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Status and Trends of STEM Education in Finland

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Status and Trends of STEM Education in Finland

Yurdagül Boğar1 and Jari Lavonen2

1
Postdoctoral Researcher (Assistant Professor in Turkey)
2
Professor, Faculty of Educational Sciences,
University of Helsinki, Finland

Status and Trends of STEM Education

45
in Finland
 Abstract

STEM education is an approach that has affected all countries of the world
in recent years. Undoubtedly, one of the countries exposed to this effect is
Finland. In this chapter, the status and trends of STEM education in Finland
will be discussed. In this context, the chapter consists of some main titles and
sub-titles. The status and trends of STEM education in Finland are discussed
under the following main headings: the Finnish Education System, the Na-
tional Level STEM Education Development Project in Finland, the National
Core Curriculum Emphases on STEM Competences, the Phenomenon-Based
Approach to Education, including STEM Education, Emphasis on Learning
of Transversal Competencies, Emphasis on Science and Engineering in the
Middle School Curriculum, and Possibilities for Informal STEM Learning in
Finland. In addition, the main title of possibilities for informal STEM learn-
ing in Finland consists of some sub-titles such as entrepreneurial education,
student camps, cultural events (festivals, competitions, TV series, etc.), sci-
ence centers, and museums in Finland. STEM education characteristics are
revealed in the Finnish curricula in three significant ways. First, science and
engineering process skills introduced in the curricula require the concretion of
science with mathematics, engineering, and technology. Second, the subject-
specific curriculum emphasizes students’ engagement in science inquiry and
technology-related problems. Third, the middle school curriculum emphasizes
the learning of transversal competencies.

Keywords: informal STEM learning, STEM career interest, STEM compe-

tences, STEM projects, transversal competences

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Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
 Introduction

Countries that want to make progress in the technology industry and over-
come or solve challenges such as climate change, and improve science and
engineering research and survive in the global competition environment have
been looking for innovative pedagogical approaches such as STEM educa-
tion in their education policies (Corlu et al., 2014). The concept of STEM,
which has been created by combining the initial letters of Science, Technol-
ogy, Engineering, and Mathematics, is defined in different ways by research-
ers conducting studies related to the topic (Boğar, 2021). However, the most
common characteristic in the definitions of STEM is the integration of differ-
ent STEM disciplines in order to solve complex problems (Sanders, 2009).
This emphasis is also present in the Finnish primary and secondary curricula
as outlined later in this chapter. The Finnish curricula emphasize Mathematics
and Science as core subjects but separately, and Technology and Engineering
as a part of science and a part of handicrafts. However, each STEM subject is
taught separately since the beginning of lower secondary school (grade 7-9)
with the expectation that the combination of disciplinary knowledge will be
implemented. Consequently, the first characteristic of the Finnish National
Core Curriculum is an emphasis on STEM competence. The second charac-
teristic emphasized in the literature and recognized in Finland is phenomenon-
based STEM integration, or use of real-world, rigorous, relevant phenomena
as a starting point for learning (Tsupros et al., 2009; Vasquez et al., 2013). In
line with this second characteristic is the emphasis on inquiry or project-based
learning as a pedagogical approach. The third characteristic is the emphasis
on learning transversal competencies as a part of STEM education. The fourth
internationally recognized characteristic of STEM education which is also and
emphasized in Finnish education is the emphasis on science and engineering
careers in the middle school curriculum as a part of STEM education (Nation-
al Academy of Engineering and National Research Council [NAE & NRC],

Status and Trends of STEM Education

47
in Finland
2014). Finally, in addition to STEM education at school, there are several pos-
sibilities for informal STEM learning in museums, university labs, and camps.
We will analyze these five views on Finnish STEM education in this chapter.
However, we start by introducing the Finnish education system. Then, we will
continue with national-level STEM education projects and networks to sup-
port STEM learning in Finland.

Finnish Education System

Internationally, the Finnish education system has drawn attention because

Finnish students have achieved high scores in the PISA science, mathematics,
and reading literacy sections, and are typically ranked among the five high-
est performing countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD). Moreover, the differences between students’ perfor-
mances are relatively low compared to other OECD countries (OECD, 2010).
However, the performance gap between girls and boys was the largest across
OECD countries in 2018: reading: 546 (girls), 485 (boys); mathematics: 510
(girls), 504 (boys); and science 534 (girls), 510 (boys). Although Finnish
fourth grade students performed the best in TIMMS among the Nordic coun-
tries, there was a decrease in learning outcomes (Reimer et al., 2018).

The basis of the Finnish education system, which is considered attractive by

other countries and accepted internationally, is constituted by equality and
justice concepts emphasized in every stage of education (Lavonen & Salmela-
Aro, 2022). Equality and justice concepts in the Finnish education system
mean that all students until the age of 19, until they start higher education,
have the right to use medical care services, transportation, digital tools (lap-
tops, etc.), course books, and school meals free of charge (OECD, 2019a). In
other words, from pre-school education to higher education, education ser-

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Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
vices are completely free of charge in Finland. Besides, Finland does not have
private schools, and students go to the schools which are close to their homes;
this is an indication of every student being presented with equal educational
opportunities, which is another primary element of the Finnish education sys-
tem (Sahlberg, 2007).

Structure of Education in Finland

In Finland, before primary education students receive early childhood educa-

tion for one year. Compulsory education in Finland comprises one year of
early childhood education, six years of primary education and six years of
secondary education (Finnish National Agency of Education [FNAE], 2022).
After ten years of education, half of the students in Finland prefer to receive
education in common high schools, while the other half prefer to receive
education in vocational high schools. Both education types generally take
three years (Finnish National Board of Education [FNBE], 2015). Students
who complete common high schools in Finland take a national competency
exam, which is held twice a year, to determine whether they have acquired the
knowledge and skills implemented in the high school curriculum (Morgan,
2014; Ruzzi, 2005). This exam is also used as an entrance examination in
higher education. Therefore, in Finland, passing to higher education from high
school education is not a relatively easy process; on the contrary, it is quite
a difficult process (Salmela-Aro, 2020). Some of the difficulties are stated as
follows: going to a higher education institution requires a quite eliminative ac-
ceptance process. Students who are interested in STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics) tend to have low motivation, and students’
interest in STEM fields diminishes gradually, with most students not choosing
STEM fields (OECD, 2019b). In Finland, applied universities and traditional
research universities constitute higher education institutions, and these institu-
tions are considerably autonomous in terms of planning their study programmes
(Sahlberg, 2015). Figure 1 depicts the Finnish educational system.

Status and Trends of STEM Education

49
in Finland
Figure 1 Finnish education system (URL-1)

In Finland, all teachers need five years of university studies which include
pedagogical studies, offered by faculties of education (Jakku-Sihvonen &
Niemi, 2006). Primary or elementary school teachers instruct from 1st to 6th
grades, and secondary school teachers instruct from 7th to 12th grades (Niemi
et al., 2016). Secondary teachers, including teachers who teach mathematics,
physics, chemistry, biology, and craft science, take their subject studies at the
faculty of science. The universities give qualifications for the teacher profes-
sion and no external accreditation is needed.

