PHOTOSYNTHESIS

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF

Parts of a leaf

Veins: contain xylem and phloem vessels. Xylem transports water and mineral salts to the leaf
from the stem. The phloem transports manufactured food from the leaves down the stem to other
parts of the stem. Veins also support the leaf blade

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The petiole (leaf stalk)
 Attach the leaf to the stem
 Petiole transports water to the leaf blade and food from the leaf to the stem.
Lamina
 To allow light to penetrate through for photosynthesis
 To allow for diffusion of gases
Palisade mesophyll: Contains most of the chloroplasts and therefore manufactures most of the
glucose
Spongy layer: This is a layer below the palisade. It contains less number of chloroplasts as
compared to that of the palisade layer.
Air spaces: Facilitate gaseous exchange
Stomata: Is the inlet and outlet for gases
Epidermal layer:
 This layer makes up the outer covering of the leaf. The main function is to protect the
inner layer of cells in the leaf.
 The epidermal cells are covered by a waxy layer known as cuticle
Cuticle:
 A cuticle is a waxy layer on the exposed outer surface of the epidermis that protects the
leaf against excessive water loss by transpiration
 It is a passage for light to the mesophyll region.
Guard cells:
 Are specialized cells in the lower epidermis of the leaf.
 The guard cells control the opening and closing of the stomata
 Guard cells are the only epidermal cells that contain chloroplasts
Adaptations of the Leaf for Photosynthesis

 Thin lamina for easy penetration of light

 Large surface area to capture as much light as possible
 Presence of veins/vascular bundles to supply the leaf with water (the xylem) and to
transport end products of photosynthesis (the phloem)
 Presence of stomata for entry of carbon dioxide and exit of oxygen

 Presence of chloroplasts to absorb light energy for photosynthesis. The highest

concentration of chloroplasts is found in the palisade cells, followed by the spongy cells
and finally the guard cells

Photosynthesi
s
This is the process by which green plants manufacture glucose from carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of light energy absorbed by chlorophyll. Oxygen is produced as a
byproduct. This process takes place in leaves and may be summarized by the following word

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and chemical equations:
Word
Equation

Chemical
Equation

The products for photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. The oxygen is released out of
the plant while some of it is used for respiration.
FATE OF GLUCOSE IN PLANTS
The glucose formed is metabolically active and takes part in the following reactions:
 Some of it is used for respiration
 Some of it is converted to cellulose and becomes part of cell walls
 Some of it is combined with nitrogen and used to synthesize amino acids
 Some of it is converted to sucrose in order to be transported
 Some of it is converted to fats and oils
 Some of it is converted to nucleic acids
 The excess is converted to starch for storage

LIGHT AND DARK REACTIONS

LIGHT REACTION- during this stage light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used
to
split water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen. This is called photolysis.
Oxygen diffuses into the atmosphere while hydrogen proceeds into the dark stage.

oxyge
n

H2O
hydrogen

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 DARK REACTION- during this stage hydrogen from the light reaction combines
with carbon dioxide forming glucose.
NOTE: carbon dioxide comes from the atmosphere by diffusion and water from the
soil by osmosis.

To determine whether photosynthesis has taken place, the leaves of plants are tested for
starch. The steps involved in testing a leaf for starch are:
 Boil the leaf in water (to kill the protoplasm and make it permeable to Iodine solution)
 Boil the leaf in alcohol using a water bath. This is to extract the chlorophyll so that it
does not interfere with colour changes; a water bath is used because alcohol is highly
flammable. However the alcohol also makes the leaf brittle.
 Place the leaf in warm water to soften it.
 Spread the leaf on a white tile and add a few drops of Iodine solution this is to test for
starch. If the Iodine solution turns blue-black, starch is present and if it remains
yellowish brown, starch is absent.

FACTORS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

These factors that need to be present for photosynthesis to take place are carbon dioxide,
water, sunlight and chlorophyll. Those that also affect the rate of photosynthesis are called
limiting factors of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide enters the plant by diffusing through
small openings in the leaf called stomata (singular = stoma). Water enters the plant through the
roots by osmosis and moves up the plant through xylem vessels. Light energy (mainly solar
energy) is captured/trapped and stored by a green pigment called chlorophyll found in the
chloroplasts. During photosynthesis, this solar energy is transformed into chemical energy.
Since photosynthesis is an enzyme-catalyzed reaction, its rate gets affected by all factors that
affect enzyme activity.
Experiment to show that Carbon Dioxide is necessary for Photosynthesis
 Destarch a well-watered potted plant by placing it in the dark for at least 24
hours. During this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is used up.
 Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram:

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  Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours.
 Test leaves A and B for starch
 Leaf A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while leaf B turns
yellowish brown (showing the absence of starch). This shows that carbon dioxide
is necessary for photosynthesis.
Exercise: What are the uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate, distilled water and soda lime
in this experiment?
Experiment to show that light is necessary for Photosynthesis

 Destarch a well-watered potted plant by placing it in the dark for at least 24 hours.
During this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is used up.
 Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram:


Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours. While the plant is in sunlight,
draw the selected leaf showing the exposed parts and the covered parts.
 Test parts A (exposed part) and B (covered part) for starch
 Part A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while part B turns
yellowish brown (showing the absence of starch). This shows that light is necessary
for photosynthesis.
Experiment to show that Chlorophyll is necessary for Photosynthesis
 Destarch a well-watered potted plant which has variegated leaves by placing it in the
dark for at least 24 hours. During this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is
used up.

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  Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours. While the plant is in sunlight, draw a
selected leaf showing the green parts and the white parts so that they can easily be
identified even after chlorophyll has been removed from the leaf. Label the green parts
as A and the white parts as B.
 Test the parts A (green part) and B (white part/ yellow) for starch.
 Part A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while part B turns yellowish
brown (showing the absence of starch). This shows that chlorophyll is necessary for
photosynthesis.
Measuring the Rate of Photosynthesis
This can be measured by counting the number of oxygen bubbles produced by an aquatic plant
(e.g. pondweed/Elodea sp) per unit time. A typical setup for such an experiment is shown
in the following diagram.

The Importance of Photosynthesis

 It produces food for all organisms directly or indirectly
 It maintains the balance (equilibrium) of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
by using carbon dioxide from animals and producing oxygen for animals.
Applications of photosynthesis in Greenhouses
A greenhouse is an enclosure with walls of transparent glass or plastic where plants are
grown.
By having transparent walls, light and heat are allowed to reach the plants. In some green
houses, plants are supplied with artificial light from electric bulbs. The walls minimize
escape of heat from the greenhouse thereby keeping temperatures high inside the greenhouse
for optimum enzyme activity. Sometimes the greenhouse is artificially supplied with carbon
dioxide. These factors make a green house more productive than an open piece of land.
PLANT STORAGE ORGANS

The food manufactured by plants is normally converted to starch and oils for storage. Oils are
mainly stored in seeds e.g. in groundnuts and sunflower. Starch is stored in a range of modified
plant organs, some of which are discussed below.
(i) Root tuber: This a fibrous root swollen with stored food e.g. sweet potato (Ipomea batatas)
tuber

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(ii) Stem tuber: This is an underground stem swollen with stored food e.g. Irish potato
(Solanum tuberosum)

(iii) Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g. onion
(Allium sp)

(iv) Rhizome: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger

(v) Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem e.g. Crocus sp.

(vi) Seed: A sexually produced structure containing a plant embryo and its food store protected
by a testa.