impulse
voltage and current measurements should have the following key
features:

1. Bandwidth:
 Impulse voltages and currents have very fast rise times and
short durations, often in the microsecond or nanosecond
range.
 The oscilloscope's bandwidth should be sufficient to capture
the high-frequency components of the impulse waveform
accurately.
 Higher bandwidth ensures that the oscilloscope can faithfully
reproduce the waveform without significant distortion.
2. Sampling Rate:
 The sampling rate of the oscilloscope determines how often
the voltage or current waveform is digitized.
 For accurate representation of fast transients, the
oscilloscope's sampling rate should be several times higher
than the highest frequency component of the impulse
waveform.
 A higher sampling rate allows the oscilloscope to capture
rapid voltage or current changes with better resolution.
3. Memory Depth:
 Impulse waveforms are typically short in duration but can
contain important details.
 A large memory depth in the oscilloscope allows for a longer
capture time, ensuring that the entire impulse waveform is
captured for detailed analysis.
4. Triggering Capabilities:
 The oscilloscope should have advanced triggering
capabilities to initiate the acquisition precisely at the start of
the impulse event.
  Sophisticated triggering options, such as edge triggering,
pulse width triggering, and window triggering, are helpful in
capturing specific parts of the impulse waveform.
5. Transient Recording Mode:
 Some oscilloscopes have a dedicated transient recording
mode that optimizes the instrument's performance for
capturing fast transients.
 In this mode, the oscilloscope dedicates its resources to
accurately record transient events with minimal distortion.
6. High Voltage and High Current Probes:
 Specialized high-voltage and high-current probes are
necessary to safely measure impulse voltages and currents.
 These probes should be designed to handle the high energy
levels and fast rise times associated with impulse
measurements.
7. Safety Considerations:
 Impulse measurements involve high energy levels and
potential safety hazards.
 Ensure that the oscilloscope and associated measurement
setup comply with safety standards and follow proper safety
protocols during measurements.

When selecting an oscilloscope for impulse voltage and current

measurements, it is crucial to consider the specific requirements of
the application, the waveform characteristics, and the safety
considerations involved. Using an oscilloscope with the appropriate
features will enable accurate and reliable measurements of
impulse events.

MCQS
The voltage doubler circuit is suitable for the voltage up to

a. 2V
b. 4V
c. 6V
d. 8V

In large impulse generators, the spark gaps are generally

a.Sphere gaps
b. Hemispherical gaps
c. Square gaps
d. Either (a) or (b)
For producing large values of impulse currents, a number of
capacitors are charged in

a.Parallel and discharged in series

b. Parallel and discharged in parallel
c. Series and discharged in series
d. Series and discharged in parallel

In a series RLC circuit, the wave front and wave tail times are
controlled by changing the value

a.R only
b. R and L simultaneously
c. R and C simultaneously
d. L and C simultaneously

The disadvantages of resonant transformers is

a.Pure sine wave output

b. No high power arcing
c. No repeated flashovers
d. Additional variable chokes

QUESTIONS

 Explain Generation of -
a) high d. c voltage
b) power frequency high alternating voltage
c) high frequency a. c.
d) impulse voltages Standard impulse waves
shapes and it’s equation,
 Describe multistage impulse generator
 Explain marx circuit in detail
 Explain generation of switching surges,
 Explain tripping & control of impulse generators,
 Describe generation of impulse currents.
 Explain Measurement of High Direct Current voltages,
 What is Abraham Voltmeter Measurement of High Voltages
alternating and impulse,
 Explain Measurement of High Currents-direct, alternating
and Impulse in detail
 Explain Oscilloscope for impulse voltage and current
measurements
 BTEEC701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
UNIT 6: Non Destructive Testing
Syllubus-I. E. C. & IS codes for high voltage tests on electrical
appliances & power apparatus &electrical motors, non- destructive
testing, testing of insulators, bushings, isolators, circuit breakers,
cables, transformers, surge diverter, layout of high voltage
laboratories & test facilities.

I.E.C & IS codes for high voltage tests on electrical

appliances & power apparatus & electrical motors
High voltage tests on electrical appliances, power apparatus, and
electrical motors are conducted to ensure their reliability and safety
under high voltage conditions. These tests are carried out following
international and national standards to maintain consistent testing
procedures and results. The relevant standards for high voltage
tests on electrical equipment are as follows:

International Standards (IEC):

1. IEC 60060 series: This series of standards covers high-voltage

test techniques and includes the following:
 IEC 60060-1: High-voltage test techniques - General
definitions and test requirements.
 IEC 60060-2: High-voltage test techniques - Measuring
systems.
 IEC 60060-3: High-voltage test techniques - Definitions and
requirements for on-site testing.
 IEC 60060-4: High-voltage test techniques - Internal gas
discharge impulse tests.
 IEC 60060-5: High-voltage test techniques - Partial
discharge measurements.
 IEC 60060-6: High-voltage test techniques - Partial
discharge measurements on completed installations.
2. IEC 60270: High-voltage test techniques - Partial discharge
measurements.
3. IEC 60034-4: Rotating electrical machines - Part 4: Methods for
determining synchronous machine quantities from tests.