According to education policy, teachers have an autonomous role in the class-

room (Niemi & Lavonen, 2020). This approach is known as the Bildung-Di-
dactics approach, and emphasizes both teachers’ autonomy and their pedagog-
ical freedom (Autio, 2014). Autonomy of teachers enables teachers to organize

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Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
their lessons as they wish, design digital and physical learning environments
in their classrooms, evaluate their students’ and their own learning, and choose
various teaching materials such as course books (Lavonen & Salmela-Aro,
2022). This fact indicates that teachers have a prominent role in the Finnish
education system (Lavonen, 2020; Lavonen & Salmela-Aro, 2022). Addition-
ally, teachers in Finland are strongly attached to their professions and perform
their jobs willingly (Niemi et al., 2016).

Besides teachers’ autonomy in Finland, schools and municipalities are also au-
tonomous (Simola, 2005). In the Finnish education system, the judgment for
defining, organizing, and even conducting the content belongs to schools and
municipalities. The Finnish education curriculum consists of two curricula,
one is the National Core Curriculum including basic content and purposes,
and the other is a local curriculum, which is constituted by the schools and
municipalities by taking into consideration local needs and the National Core
Curriculum (Lavonen, 2021). Besides, the National Core Curriculum is re-
vised every 10 years (Lavonen, 2021). During the curriculum revision process,
teachers, pedagogues, principals, teacher trainers, and various shareholders
work in cooperation and state their thoughts freely. Moreover, these works are
open to everyone’s access via communication means such as social media and
various discussion forums to follow a transparent process (FNBE, 2014). In
this context, the latest curriculum is the National Core Curriculum which was
revised in 2014 (FNBE, 2014; Wang et al., 2018).

Higher education in Finland is free for students, and studies are financed by
the Ministry of Education and Culture. The government agrees with univer-
sities on the number of degrees based on the needs of society and the labor
market. In 2021 there were altogether 56,000 students (36% of all students)
in STEM studies and 14,000 (8.5%) in health and medical studies in Finnish
universities (Statistics Finland, 2022a). In applied universities the correspond-
ing numbers were 53,000 (34%) and 46,000 (30%) (Statistics Finland, 2022b).
Although the monitoring has been reliable, the technology industry has argued

Status and Trends of STEM Education

51
in Finland
that they will need 130,000 new STEM experts within 10 years, about 13,000
annually (Finnish Technology Industry, 2022).

National Level STEM Education Development Projects in

Finland

Development projects conducted at a national level are one possibility in

Finland to emphasize and develop STEM education. As an example of these
projects, LUMA-SUOMI, a six-year project which was conducted between
2013-2019, can be presented. It is a project worth 5 million euros and was as-
sisted by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Cultural Affairs. Its
first aim was to improve students’ natural sciences, technology, mathematics
learning, and creativity skills. Its second aim was to incorporate shareholders
including teachers, school administrators, and parents into the process while
improving students’ natural sciences, technology, mathematics learning, and
creativity skills. Within the scope of this project, various education materials
were developed and these materials were published in Finnish and Swedish
on the project’s website (URL-2). One interesting STEM education projects
is StarT. The StarT development project is a project for universities which
supports cooperative and interdisciplinary learning. The most prominent aim
of this project is to promote different universities to write various theses and
to publish scientific articles at an international level by discussing different
themes (themes that are related to STEM topics) (URL-3). Some important in-
ternational studies were published within the context of this project (Aksela &
Haatainen, 2019; Viro et al., 2020).

There have been several in-service training projects in STEM education. One
example is “Matematiikan opetuksen and oppimisen täydennyskoulutuso-
hjelma [In-service education program in Mathematics education]” between

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Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
the years 2018-2019. This project involved in-service education of 15 of the
European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) for teachers
working from preschool to middle school education in Mathematics. Includ-
ing both part-time and online courses, this project aimed to improve teachers’
pedagogical and mathematical skills. In this context, in-service education for
the teachers was free of charge. Besides, this development project was funded
by the National Education Agency (URL-4).

In Finland, some of the projects related to STEM are within both the develop-
ment and research project scope. As an example of these projects, we can pres-
ent a project which was conducted within the scope of the LUMA FINLAND
program from 2014 to 2019 to make science, mathematics, and computer
science learning more engaging for students between the ages of 3 and 6. The
project which was conducted by Helsinki University was also supported by
the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture. As the research method of this
project, a design-based research method was used, and under the scope of the
project, pedagogical innovations and quite authentic solutions were revealed
(URL-3). Besides, based on this project, theses were written and international
articles were published (Vartiainen & Aksela, 2013; Vartiainen & Aksela,
2019).

Some projects related to STEM fields are just within the scope of the research
project in Finland. “Laboratory of Co-Inquiry, Co-Design, Co-Teaching and
Co-Regulation (Co4-Lab)” project can be provided as an example of a re-
search project in Finland. As a project that is long-term, and is based on repet-
itive research cycles and pedagogical innovations, one of its most prominent
aims is to support maker applications conducted both at schools and by the
teachers in their classrooms. Thus, students will be able to construct their own
knowledge and produce their own works. In addition, this project not only
supports maker applications but also supports coding, 3D, and robotics ap-
plications. These applications are either directly or indirectly related to STEM

Status and Trends of STEM Education

53
in Finland
fields (URL-5).

Networks to Support STEM Education in Finland

In Finland, there are major networks aiming to improve students’ and teach-
ers’ knowledge and skills related to STEM fields. The most prominent of these
Networks in Finland is “LUMA Centre Finland.” This network has two major
aims. Its first aim is to improve both the lifelong learning and research-based
teaching of the teachers working at different education levels. The second aim
is to both motivate the students at different levels in science, mathematics, and
technology learning (URL-6). Another important network in Finland is “The
Innokas Network.” This is known as a teacher network in the most general
sense. It aims to help teachers gain skills by advising schools in different re-
gions in Finland, and by organizing events and training (URL-7).

National Core Curriculum Emphasizing STEM Competences

The middle school STEM-oriented curriculum is part of the curriculum of

different school subjects in the National Core Curriculum for Basic Educa-
tion. However, STEM as such is not mentioned because the Finnish tradition
has been to have a subject-oriented curriculum. The curriculum of the Finnish
middle school science is designed as an amalgam of three different curricula,
biology, physics, and chemistry; besides, the course is offered by a secondary
school teacher whose expertise is in two different disciplines, for example,
chemistry and biology, chemistry and mathematics, physics and mathemat-
ics, or geography and biology. Mathematics is introduced as a separate school
subject and has links to several school subjects, not only STEM subjects. En-
gineering and technology are taught as a part of science subjects and as a part
of craft subjects (Lavonen, 2021).

According to the critical examination of the STEM skills shortage in European

countries, Dobson (2013) recognized that the number of studies in the STEM

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Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
subjects in Finland is higher than in most countries in Europe. The underlying
reasons behind this fact cannot be explained by a single factor; rather it may
be the result of the country’s broad historical and cultural background as well
as the government’s beneficial policies on education and equal opportunities.
Since STEM appeals to a great extent to the educators in Finland’s education
system, educational issues related to STEM are not a matter of debate there.
Rather, other educational issues such as teaching and learning foreign lan-
guages are a matter of concern for them. On the other hand, STEM has been
mainstreamed through the Finnish education system rather well.

