AB Calculus

Path to a Five Problems

# Topic Completed
1 Definition of a Limit
2 One-Sided Limits
3 Horizontal Asymptotes & Limits at Infinity
4 Vertical Asymptotes & Infinite Limits
5 The “Weird” Limits
6 Continuity at a Point
7 Average Rate of Change
8 Instantaneous Rate of Change
9 Tangent Line
10 Horizontal Tangent Lines
11 Linear Approximation
12 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
13 Differentiability Implies Continuity
14 Conditions that Destroy Differentiation
15 Implicit Differentiation
16 Vertical Tangent Lines
17 Strategies for Finding Limits/L’Hospital’s Rule
18 Related Rates
19 Position, Speed, Velocity, Acceleration
20 Intermediate Value Theorem
21 Mean Value Theorem & Rolle’s Theorem
22 Extrema on an Interval
23 Finding Increasing/Decreasing Intervals
24 Relative Maximums and Minimums
25 Points of Inflection
26 Finding Concave Up/Concave Down Intervals
27 U-Substitution Rule
28 Approximating Area
 # Topic Completed
29 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
30 Properties of Definite Integrals
31 Average Value of a Function
32 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
33 Extension of FTC
34 Accumulating Rates
35 Functions Defined by Integrals
36 Solving Differential Equations
37 Slope Fields
38 Exponential Growth and Decay
39 Particle Motion Summary
40 Area Between 2 Curves
41 Volumes of Slabs (Cross Sections)
42 Volume of Rotations (Discs & Washers)
 PTF #AB 01 – Definition of a Limit

The intended height (or y  value ) of a function, f ( x) . (Remember that the function
doesn’t actually have to reach that height.)

Written: lim f ( x)
x c

Read: “the limit of f ( x) as x approaches c

Methods for finding a limit:

1. Direct substitution
2. Look at the graph

Some reasons why a limit would fail to exist:

1. The function approaches a different number from the left side than from the right
side.
2. The function increases or decreases without bound.
3. The function oscillates between 2 fixed values.

1. Evaluate lim  2 x 2  7 x  3. Use the graph below to find the

x 3
following limits.


H(x)


2. Find the limit (if it exists).



x2
lim a b
x 2 x2 



a) lim H ( x) 
x a

b) lim H ( x) 
x b
 PTF #AB 02 – One-Sided Limits

 lim f ( x) means the limit from the right.

x c 

 lim f ( x) means the limit from the left.

x c 

 A curve has a limit if and only if lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) . (Left-hand limit = Right-hand
x c x c

limit)

 A curve is continuous on a closed interval  a, b if it is continuous on the open

interval  a, b  and lim f ( x)  f (a) and lim f ( x)  f (b) . (Limit at the endpoints has to
x a x b

match the function value at the endpoints.)

Use the graph to the right to find the

following limits, if they exist. 
5. lim g ( x)
x 6


 6. lim g ( x)
x 6


            

7. lim g ( x)


 x 0






8. lim g ( x)
x 3




1. lim g ( x)
x 3 9. lim g ( x)
x 0

2. lim g ( x)
x 3

3. lim g ( x)
x 0

4. g (3)
 PTF #AB 03 – Horizontal Asymptotes & Limits at Infinity

Horizontal Asymptotes:
1. If f ( x)  c as x   , then y  c is a horizontal asymptote.
2. A horizontal asymptote describes the behavior at the far ends of the graph.
3. It is helpful to think of an End Behavior Function that will mimic the given
function (what will dominate as the x  values get large in both directions?)

Limits at Infinity:
1. Graphically, a limit at infinity will level off at a certain value on one or both ends.
2. Analytically, find an End Behavior Function to model the given function. Then use
direct substitution to “evaluate” the limit.
3. Short Cut:
Top Heavy: limit DNE
Bottom Heavy: limit = 0
Equal: limit = ratio of leading coefficients
*Please be careful with the shortcut. Some functions act strange and require
some extra thought. Also, watch our for limits at −∞, they can require extra
thought.

Find the horizontal asymptotes and ax  b

6. If the graph of y  has a
evaluate the limits. xc
horizontal asymptote y  2 and a
4n 2 vertical asymptote x  3 , then a  c  ?
1. lim
n  n 2  10, 000n

2x  5
2. lim
x  3 x 2  1

7. For x  0 , the horizontal line y  2

2x  7 is an asymptote for the graph of the
5
3. lim
x  5 x 2  9 function f . Which of the following
statements must be true?

x6 (A) f (0)  2

4. lim
x 
x 1
2
(B) f ( x)  2 for all x  0
(C) f (2) is undefined
(D) lim f ( x)  
x6 x 2
5. lim
x 
x2  1 (E) lim f ( x)  2
x 
 PTF #AB 04 – Vertical Asymptotes & Infinite Limits

Vertical Asymptotes:
1. If f ( x)   as x  c  , then x  c is a vertical asymptote.
2. If a function has a vertical asymptote, then it is not continuous.
3. Vertical asymptotes occur where the denominator = 0, there is no common
factor, and the numerator ≠ 0.