Indian Standards (IS):

1. IS 732 (Part 1): Guide for the measurement of high voltage and
electrical energy in impulse tests.
2. IS 732 (Part 2): High voltage testing techniques.
3. IS 731: Code of Practice for Control of Pollution in High-Voltage
Switchyards.
4. IS 2071: Guide for the measurement of high-voltage impulse
currents.
5. IS 2165: Code of Practice for Application of Neutral Grounding in
Electrical Systems.
6. IS 12063: Guide for Testing Insulators.
7. IS 9877 (Part 1): High Voltage Test Techniques - Partial Discharge
Measurements.
8. IS 14697: Guide for Improving the Lightning Performance of
Transmission Lines.

It is important to note that the specific testing standards and

procedures may vary depending on the type of equipment being
tested and the voltage level involved. Electrical equipment
manufacturers, utilities, and testing laboratories often refer to these
standards to ensure their products meet the required quality and
safety standards.

For precise testing requirements and detailed procedures, it is

always recommended to refer to the latest versions of the relevant
IEC and IS standards. These standards provide comprehensive
guidelines for conducting high voltage tests on electrical equipment
and are widely accepted in the electrical engineering community.

Non- destructive testing

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a group of testing techniques
used to evaluate the integrity, quality, and properties of materials,
components, and structures without causing damage or impairing
their future usefulness. NDT methods are widely used in various
industries, including manufacturing, aerospace, construction, oil
and gas, and transportation, to ensure the safety and reliability of
products and structures.

The key objectives of non-destructive testing are to:

1. Detect Defects and Flaws: NDT helps identify defects, cracks,

voids, inclusions, or other anomalies that may affect the
performance and structural integrity of the tested material or
component.
2. Evaluate Material Properties: NDT can determine material
properties such as hardness, thickness, density, and conductivity
without altering or damaging the material.
3. Assess Structural Integrity: NDT methods are used to assess
the structural integrity of components, equipment, and
infrastructure to ensure they meet safety and regulatory standards.
4. Monitor Material Degradation: NDT can be employed for periodic
inspections to monitor material degradation and identify potential
issues before they lead to failure.

Common Non-Destructive Testing Methods include:

1. Ultrasonic Testing (UT): Uses high-frequency sound waves to

detect internal flaws or measure material thickness.
2. Radiographic Testing (RT): Involves using X-rays or gamma rays
to inspect the internal structure of components.
3. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT): Utilizes magnetic fields and
magnetic particles to detect surface and near-surface defects in
ferromagnetic materials.
4. Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT): Involves applying a dye or
fluorescent liquid to the surface of a component to detect surface-
breaking defects.
5. Eddy Current Testing (ET): Uses electromagnetic induction to
assess the electrical conductivity and detect surface and near-
surface defects.
6. Visual Inspection (VT): The simplest form of NDT, involving direct
visual examination to identify surface defects.
7. Acoustic Emission Testing (AE): Monitors the release of
acoustic energy during material deformation or crack propagation.
8. Infrared Thermography (IRT): Uses infrared cameras to detect
temperature variations and identify defects or heat dissipation
issues.

Non-destructive testing is essential for quality control,

maintenance, and safety assessment across numerous industries.
It enables the identification of defects and flaws early on,
preventing catastrophic failures and reducing costs associated with
repairs and replacements. NDT plays a crucial role in ensuring the
reliability and safety of critical components and infrastructure.

Testing of insulators, bushings, isolators, circuit breakers,

cables, transformers, surge diverter
Testing of electrical equipment, such as insulators, bushings,
isolators, circuit breakers, cables, transformers, and surge
diverters, is crucial to ensure their safe and reliable operation in
electrical systems. Different types of tests are performed
depending on the specific equipment and its intended application.
 Some common tests for each of these electrical components
include:

1. Insulators:

 Porosity Test
 Flashover Voltage Test
 Mechanical Strength Test
 Wet Power Frequency Voltage Withstand Test
 Visual Inspection for Surface Defects

2. Bushings:

 Partial Discharge Test

 Power Frequency Voltage Withstand Test
 Tan Delta (Dissipation Factor) Test
 Capacitance Measurement

**3. Isolators (Disconnectors):

 Mechanical Endurance Test

 Power Frequency Withstand Voltage Test
 Temperature Rise Test
 Contact Resistance Test
 Short-Circuit Test

4. Circuit Breakers:

 Dielectric Test (Power Frequency Withstand Test)