The Finnish science curricula strive to achieve a balance between knowledge

within science and knowledge about science (Wang et al., 2019a). The aims
for teaching are grouped in three areas in the Finnish middle-school biology,
chemistry, and physics curricula. These areas are (1) meaning, values, and at-
titudes related to science; science learning and science careers; (2) learning of
science research skills or scientific practices; and (3) use of biology/chemistry/
physics knowledge in various situations (FNBE, 2014). One of the aims of a
science curriculum is defined as the “learning of science research skills”; how-
ever, a similar depiction, “scientific practices” appears in the Next Genera-
tion Science Standards as well (Next Generation Science Standards [NGSS],
2013), which refer to skills that students should attain such as identifying
problems and posing questions, devising and conducting investigations, exam-
ining and commenting on data, making explanations, and producing solutions.
Examples of the Finnish science, mathematics, and craft aims are given in
Table 1. The amount of text in each subject-specific curriculum is limited, and
the core content and aims of each science subject are introduced in about two
pages.

There has been a long tradition of reducing the number of concepts and con-
tent areas in middle school science curricula in order to have enough time to
learn research skills or scientific and engineering practices (Lavonen, 2007).

Status and Trends of STEM Education

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in Finland
For example, six core ideas, namely “Physics in Society,” “Interaction and
Motion,” “Scientific Inquiry,” “Electricity,” “Physics Shaping the Worldview,”
and “Physics in Your Own Life and Living Environment,” that students must
learn are introduced in the middle school physics curriculum (Lavonen, 2021).
This means that only two traditional content areas of physics are emphasized:
the basics of Newtonian mechanics and electricity. As a part of these subject
areas, technological devices and processes are emphasized. Moreover, stu-
dents build up devices and systems, such as electric motors. A teacher can
decide at what level and how deeply he or she introduces the topics and appli-
cations related to thermal physics, waves, optics, and modern physics.

Engineering and technology are part of science and craft studies. Finland has
a long history of compulsory handicraft education in the context of hard mate-
rials such as wood and metal, and in the context of soft or textile materials in
Finnish middle schools. The new National Core Curriculum combines these
two orientations into common craft education, and emphasizes the learning of
technology and engineering in the context of soft and hard materials and tech-
nological systems such as robots. The craft curriculum emphasizes techno-
logical and engineering knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Autio, 2016) and has
oriented from craft products to the process of crafting (Kokko et al., 2020).
The concept of craft in the Finnish context refers to handmade artifacts and
to the processes of making, and many socio-cultural and historical aspects are
connected to them (Kokko et al., 2020). During the craft education lessons,
students are required to plan their projects out, often in groups, before they
begin to build them. The craft classrooms and workshops are equipped with
tools such as manual tools and more sophisticated tools like laser cutters and
knitting machines, that are needed for working with different materials such as
wood, metal, and plastics textiles. The workshops are similar to maker spaces
in the United States. This recent approach to the relationship between science
and handicraft is linked to the increasing demand for employees who are ca-
pable of critical thinking and are resourceful enough to eliminate a series of

Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive

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Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
problems (Autio, 2016). Among the researchers in craft education, there is a
clear orientation from traditional craft education to research-based STEAM
education (where A stands for art), where craft, design and creativity (engi-
neering), and technology play a central role (Kokko et al., 2020; Porko-Hudd
et al., 2018).

To display how the science, mathematics, and craft curricula at Finnish middle
schools underscore the significance of STEM knowledge in many different
circumstances, the PISA Scientific Literary Framework will be used in the
analysis, because it emphasizes the competences and use of knowledge in
different situations in a similar way as the Finnish STEM subject-related cur-
ricula (Wang et al., 2019a). The framework offered by PISA was first released
in 2007 (OECD, 2007), but was exposed to some minor revisions in 2013
(OECD, 2013). It presents how the knowledge of science and science-oriented
technology are employed in different cases, for example, making careful
choices. Three capabilities are highlighted by the framework: the employment
of STEM (knowledge), and eagerness (attitude) to exploit this knowledge
in three situations, such as (skills) for defining the scientific or technologi-
cal problems, explicating phenomena, and producing concrete results and
modeling. It also focuses on different situations and contexts in which these
three capabilities are fostered. The framework presented by PISA is a book of
instructions to boost scientifically cultivated individuals. That is why it fore-
grounds the idea that these capabilities are quite beneficial in many problem-
solving situations in mature life, for they are relatable to firstly-encountered
problematic cases. In addition to these, the PISA framework also recommends
personal, local, and global situations and contexts in the three domains of
“Science in Life and Health,” “Science in Technology,” and “Science in the
Earth and its Environment” (Lavonen, 2021; OECD, 2007).

We have slightly modified the original PISA framework here to better analyze
STEM literacy in the Finnish middle school curricula of STEM disciplines.

Status and Trends of STEM Education

57
in Finland
STEM literacy is grouped under the following areas: attitudes, knowledge, and
STEM practices in line with what the National Academy of Engineering and
the National Research Council have emphasized as views in STEM education
(NAE & NRC, 2014). Table 1 below shows the STEM-literacy views, intro-
duced in the Finnish middle school mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry,
and craft curricula. Representative examples of the curricula are presented in
Table 1.

Table 1 Goals for STEM education are analyzed in terms of aims for mathematics,
biology, craft, chemistry, and physics, designated in the National Core Curriculum.
The aims are interpreted based on the PISA scientific literacy competencies.
STEM-literacy views Example of STEM-literacy views in the middle
school mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry,
and craft curricula in the National Core Curricu-
lum
Attitudes
Interest, motivation, self- - to boost students’ motivation, positive self-respect, and
concept self-reliance as students of mathematics (Mathematics)
- to motivate students to further develop their interest in
nature and its phenomena (Biology)
- to trigger students to study physics (Physics)
- to arouse students’ interest in studying chemistry (Chemis-
try)
- to make students realize how competent they are in chem-
istry and for further studies (Chemistry)
Responsibility for resources - to motivate students to participate actively in constructing
and environments a sustainable future (Biology)
- to make students use their skills in physics to create a
better future and make them question their choices about
sustainable use of energy resources (Physics)
- to make students use their skills in physics to create a bet-
ter future and make them question their choices about the
utilization of natural resources and life cycles of products
(Chemistry)

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Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
Table 1 (continued)
STEM-literacy views Example of STEM-literacy views in the middle
school mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry,
and craft curricula in the National Core Curricu-
lum
to reinforce students to be economical and to make appro-
priate craft period decisions that promote a sustainable way
of life (Craft)
Knowledge or concepts
Use of knowledge in situa- - to lead students to improve their reasoning and mental
tions arithmetic skills and to motivate them to apply their arith-
metic skills to different cases (Mathematics)
- to encourage students to employ their knowledge and com-
petences in physics in multidisciplinary learning paradigms
and to provide them with some opportunities to make them
familiar with the situations in which physics is applied to
nature, industry, organization, or scientific circles (Physics)
- to make students employ their knowledge and competenc-
es in chemistry in multidisciplinary learning paradigms and
to provide them with opportunities to make them familiar
with the situations in which chemistry is applied to nature,
industry, organizations, or scientific circles (Chemistry)
Nature of knowledge - to assist students in relating their knowledge about num-
bers to real numbers (Mathematics)
- to help students broaden their knowledge of the calculation
of percentages (Mathematics)
- to make students observe the acclimation of organisms to
different environments and to perceive the importance of
different environments for biodiversity (Biology)
- to make students learn the fundamental principles of he-
redity and evolution (Biology)
- to make students realize the significance of the quality and
burgeoning of scientific knowledge and methods of con-
struction knowledge (Chemistry)
- to lead students to learn the significance of crafts, physical
skills, and technological awareness in life, society, enter-
prise, and business (Craft)