Infinite Limits:
1. Graphically, an infinite limit increases/decreases without bound at a vertical
asymptote.
2. Analytically, direct substitution yields a 0 in the denominator only, with no
common factor or indeterminate form.
3. Numerically, substitute a decimal number approaching the limit to see if the y-
values are approaching + or – infinity.

Find the vertical asymptotes and intervals Find lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) .
x 1 x 1
where the function is continuous.
x2  5x
2x  x
2 4. y 
1. g ( x)  x 1
x5

t2  4
2. h(t )  2 5. f ( x) 
1
t  5t  6 ( x  1) 4
 PTF #AB 05 – The “Weird” Limits

To work these problems you need to be able to visualize the graphs and end behavior for
most functions.

lim e x   lim e x  0 lim e x  0 lim e x  

x x x x

lim ln x   lim ln x   lim tan x  

x x0 x 2
lim tan x  
x 2

  1 1
lim tan 1 x  lim tan 1 x   lim 0 lim 0
x 2 x 2 x x x x

1 1
lim   lim 
x0 x x0 x

Evaluate the limit of the “inside” functions first, and then evaluate the “outside” function
at that number.

Evaluate the following limits.

1. lim e1 x  x2  2 
x 3. lim ln  2 
x  x  5 
 

1 
x3  1 
2. lim tan  2  4. lim e1 x
x  x 1 
  x0
 PTF #AB 06 – Continuity at a Point

To prove a function is continuous at a point, c , you must show the following three items
are true:
1. f (c) exists (the function has a y-value for the x-value in question)
2. lim f ( x) exists (the function has a left and right hand limit and they are
x c

equal)
3. lim f ( x)  f (c) (the function’s value is equal to the limit at that x-value)
x c

State how continuity is destroyed at 4. If the function f is continuous and if

x  c for each graph below. x2  4
f ( x)  when x  2 , then f (2)  ?
x2
1.

5. Let h be defined by the following,

3x  7 x  2
 4
h( x )    x  3 2 x  2
 x2  9 x2

For what values of x is h not continuous?
Justify.
2.

6. For what value of the constant c is the

function f continuous over all reals?
3. cx  1 x3
f ( x)   2
cx  1 x  3
 PTF #AB 07 – Average Rate of Change
The average rate of change of f ( x) over the interval  a, b can be written as any of the
following:
y dy
1. 
x dx
f (b)  f (a)
2.
ba
3. Slope of the secant line through the points  a, f  a   and  b, f  b   .

*Average rate of change is your good old slope formula from Algebra I.

1. In an experiment of population of 2. An equation to model the free fall of a

bacteria, find the average rate of change ball dropped from 30 feet high is
from P to Q and draw in the secant line. f ( x)  30  16 x 2 . What is the average rate
of change for the first 3 minutes? State
(45, 340)

units.
Q



# of bacteria



 P (23, 150)



3. Use the table below to



a) estimate f '(1870)
    

b) interpret the meaning of the value

# of days
you found in part (a)

t (yr) 1850 1860 1870 1880

f (t ) 23.1 31.4 38.6 50.2
(millions)
 PTF #AB 08 – Instantaneous Rate of Change

The instantaneous rate of change, or the derivative, of f ( x) at a point can be written as

any of the following:
f ( a  h)  f ( a )
1. f '(a)  lim . This finds the value of the slope of the tangent line at the
h 0 h
specific point x  a .
2. Analytically, find the difference quotient
f ( x)  f (a ) f ( x  h)  f ( x ) f ( x  x)  f ( x)
f '( x)  lim  lim  lim .
x a xa h  0 h x  0 x
This finds the generic equation for the slope of the tangent line at any given point
on the curve.
3. Graphically, it is the slope of the tangent line to the curve through the point
 a, f  a   .

1. Set up the limit definition of the 3. If f is a differentiable function,

derivative at x  2 for the function then f '(a) is given by which of the
f ( x)   x 2  2 x ? following?

f ( a  h)  f ( a )
I. lim
x h h
f ( x)  f (a )
II. lim
x a xa
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
III. lim
x a h

(a) I only (b) II only

(c) I and II only (d) I and III
only
2. Fill in the blanks:
(e) I, II and III

6  x  h   2  x  h   7   6x2  2x  7 
2

The lim
h 0 h

finds the ______________________ of

the function _______________________.