 Short-Circuit Test
 Operation and Timing Test
 Overload and Temperature Rise Test
 Rated Current Test

5. Cables:

 Insulation Resistance Test

 High-Voltage Test
 Partial Discharge Test
 Heat Cycle Test
 Conductor Resistance Test

6. Transformers:

 Turns Ratio Test

 Insulation Resistance Test
 Power Factor (Tan Delta) Test
 Short-Circuit Test
 Impulse Withstand Voltage Test

7. Surge Diverters (Surge Arresters):

 Power Frequency Withstand Voltage Test

 Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage Test
 Temporary Overvoltage Test
 Energy Handling Capability Test
 Partial Discharge Test

These tests are conducted in accordance with relevant

international standards, such as those issued by the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), or other specific national standards. Proper testing
and inspection are critical to ensuring the equipment's
performance, safety, and compliance with industry regulations and
standards.

Regular testing and maintenance of electrical equipment help

identify potential issues, prevent failures, and extend the
operational life of the components, contributing to the overall
reliability and efficiency of the electrical system.

Layout of high voltage laboratories & test facilities

The layout of high voltage laboratories and test facilities depends
on the specific requirements of the tests and the equipment being
used. However, there are some common elements and
considerations that are typically incorporated into the layout
design. Here are the key aspects to consider in the layout of high
voltage laboratories and test facilities:

1. Safety Zones and Clearances:

 High voltage laboratories require clear safety zones around
the test areas to protect personnel from potential hazards.
 Adequate clearances must be maintained between
equipment and test setups to prevent electrical arcing or
unintended discharges.
2. Testing Bays or Test Cells:
 High voltage laboratories typically have separate testing
bays or test cells to accommodate different types of tests
and equipment.
  Each bay may be designed for specific voltage and current
levels, and it may be equipped with the necessary safety
measures and infrastructure.
3. High Voltage Generation and Control Room:
 A dedicated control room is essential for high voltage
generation and monitoring.
 The control room houses the high voltage sources, impulse
generators, transformers, and other test equipment.
 It provides a safe environment for operators to control and
monitor the tests.
4. Insulation and Grounding:
 Proper insulation and grounding are critical in high voltage
laboratories to ensure the safety of personnel and
equipment.
 Insulated walls and flooring, as well as grounding systems,
are used to minimize the risk of electrical accidents.
5. Shielding and Faraday Cages:
 High voltage laboratories may incorporate shielding and
Faraday cages to prevent electromagnetic interference and
protect sensitive equipment.
6. Measurement and Monitoring Stations:
 Measurement and monitoring stations are set up to record
data during tests.
 These stations may include high-voltage meters,
oscilloscopes, partial discharge detectors, and other
specialized instruments.
7. Ventilation and Cooling:
 High voltage tests can generate significant heat, so proper
ventilation and cooling systems are necessary to maintain a
controlled temperature environment.
8. Safety Interlocks and Emergency Shutdowns:
 High voltage laboratories must have safety interlocks and
emergency shutdown systems to quickly disconnect power in
case of emergencies.
9. Testing Area for Large Equipment:
 If the laboratory conducts tests on large electrical equipment
such as transformers, a dedicated area with appropriate
handling facilities is required.
10. Storage and Work Areas:
 The layout should include storage areas for equipment and tools
and designated work areas for preparation and maintenance.
11. Personnel Safety Training and Facilities:
 High voltage laboratories should provide appropriate safety training
to personnel working with high voltage equipment.
 The facility may also have safety facilities like safety showers, fire
extinguishers, and first-aid kits.

The layout of high voltage laboratories and test facilities should

adhere to relevant safety standards and regulations to ensure the
safety of personnel and the integrity of the equipment and tests
being conducted. The specific layout will vary depending on the
scope of testing, the equipment used, and the available space and
resources.

MCQS
In which type of test the capillary action principle is used?

a.Probe test
b. Bend liquid test
c. Dye penetrant test
d. None of the above

Non-destructive testing is used to determine

a.location of defects
b. chemical composition
c. corrosion of metal
d. All of these

Which among the following is not a type of Non-destructive

testing?

a.compression test
b. visual testing
c. ultrasonic testing
d. eddy current testing

Identify the type of destructive testing

a.Radiographic test
b. Dye penetrant test
c. Creep test
d. All of the above

Which among the following is the last step in magnetic

particle test method?

a.observation and inspection

b. circular magnetization
c. demagnetization
d. magnetization

QUESTIONS

 Explain I. E. C. & IS codes for high voltage tests on 1)

electrical appliances
2) power
apparatus
3)
electrical motors,
 Explain non- destructive testing in detail.
 Explain in detail testing of 1) insulators
2) bushings
3) isolators
4) circuit breakers
5) cables
6) transformers
7) surge diverter
 Explain layout of high voltage laboratories & test facilities in
detail