Status and Trends of STEM Education

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in Finland
Table 1 (continued)
STEM-literacy views Example of STEM-literacy views in the middle
school mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry,
and craft curricula in the National Core Curricu-
lum
STEM practices
Predicting, explaining, and - to make students assess and improve their mathematical
describing phenomena and solutions and to scrutinize if their conclusions are correct
using previous knowledge in or not (Mathematics)
design - to assist students in portraying the constructions and
crucial functions of organisms and to comprehend the
construction of biological classification (Biology)
- to make students utilize various models to portray and
explicate phenomena and to make predictions (Physics)
- to make students employ various models to portray and
explicate the structures of matter and chemical phenom-
ena (Chemistry).
Identifying issues, such as - teaching motivates students to explore and use mathemat-
defining problems or asking ics in their own lives (Mathematics)
questions and designing - to motivate students to ask questions about the phenom-
processes or planning inves- ena focused on and then to put the question better to carry
tigations out research and perform other activities (Physics)
- to motivate students to ask questions about the phenom-
ena focused on and then to put the question better to carry
out research and perform other activities (Chemistry)
- individual or community design, fabrication, and assess-
ment of one’s own or a common craft process (Craft)
- to make students organize their work and come up with
ideas, discover, and perform experiments continuously
(Craft)

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Table 1 (continued)
STEM-literacy views Example of STEM-literacy views in the middle
school mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry,
and craft curricula in the National Core Curricu-
lum
Scientific interpretation of - to make students improve their information management
data and evidence, making and analysis competence and to make them analyze the
an evidence-based conclu- information from a critical perspective (Mathematics)
sion, and evaluating working - to make students transfer the knowledge about the infor-
of technological applications mation and communication technology into mathematics
based on observations or learning and problem-solving (Mathematics)
collected data - to make students comprehend the concept of variables
and to introduce the concept of functions, and to make
them create and evaluate the graph of a function (Math-
ematics)
- to make students critically approach the changes in the
natural environment and the influence of humans on it, and
to perceive the importance of ecosystem services (Biology)
- to inspire students to relate the abilities and knowledge
in biology to their own lives, to matters on a societal level,
and to the decision-making processes (Biology)
- to direct students to work on, analyze, and display the find-
ings of their research and to assess them critically (Physics)
- to assist students in perceiving the working mechanisms
and importance of technological applications and to mo-
tivate them to come up with ideas for basic technological
problems, and also devise, develop, and transfer them in
cooperation with others (Physics)
- to direct students to work on, analyze, and display the find-
ings of their research and to assess them critically (Chem-
istry)
- to make students utilize their knowledge about the infor-
mation and communication technology in learning, working
on, displaying information and research findings, and to
provide students with illustrative simulations (Chemistry)
- to inspire students to exploit the ideas in the information
and communication technology to arrange, manufacture,
and report the craft process, and moreover, to produce and
share communal information (Craft)

Status and Trends of STEM Education

61
in Finland
The Phenomenon-based Approach to Education

STEM education aims to integrate STEM school subjects. However, there

are different views and levels of integration. Choi and Pak (2006) perceived
multidisciplinary teaching as the simultaneous employment of the knowledge
acquired from various disciplines, but limited it to their boundaries. The in-
terdisciplinary approach, on the other hand, pushes the limit further in that it
includes interacting, blending, and linking (Klein, 2017). Moreover, interdisci-
plinary education is the mixture of various subject matters by establishing the
links among them, which seems to be a basic approach toward the employ-
ment of STEM subjects in STEM education (Stohlmann et al., 2012).

Apart from these approaches, the transdisciplinary approaches offer the most
suitable ground for the integrative restructuring of various subjects (Klein,
2006) because it takes a phenomenon or a problem such as new innovative
circular economy approaches as a basis (Haatainen et al., 2021), where sev-
eral disciplinary views are needed and disciplines transcend their traditional
boundaries (Choi & Pak, 2006). The Finnish framework curriculum introduc-
es this transdisciplinary approach as one approach in compulsory education
(FNBE, 2014; Lähdemäki, 2018; Mård, 2021). In accordance with the cur-
riculum, in compulsory education, each student should have at least one clear-
cut long-term theme [phenomena] project or should take an interdisciplinary
course that focuses on the selected theme from various viewpoints. Besides,
the way in which transdisciplinary learning paradigms are organized and
implemented is structured in line with the local needs and interests (FNBE,
2014). The necessity of a project is thought to yield a better learning environ-
ment, and moreover, to offer better opportunities for students to be successful
in their future studies and in societal matters (Hurley, 2001). This new tenden-
cy in education also has positive influences on the teaching of STEM subjects
as it offers a better foundation for transdisciplinary studies.

There will be variation between the municipalities in terms of how they imple-

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ment these ideas in practice. For example, schools in the city of Helsinki have
developed phenomenal learning or phenomenon-based learning in line with
the integration of school subjects and the implementation of transversal com-
petencies in school practices. The city of Helsinki recommended that schools
engage with both natural and urban areas so that students can explore real-
world phenomena such as energy and use of energy resources, the circular
economy, and food. Based on the overall discussion, phenomenal learning is
flexible and open to change (Lonka et al., 2018). It is a transdisciplinary in-
structional approach that is based on student inquiry and problem-solving. It
is anchored learning, in which the questions raised and the topics to be learned
are anchored in real-world phenomena, and the knowledge and skills are di-
rectly applied across the disciplines. Although phenomenal learning is a novel
approach to teaching and learning, there are similarities between phenomenal,
problem-based, project-based, and inquiry-based learning. A key difference
is that phenomenal learning has a more global context and a more transdisci-
plinary approach than problem-based, project-based, and inquiry-based learn-
ing (Lonka et al., 2018).

Braskén et al. (2020) researched the implementation of a “new” transdis-

ciplinary/phenomenal learning approach to compulsory education through
interviewing principals and teachers and analyzing protocols from collegiate
meetings. The planning of new transdisciplinary/phenomenal learning has
increased teachers’ collaboration in planning, implementing, and evaluating
students’ learning. Although there were some benefits for teachers in terms of
collaboration with other teachers, the findings demonstrated that there were
some difficulties in relation to the dispersedly described course objectives and
the obscurity of the goals vis-à-vis the function of different subjects in the
planned transdisciplinary/phenomenal learning paradigm. The study uncov-
ered the significance of providing research-focused assistance and allocating
adequate time for internalizing the process for the stakeholders to eliminate
the problems encountered in the implementation process of transdisciplinary

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teaching.

In a quite recent study conducted by Haatainen et al. (2021), secondary school

teachers’ self-efficacy for integrated and/or transdisciplinary STEM education
methods as a part of an in-service course was elaborated on in a more specific
manner. The data were collected by a survey focusing on integrated practices
and cooperative colleague collaboration after the teaching process. Despite the
fact that nearly all teachers always prepared well-planned integrated activi-
ties, namely a theme day or a transdisciplinary STEM paradigm, there were a
few instances where the teachers neither prepared for the course nor employed
integrated techniques in STEM subject teaching, while 50% of participants
did not even utilize extensive integrated teaching paradigms such as projects
or courses. Instead of interdisciplinary collaboration, teachers mostly focused
on collaboration within the same subject. However, the teachers focusing on
integrated activities rarely or never displayed lower self-efficacy for STEM
teaching. For this reason, it can be argued that the aims of the curriculum were
not successfully achieved at the end of five years of application.