 PTF #AB 09 – Tangent Line
To find the equation of a tangent line to a function through a point, you need both a point
and a slope:
1. You may have to find the y  value of the point on the graph by plugging in the given
x  value into the original equation.
2. Find the derivative of f and evaluate it at the given point to get the slope of the
tangent line. (Most times you will plug in just the x  value , but sometimes you need
to plug in both the x  value and the y  value . The slope must be a number and must
not contain any variable.)
3. Use the point and the slope to write the equation in point-slope form:
y  yvalue  m  x  xvalue 

1. Let f be the function defined by 3. Find the equation of the line tangent to
f ( x)  4 x3  5x  3 . Find the equation of the the graph of f ( x)  x 4  2 x 2 at the point
tangent line to the graph of f at the point where f '( x)  1 . You will need to use your
where x  1 . calculator for this problem.

2. If the line tangent to the graph of the

function f at the point (1,7) passes
through
(-2, -2), then f '(1)  ?
 PTF #AB 10 – Horizontal Tangent Lines

To find the point(s) where a function has a horizontal tangent line:

1. Find f '( x) and set it equal to zero. (Remember that a fraction is zero only if the
numerator equals zero.)
2. Solve for x .
3. Substitute the value(s) for x into the original function to find the y  value of the
point of tangency.
4. Not all x  values will yield a y  value . If you cannot find a y  value , then that point
gets thrown out.
5. Write the equation of your tangent line. Remember that since it is horizontal, it will
have the equation y  yvalue .

1. Find the point(s), if any, where the 2. Let h be a function defined for all
function has horizontal tangent lines. x  0 and the derivative of h is given by
x2  2
h '( x)  for all x  0 . Find all values
a) f ( x)  x3  2 x 2  15x  14 x
of x for which the graph of h has a
horizontal tangent.

2
b) g (t ) 
t3
3. If a function f has a derivative
f '( x)  3  2sin x for 0  x  2 , find the
x-coordinates of the points where the
function has horizontal tangent lines.
 PTF #AB 11 – Linear Approximation

Standard Linear Approximation: an approximate value of a function at a specified x -

coordinate.

To find a linear approximation:

1. Write the equation of the tangent line at a “nice” x -value close to the one you want.
2. Plug in your x -value into the tangent line and solve for y .

1. Find a linear approximation for f (2.1) if 3. Find a linear approximation for f (1.67)
6
f ( x)  2 ? if f ( x)  sin x ?
x

2. Evaluate 39 without a calculator (use

linear approximation).
 PTF #AB 12 – Derivatives of Inverse Functions
1. Find f '( x) .
2. Make sure that you have figured out which value is the x and y values for each
function ( f ( x) and f 1 ( x) )
3. Substitute the x -value for f into f '( x) .
1
4. The solution is
the value you found in step #3

1. If g is the inverse function of F and 2. Let f be the function defined by

F (2)  3 , find the value of g '(3) for f ( x)  x5  2 x  1 . If g ( x)  f 1 ( x) and

F ( x) 
x3
 x  1.
1, 2  is on f , what is the value of g '(2)
4 ?
 PTF #AB 13 – Differentiability Implies Continuity

Differentiability means that you can find the slope of the tangent line at that point or
that the derivative exists at that point.
1. If a function is differentiable at x  c , then it is continuous at x  c . (Remember
what is means to be continuous at a point.)
2. It is possible for a function to be continuous at x  c and not differentiable at x  c .

1. Let f be a function such that 2. Let f be a function defined by

f  2  h   f  2 
2 x  x
2
x 1
lim  5. f ( x)   2
h 0 h  x  kx  p
 x 1
Which of the following must be true? For what values of k and p will f be
continuous and differentiable at x  1 ?
I. f is continuous at x  2 ?
II. f is differentiable at x  2 ?
III. The derivative of f is
continuous at x  2 ?

(a) I only (b) II only

(c) I and II only (d) I and III
only
(e) II and III only
 PTF #AB 14 – Conditions that Destroy Differentiability
Remember for a function to be differentiable, the slopes on the right hand side must be
equal to the slopes on the left hand side. There are four conditions that destroy
differentiability:
1. Discontinuities in the graph. (Function is not continuous.)
2. Corners in the graph. (Left and right-hand derivatives are not equal.)
3. Cusps in the graph. (The slopes approach  on either side of the point.)
4. Vertical tangents in the graph. (The slopes approach  on either side of the point.)