Eronen et al. (2019), on the other hand, investigated how eighth grade students
were affected by a problem-based transdisciplinary STEM course. Using the
qualitative content analysis method, data were gathered through questionnaires
and interviews. It was observed that the students did not acquire much of the
content knowledge offered by the course, compared with a course implement-
ing a discipline-based approach. Yet, the students suggested that they attained
some significant skills such as teamwork, problem-solving, and communicat-
ing their ideas, skills that they had never clearly associated with the teaching
at school. Besides, many believed that they had gained some important skills
that they would need in the future.

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Emphasis on Learning of Transversal Competencies as a Part of
STEM Education

In the rapidly changing and developing contemporary world, the 21st-century

skills that people should have or need have been discussed (National Research
Council [NRC], 2012; Wang et al., 2018). Actually, the purpose of the educa-
tion that individuals receive has changed; it has become competence-centered
rather than knowledge-centered (Council of the European Union, 2008).
Therefore, most countries have given place to 21st-century competencies in
their curricula as educational goals, especially in recent years (Reimers &
Chung, 2016; Wang et al, 2019a). Finland is one of the countries which has
given place to 21st-century competencies in its curricula (Lavonen, 2020; La-
vonen, 2021). Vahtivuori-Hänninen et al. (2014) tried to explain through some
questions why 21st-century competencies should find a place in the Finnish
curriculum. These questions are: “What does education mean in the future?”,
“What kind of competencies should teachers and education shareholders have
in order to work in cooperation and ease students’ learning at the same time?”,
“In what type of education environments does learning occur best?”, and
“What kinds of competencies should students have both in their daily life and
in their future life?”.

In the literature, it is seen that 21st-century competencies are expressed by us-

ing different terminologies such as “transversal competencies,” “generic com-
petencies,” “key competencies,” and “21st-century competencies” (Reimers
& Chung, 2016; Wang et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019a). In this section, 21st-
century competencies are going to be expressed as transversal competencies.
Transversal competencies were defined differently in different studies. For
instance, while Binkley et al. (2012) defined them as the reconstruction of
education and learning outcomes’ purpose in accordance with the skills indi-
viduals need in the 21st-century, transversal competencies were defined as the
skills, attitudes, and values required for students’ overall improvement by Care

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and Luo (2016). Although transversal competencies have different definitions
(Wang et al., 2019a), the most commonly accepted definition is a consolida-
tion of skills, knowledge, attitude, and values that an individual living in the
21st-century should have (NRC, 2012). According to this definition, skill is
defined as the ability to use existing knowledge, where knowledge is defined
as the thought which enables the individual to understand a specific topic or
field, and attitude, as a concept or theory, is defined as the reaction that the in-
dividual gives to specific situations or ideas (Council of the European Union,
2019).

It can be observed when the related literature is examined that there are docu-
ments issued by different institutions such as the EU, UNESCO, and OECD
which explain what kinds of transversal competencies individuals should have
(Lavonen, 2020; Lavonen, 2021). Aside from the institutions which explain
transversal competencies and group them, countries like Singapore, the United
States of America, and Finland have defined the transversal competencies that
individuals should have, and have integrated them into their curricula (Coun-
cil of the European Union, 2019; Reimers & Chung, 2016; Voogt & Roblin,
2012). The main reason behind these countries defining the transversal com-
petencies by themselves is that cultural context (Lavonen, 2020) and the eco-
nomic and political situation may affect the competencies (Wang et al., 2018).

One of the earliest illustrations of transversal competencies was proposed

within the scope of the “Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo)”
project which was conducted under the leadership of the OECD. According
to this project’s definition, individuals living in the 21st-century should have
competencies such as interacting with the environment efficiently, problem-
solving, inquiring, creative thinking, critical thinking, and acting autono-
mously (Lavonen, 2021). According to the documents put forward under the
DeSeCo project, transversal competencies are constituted of the four main
categories of “ways of thinking,” “ways of working,” “tools for working,”

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and “acting in the world.” The main category of “ways of thinking” is con-
stituted of the “critical thinking,” “creative thinking,” and “learning to learn”
sub-categories; the main category of “ways of working” is constituted of the
“inquiring,” “problem-solving,” and “communication and collaboration” sub-
categories; the main category of “tools for working” is constituted of the “in-
formation literacy” and “technological skills, media literacy” sub-categories;
and the main category of “acting in the world” is constituted of the “global
and local citizenship” and “cultural awareness and social responsibility” sub-
categories (Lavonen, 2021). The transversal competencies which were put for-
ward within the scope of the DeSeCo project played an active role in defining
the transversal competencies in the Finnish curriculum.

While the Finnish National Core Curriculum 2014 was being designed, trans-
versal competencies that are expected from the individuals in the 21st-century
were taken into consideration (Lavonen, 2020; Wang et el., 2018) and it has
been emphasized in the Finnish curriculum since 2010 that transversal com-
petencies should be taught in a way that can support scientific literacy (FNBE,
2014; Lavonen, 2021). In the Finnish National Core Curriculum, transversal
competencies are grouped under seven categories: “competence in informa-
tion and communication technology,” “thinking and learning to learn,” “multi-
literacy,” “working-life competence and entrepreneurship skills,” “taking care
of oneself and managing daily life,” “participation, involvement and building
a sustainable future,” and “cultural competence, interaction, and self-expres-
sion” (FNBE, 2016), and there are efforts to integrate them into every topic
and every educational level including primary school (FNBE, 2014; Vahti-
vuori- Hänninen et al., 2014). It is emphasized in Finland that in order for stu-
dents to gain these competencies, teachers should motivate students to attend
various STEM activities (Wang et al., 2019b) because STEM activities play an
important role in students gaining these transversal competencies (like using
knowledge in different situations, multi-dimensional thinking, critical think-
ing, working in cooperation, and inquiring about problem-solving) (Bybee,

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2010). Aside from STEM activities, it is emphasized that project-based, coop-
eration-based, and phenomenon-based activities also play an important role in
students gaining these transversal competencies (FNBE, 2016; Lavonen, 2020,
2021). Furthermore, in order to make students gain these transversal compe-
tencies that have been integrated into the Finnish curriculum, teachers are also
required to have these transversal competencies. Thus, in 2017, with the help
of a fund granted by the “Basic Education Forum,” teachers were trained to
teach transversal competencies to their students in their classrooms (Lavonen
& Salmela-Aro, 2022; Ministry of Education and Culture [MEC], 2018).

Transversal Competencies grouped under seven categories in the Finnish Na-

tional Core Curriculum are compatible with the European Union Key Com-
petencies (Lavonen, 2021). For example; “thinking and learning to learn,”
one of the transversal competencies in the Finnish National Core Curriculum
matches with “personal, social and learning to learn competence” from the
European Union Key Competencies; “multi-literacy,” one of the transversal
competencies in the Finnish National Core Curriculum matches with “multi-
lingual competence” from the European Union Key Competencies; “working-
life competence and entrepreneurship,” one of the transversal competences
in the Finnish National Core Curriculum, matches with “entrepreneurship
competence” from the European Union Key Competencies; and “compe-
tence in information and communication technology,” one of the transversal
competences in the Finnish National Core Curriculum, matches with “digital
competence” from the European Union Key Competencies. Moreover, the
transversal competencies that were defined in the OECD Future of Education
and Skills 2030 competencies and the Finnish National Core Curriculum were
compared (Lavonen, 2021; Vincent et al., 2019). For example; “using infor-
mation independently and interacting with others for problem solving, reason-
ing, and concluding” and “producing inquiry-oriented and creative work,” two
of the competences from the Finnish National Core Curriculum, match with
“practical and physical skills, that comprise inquiry orientation and problem-

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solving skills” in the OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 competen-
cies; “critically analyzing issues from different perspectives” and “finding
innovative solutions that necessitate learning to see alternatives and unite per-
spectives,” two of the competencies from the Finnish National Core Curricu-
lum, match with “cognitive and meta-cognitive skills, which include critical
thinking, creative thinking, learning-to-learn and self-regulation” in the OECD
Future of Education and Skills 2030 competencies; and “learning how to take
care of oneself, everyday life skills, and safety” and “developing life skills and
entrepreneurship,” two of the competences from the Finnish National Core
Curriculum, match with “social and emotional skills, which include empathy,
self-efficacy, responsibility and collaboration” in the OECD Future of Educa-
tion and Skills 2030 competencies.

Despite the inclusion of transversal abilities in the Finnish curriculum, there

are still difficulties with how students are going to gain these competencies
via different learning activities (Korhonen & Lavonen, 2017; Lavonen, 2020;
Lavonen, 2021; Saarinen et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019a).
It is thought that these difficulties can be overcome through different STEM
applications and taking individuals into consideration with a holistic point of
view.

Emphasis on Science and Engineering Careers in the Middle School

Curriculum

One of the policies adopted by Finland in education, like many other coun-
tries, is to spark students’ interest in learning science and in choosing profes-
sions related to science in the future (Council of the European Union, 2016;
Fensham, 2009). However, it is not easy to stimulate students’ interest in
choosing science-related professions. Therefore, many researchers, especially
science education researchers, have launched different projects and carried
out various studies in order to increase students’ career preferences for sci-
ence (e.g., Bolte et al., 2014; DeWitt & Archer, 2015; Swarat et al., 2012).

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Researchers have emphasized that the advancement of students’ interest in
science is extremely substantial for their STEM career choices (Dabney et al.,
2012; Lent et al., 1994). Developing students’ STEM career interests is quite
important because many countries around the world such as Finland, Switzer-
land, the United States, Germany, and Austria, especially in recent years, need
a bigger workforce in the area of science, technology, mathematics, and engi-
neering (STEM) with the rapid development of technology that is impossible
to keep up with (Kier et al., 2014).

In Finland, in each STEM subject there are specific aims for supporting the
development of interest in STEM studies and careers. For example, the phys-
ics and chemistry curricula state that the teaching should encourage and in-
spire students to study physics/chemistry, and the craft curriculum states that
the teaching should emphasize students' interests. The term “interest” in the
context of curricula is used to describe the factors involved in the interaction
between the student and the environment that increase or prevent purposeful
actions. Interest influences what and how deeply one learns (Fredricks & Mc-
Colskey, 2012; Renninger & Hidi, 2015). Researchers distinguish between in-
dividual and situational interest (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). Individual interest
in a subject gradually arises and affects the students’ knowledge and values,
and is permanent in nature. Situational interest can arise quickly in a situation
and is emotional in nature and may be short-lived (Krapp & Prenzel, 2011).
The teacher can influence the development of situational interest when choos-
ing teaching, learning practices, activities, or contexts (Bennett & Holman,
2002; Hoffman, 2002; Osborne et al., 2003). The influence of context and
activity is recognized in the curricula: “Getting to know different industries,
working life, and professions, as well as job search internships, increasing
students’ working life awareness. At the same time, students get to know each
other’s areas of interest, professions, and entrepreneurship” (student guid-
ance); “Teaching inspires students to discover and utilize math in their own
lives” (mathematics) and “Conducting inquiry activities develops working and

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collaboration skills, creative and critical thinking, and inspires students to
study physics” (physics).

Recent studies dwelling on the career choices of female students related to

STEM fields highlight that such factors as how much time they will devote
to themselves, whether there is a communication-oriented profession, and
earning a high salary are quite significant for them to choose STEM-related
occupations (Kang et al., 2019). In addition to these factors, different factors
in students’ orientation to the fields related to STEM and choosing STEM
professions have also been emphasized (Ikonen et al., 2018). For instance, in
their study of ninth grade students, Ikonen et al. (2018) investigated whether
parents, teachers, and friends have an effect on students’ STEM career choic-
es. Results demonstrated that almost one-third of the participants generally
make their career choices individually, without listening to anyone, such as
their parents, teachers, and friends. The remaining participants are of the opin-
ion that their STEM career choices are shaped by their parents, teachers, and
friends. Results also showed that there is very little discussion of STEM career
choices between teachers and students in the classroom. This is an extremely
disappointing result, because it is a well-known truth that such discussions
between teachers and students in the classroom have a positive effect on stu-
dents’ STEM career choices (Bieri Buschor et al., 2014; Hazari et al., 2010).

As a part of STEM education in Finland, great importance is attached to stu-

dents’ engineering education, that is, their engineering career development.
The main purpose of engineering education in Finland is defined as raising
individuals who have a variety of knowledge and skills such as questioning,
creativity, critical thinking, communication, and responsibility, which will be
necessary for society and business life, and in a way that will be beneficial for
people and the environment (Allt & Korhonen-Yrjänheikki, 2008; Takala &
Korhonen-Yrjänheikki, 2013, 2019). This definition reveals that the engineer-
ing education given in Finland is also important for individuals to understand

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their own roles in society and to be aware of their own knowledge, skills,
and competences (Takala & Korhonen-Yrjänheikki, 2013). Besides, the sig-
nificance of sustainable development is seriously emphasized in engineering
education in Finland, and various strategies and policies are being developed
in this regard. However, despite all these efforts, sustainable development
could not be fully integrated into engineering education in Finland (Takala &
Korhonen-Yrjänheikki, 2019) because the term sustainable development has
different connotations in different circles and researchers, and there are uncer-
tainties and complexities about its definition. Therefore, it is not very easy to
integrate sustainable development into the Finnish engineering education cur-
riculum (Takala & Korhonen-Yrjänheikki, 2019).

As in other countries, engineering career development for women in Finland

involves more difficulties compared to men (Naukkarinen & Bairoh, 2022;
Vuorinen-Lampila, 2016). For example, in the study by Vuorinen-Lampila
(2016), it was revealed that men in the first three years of engineering careers
were more employed in the labor market than women with the same career
background. Another study conducted by Paloheimo (2015) concluded that
after graduation from engineering education, men found and were employed
in better and more permanent positions than women. Another significant result
of that study is that women are given fewer managerial positions in engineer-
ing careers than men. Moreover, although the different skills of women at the
beginning of their engineering careers in Finland, such as communication,
ethics, sustainability, and social skills, are more developed than those of men,
women are more disadvantaged than men because technical aspects (entre-
preneurship, creativity, etc.) are emphasized more in engineering education in
Finland (Naukkarinen & Bairoh, 2022). Considering the results of the stud-
ies, the fact that engineering career development in Finland is generally more
male-centered may prevent female students from engaging in engineering
fields and continuing their careers in this direction.

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Possibilities for Informal STEM Learning in Finland

This section discusses informal ways of STEM learning in Finland. Within

this framework, entrepreneurial education, student camps, cultural events (fes-
tivals, competitions, TV series, etc.), science centers, and museums in Finland
are going to be discussed and presented under specific headings.

Entrepreneurial Education in Finland

Entrepreneurship education is seen as one of the informal ways of STEM

learning in Finland. Although the Finnish government has adopted a policy
promoting entrepreneurship, especially with the development of technology
and fierce global competition environment, it is planning to increase the num-
ber of entrepreneurs. Within this context, they are putting into action some
programs and strategies that are going to enhance entrepreneurship conditions
and competitive capacity (MEC, 2017a). In this context, the entrepreneurship
education strategy, which was put into practice by the Ministry of Educa-
tion and Culture in 2017, is accepted as one of the newest entrepreneurship
strategies, and this strategy aims to enable students from different education
levels to be entrepreneurial individuals and to go towards STEM fields (MEC,
2017a). Moreover, entrepreneurship strategies in Finland are supported not
only by the government but also by education providers, education develop-
ers, shareholders from different levels of education, and national and local
policymakers (Chiu, 2012).

There are various projects in Finland related to entrepreneurship education,

for example, “Me & MyCity,” which is a simulation learning environment that
aims to improve students’ creative and innovative thinking skills. There are
nine local “Me & MyCity” projects in Finland (URL-8). Also, there are web-
sites that support entrepreneurship education such as “The Economic Informa-
tion Office” (URL-9) and “The Federation of Finnish Enterprises” (URL-10)
alongside entrepreneurship education services such as “JA Finland” (URL-11)

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in Finland
and “YES” (URL-12).

Student Camps in Finland

One of the informal STEM learning ways in Finland is through student camps.
Basically, the camps aim to improve and strengthen the science, mathemat-
ics, and technology interests of the participants, although they also aim for the
participants to know new people, get interesting information, and have fun.
These camps are generally organized during summertime at LUMA centers or
research centers of universities in Finland. There may be individual or team
assignments or activities on these camps. Most of the camps are for students
at the elementary school level (elementary school + middle school), where
participants learn topics such as physics, chemistry, biology, sustainable de-
velopment, environment, technology, programming, space, robotics, entrepre-
neurship, and coding (URL-3). For the students who are above the elementary
school level, these camps are organized as courses. An example of one of
these courses is “Global Challenges for Youth,” which is organized for up-
per secondary school students. Some camps are organized as part of research
projects in Finland. Summer Science Camp, which has been organized by the
University of Helsinki since 2018, is an example (URL-3).

Alongside camps that are organized face to face, virtual science camps are
also organized in Finland. The content of the virtual science camps which
have been organized since 2002 was developed and extended with the im-
pact of the pandemic in 2020. Various education experts (teachers, etc.) are
responsible for organizing these camps which are free of charge for students.
Although most of the camps are for elementary school students, there are vir-
tual science camps for teenagers and their families. “LUMA Centre Saimaa’s
Virtual Science Club,” “University of Helsinki’s Science Education: Virtual
Summer Science Camp,” and “LUMA Centre Finland: Virtual StarT Science
Camps for Families and Youth” can be given as examples of some of the vir-
tual camps (URL-3).

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Cultural Events (Festivals, Competitions, TV series, etc.) in Finland

Various cultural activities such as scientific festivals, competitions, and TV

series are among the informal STEM learning ways in Finland. Scientific
festivals as one of the cultural activities are organized in different regions of
Finland. StarT festivals are well-known among these festivals. They are orga-
nized in the summer months by regional LUMA centers in Finland. These are
multifaceted festivals which aim to draw students’ interest in science and tech-
nology, and every year award-winning exclusive projects and good practice
examples are exhibited at these festivals. Moreover, students, teachers, and
educators work in cooperation during the festivals. These festivals are nor-
mally conducted face to face but in 2020, because of the pandemic, it was or-
ganized online as “Virtual StarT” (URL-3). Another kind of cultural activity is
scientific competitions. One of the projects named “Data Star” in English and
“Datatähti” in Finnish can be given as an example of these competitions. This
is a two-stage programming competition for middle school students in Finland
(URL-13). Another example of these competitions is “Tämä toimii-Liikkuva
lelu” also named “This is a working-moving toy” in English. Based on recy-
cling, the aim of this project, which is organized every year in Finland, is to
make students design a moving toy in a creative way without buying any ma-
terial and by using the materials that are present at schools and the materials
that are defined (URL-14). Apart from these competitions, the “StarT Compe-
tition” (URL-15), “The Amazing Race of Science” (URL-3), and “The Tradi-
tional Chemistry, Math and Information Technology Competition” (URL-3)
are among the competitions which contribute to informal STEM learning in
Finland. Although they are not as common as scientific festivals and competi-
tions, some national TV series are among the cultural activities that contribute
to informal STEM learning in Finland. One of these TV series is named “Ro-
bomestarit” in Finnish and “Champions in Robotics” in English; students con-
ducting competitions in Robotics are portrayed in this series (URL-16).

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Science Centers in Finland

Science centers are one of the informal STEM learning places in Finland. The
best known of these science centers is “Heureka.” Heureka offers entertaining,
exploratory, and pleasant learning experiences for visitors of all ages in the
science, mathematics, and technology fields (URL-17). Another science center
is “Arktinen Keskus.” This science center handles environmental and social
problems in order to raise awareness of the societies on topics such as sustain-
able development, biodiversity, and environmental protection (URL-18). Some
centers are named both science centers and museums in Finland. One example
of these science centers is “Lusto.” Lusto, named “Suomen metsämuseo ve
metsätietokeskus” in Finnish, is a center that emphasizes the importance of
forests in Finnish culture and focuses on the interaction between people and
forests in Finland; it appeals to visitors of all ages (URL-19).

Museums in Finland

Museums are among the other informal STEM learning places in Finland. For
example, The Museum of Technology is the only one for general technology
in Finland, but these museums representatively portray how Finland was able
to develop from an agrarian society to become a country developing high tech-
nology and producing innovation (URL-20). Another example of the museums
in Finland is the internationally accepted Design Museum (URL-21). Besides,
there are museums within universities. The Zoology museum on the campus
of the University of Helsinki, the University of Jyvaskyla Science Museum,
and The Natural History Museum of Central Finland are examples of these
museums (URL-3). Apart from these museums, The Helsinki University Mu-
seum and The Finnish Museum of Natural History are among the museums
providing informal STEM learning opportunities in Finland (URL-3).

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 Trends and Issues in STEM Education in Finland

In our analysis we have recognized five trends in STEM education in Finland.

We summarize these trends next. We then present five issues which are chal-
lenging and not supportive of STEM education practices.

Trends

1. Implementing a national core curriculum emphasizing STEM com-

petences

The definition of STEM education or literacy varies in curriculum documents

and research papers (Boğar, 2021). However, we have followed in this chapter
the definition of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Re-
search Council (NAE & NRC, 2014). In line with their definition, the Finnish
National Core Curriculum emphasizes competences in STEM subjects. The
competences are similar to the competences outlined in the PISA framework.
Second, the STEM curricula emphasize sensemaking of real-world, rigorous,
relevant phenomena. In line with this second characteristic, the curricula em-
phasize inquiry or project-based learning as a pedagogical approach. The third
characteristic is the emphasis on learning of transversal competences as a part
of STEM education. The fourth characteristic of STEM education in Finn-
ish education is the emphasis on science and engineering careers as a part of
STEM education.

2. Applying the phenomenon-based approach to STEM education

The Finnish framework curriculum introduces a general transdisciplinary ap-

proach (FNBE, 2014). According to this idea, each student should have at
least one clear-cut long-term theme [phenomena] project or should take an
interdisciplinary course that focuses on the selected theme from various view-

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in Finland
points. Besides, the way in which transdisciplinary learning paradigms are
organized and implemented is structured in line with local needs and interests.
This new approach has had positive influences on the teaching of STEM sub-
jects as it offers a better basis for transdisciplinary studies (Lähdemäki, 2018;
Mård, 2021). In addition to STEM education at school, there are several pos-
sibilities for informal STEM learning in museums, university labs, and clubs.

3. Emphasizing learning of transversal competencies as a part of

STEM education

While the Finnish National Core Curriculum was designed during the years
2012 -2013, several transversal competencies models were analyzed (Vahti-
vuori- Hänninen et al., 2014) in order to ensure an appropriate definition of
transversal competencies in the Finnish context. In the Finnish National Core
Curriculum, transversal competencies are grouped under seven categories
as described above (FNBE, 2016) and they should be integrated into every
discipline. STEM subjects have an important role in students gaining these
transversal competencies (like using knowledge in different situations, multi-
dimensional thinking, critical thinking, working in cooperation, and inquir-
ing about problem-solving) (Bybee, 2010). Aside from STEM activities, it is
emphasized that project-based, cooperation-based, and phenomenon-based
activities also have an important role in students gaining these transversal
competencies (Lavonen, 2020; Lavonen, 2021).

4. Emphasizing science and engineering careers in middle school cur-

ricula

In Finland, each STEM subject has specific aims for supporting the develop-
ment of interest in STEM studies and careers. For example, the physics and
chemistry curricula state that the teaching should encourage and inspire stu-
dents to study physics/chemistry. Craft teaching should emphasize students'
interests. The term “interest” in the context of curricula is used to describe the

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Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
factors involved in the interaction between the student and the environment
that increase or prevent purposeful actions, here orientation to STEM careers.

5. Strengthening networks to support STEM education

In a decentralized education system there is no heavy guidance or control by

the state or government. Therefore, various voluntary networks aim to im-
prove students’ and teachers’ knowledge and skills related to STEM fields.
The most prominent of these networks in Finland is “LUMA Centre Finland.”
This network has two major aims. The first is to improve both the lifelong
learning and research-based teaching of the teachers working at different edu-
cation levels. The second aim is to both motivate students at different levels
in science, mathematics, and technology learning (URL-6). Another important
network in Finland is “The Innokas Network.” This is known as a teacher net-
work in the most general sense and aims to help teachers gain STEM compe-
tences (URL-7).

Issues

1. Teacher education tradition emphasizes discipline-oriented

teaching

Lower and upper secondary teachers are trained at traditional universities

in five-year master-level programs in Finland. The master’s degree includes
studies in two subjects, such as physics and mathematics or chemistry and
mathematics. These teachers do no or very limited study in engineering, such
as coding and robotics. Therefore, secondary teachers have strong identity
in teaching their major and minor subjects and do not necessarily think at all
about integrated STEM education. This heavy orientation towards two sub-
jects is the most challenging issue from the point of view of STEM education.

Status and Trends of STEM Education

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in Finland
2. Discipline-based curricula emphasize teaching of STEM subjects
as separate subjects

Lower and upper secondary curricula have a long history of being built as
subject-specific curricula. All aims, descriptions of core ideas or content, de-
scriptions of most appropriate teaching and learning methods, and guidelines
for assessment and allocation of lesson hours are very disciplinary oriented.
It does not help that the curricula do not emphasize integration of school sub-
jects.

3. Curriculum materials emphasize disciplinary-oriented teaching

It is known that curriculum materials or textbooks guide STEM-teachers in

their lesson planning. Especially in a country where there is not heavy control
and testing, other issues than the curriculum easily guide or orient teachers in
their planning processes. The textbooks for Finnish lower and upper second-
ary education are discipline oriented.

4. Interdisciplinary collaboration among teachers is insufficient

The teacher’s salary in Finland is mainly based on the weekly lesson hours in
a classroom. Therefore, teachers feel strongly that their salary comes from the
planning of lessons, teaching, supervision, and assessment. There have been
no incentives for interdisciplinary collaboration and co-planning of interdis-
ciplinary and transdisciplinary learning. However, during the last five-year
period, 100 hours per year has been allocated for teacher collaboration and co-
planning. This is one step towards interdisciplinary collaboration.

5. Second and third cycles of education emphasize disciplinary orien-

tation

Finnish upper secondary education and higher education are disciplinary ori-
ented. This means that middle school teachers have a mindset that they have

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Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
to prepare students for these disciplinary-oriented secondary and higher edu-
cation studies.

However, there are promising examples of multi or transdisciplinary ap-

proaches in higher education. With the establishment of Aalto University in
2010, the initial and most significant reconstruction of higher education in-
stitutions occurred (Chiu, 2012). Moreover, they reconstructed programs and
added several multidisciplinary elements and STEM elements to the programs.
Aalto University has been designed to be the world’s prominent “innovation
university” so that researchers and students in different fields such as eco-
nomics, art, technology, and design can work in interdisciplinary cooperation
(Chiu, 2012). In general, there has been a positive welcome of this combina-
tion. In 2016, higher education institutions underwent another, more compli-
cated reform when it was decided that the University of Tampere and Tampere
University of Technology should be combined. The most recent network, FI-
Tech Turku, was established through combining science, mathematics, and en-
gineering into a single unit (MEC, 2017b). Although the experiences of these
three STEM-oriented higher education collaborations have been positive, no
further steps have been taken.

Conclusion

This chapter delineates how STEM-oriented aims are recognized in the Finn-
ish middle school STEM subjects or mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics,
and craft science curricula, although the Finnish middle school curriculum
does not explicitly address STEM education. Each of the STEM subject’s cur-
ricula implicitly incorporate competencies that relate to STEM education, as
shown in Table 1. First, the integration of knowledge across science, technol-
ogy, engineering, and mathematics domains is incorporated into the Finnish

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in Finland
biology, chemistry, physics, and craft curricula in multiple dimensions, such
as life and health, the Earth and the environment, and technology. The math-
ematics curriculum includes links to many subjects, not only STEM subjects.
In addition to the integration of STEM disciplines and student engagement
in real-world science and technology related problems or challenges, the fol-
lowing STEM characteristics are recognized in the Finnish middle school cur-
ricula: STEM literacy; transversal competencies; STEM workforce readiness,
and connections of STEM to society including working life, interest, and en-
gagement. However, it must be noted that the analysis of STEM orientation in
the Finnish middle school curriculum is challenging because there are various
definitions of STEM education.

STEM education characteristics are revealed in the Finnish curricula in three

significant ways. First, science and engineering process skills introduced in
the curricula require the concretion of science with mathematics, engineering,
and technology. For example, the chemistry curriculum recommends guiding
students to perceive the applications of chemistry in technology. The curricu-
lum also encourages students to participate in generating ideas for solutions
that require the use of chemistry knowledge, and to design, develop, and apply
those ideas. Second, the subject-specific curriculum emphasizes the student’s
engagement in science inquiry and technology-related problems.

Third, the middle school curriculum emphasizes the learning of transversal

competencies and recommends that learning them could be realized by involv-
ing students in project-based, phenomena-based, and multidisciplinary studies
(Vasquez et al., 2013). The implementation of study periods, which concen-
trate on topics of particular relevance to students, is in line with the definition
of STEM education as well.

All science subjects emphasize the importance of becoming familiar with sci-
ence, technology, and engineering related occupations, careers, and industries.
Moreover, specific school counsellor teachers introduce students to working

Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive

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Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
life and career possibilities, including STEM career possibilities. They also
organize periods when students are learning in working life conditions.

Status and Trends of STEM Education

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in Finland
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