1. The graph shown below has a vertical tangent 2. Let f be a function defined by
at (2,0) and horizontal tangents at 
x 1
2
x0
(1,-1) and (3,1). For what values of x in the f ( x)   2
 x  4
 x0
interval  2, 4  is f not differentiable?

a) Show that f is/is not continuous


at x  0 .

     





b) Prove that f is/is not

differentiable at x  0 .
 PTF #AB 15 – Implicit Differentiation

1. Differentiate both sides with respect to x .

dy
2. Collect all terms on one side and the others on the other side.
dx
dy
3. Factor out the .
dx
dy
4. Solve for by dividing by what’s left in the parenthesis.
dx

Errors to watch out for:

 Remember to use the product rule
 Remember to use parenthesis so that you distribute any negative signs
 Remember that the derivative of a constant is zero

dy d2y
1. Find for y 4  x3 y5  2 x7  13 . 3. If x  y  25 , what is the value of
2 2
dx dx 2
at the point  4,3 ?

2. Find the instantaneous rate of change at

1,1 for x  2 xy  y 2  2 .
 PTF #AB 16 – Vertical Tangent Lines

To find the point(s) where a function has a vertical tangent line:

1. Find f '( x) and set the denominator equal to zero. (Remember that the slope of a
vertical line is undefined therefore must have a zero on the bottom.)
2. Solve for x .
3. Substitute the value(s) for x into the original function to find the y  value of the
point of tangency.
4. Not all x  values will yield a y  value . If you cannot find a y  value , then that point
gets thrown out.
5. Write the equation of your tangent line. Remember that since it is vertical, it will
have the equation x  xvalue .

1. Find the point(s), if any, where the 2. Consider the function defined by
function has vertical tangent lines. Then xy 2  x3 y  6 . Find the x -coordinate of
write the equation for those tangent lines. each point on the curve where the
tangent line is vertical.

a) g ( x)  3  3 x

b) f ( x)  4  x 2
 PTF #AB 17 – Strategies for Finding Limits/L’Hospital’s Rule

Steps to evaluating limits:

1. Try direct substitution. (this will work unless you get an indeterminate answer: 0/0)
2. Try L’Hospital’s Rule (take derivative of top and derivative of bottom and evaluate
again.)
3. Try L’Hopital’s Rule again (as many times as needed.)
4. Use factoring and canceling or rationalizing the numerator.

Find the following limits if they exist. x  tan x

6. lim
x 0 sin x
1. lim(2 x  x  5)
3 2
x 3

sin(5 x)
2. lim( x cos x) 7. lim
 x 0 2x
x
6

x2  5x  6
3. lim
x 1 x 1 1  cos 
8. lim
 0 2sin 2 

xa
4. lim , (a  0)
x a x4  a4

9. lim  sec
 0

g ( x)  g (0)
5. lim , g ( x)  3 x 3  5
x 0 x3
 PTF #AB18 – Related Rates

Set up the related rate problem by:

1. Drawing a diagram and label.
2. Read the problem and write “Find = ”, “Where = ”, and “Given = ” with the appropriate
information.
3. Write the Relating Equation and if needed, substitute another expression to get
down to one variable.
4. Find the derivative of both sides of the equation with respect to t .
5. Substitute the “Given” and “When” and then solve for “Find”.

1. The top of a 25-foot ladder is sliding 2. An inverted cone has a height of 9 cm

down a vertical wall at a constant rate of 3 and a diameter of 6 cm. It is leaking water
feet per minute. When the top of the at the rate of 1 cm3 min . Find the rate at
ladder is 7 feet from the ground, what is which the water level is dropping when
the rate of change of the distance  1 2 
h  3 cm.  V   r h 
between the bottom of the ladder and the  3 
wall?
 PTF #AB 19 – Position, Speed, Velocity, Acceleration

1. Position Function: the function that gives the position (relative to the origin) of an
object as a function of time.
2. Velocity (Instantaneous): tells how fast something is going at that exact instant
and in which direction (how fast position is changing.)
3. Speed: tells how fast an object is going (not the direction.)
4. Acceleration: tells how quickly the object picks up or loses speed (how fast the
velocity is changing.)

Position Function: s(t ) or x(t )

Velocity Function: v(t )  s '(t )
Speed Function: speed  v(t )
Acceleration Function: a(t )  v '(t )  s ''(t )

1. A particle moves along the x -axis so d) What is the average velocity on the
that at time t (in seconds) its position is interval 1,3 ?
x(t )  t 3  6t 2  9t  11 feet.

a) What is the velocity of the particle

at t  0 ? The acceleration at t  0 ?

e) What is the average acceleration on

the interval 3, 6 ?
b) During what time intervals is the
particle moving to the left? To the
right?

f) What is the total distance traveled

by the particle from t  0 to t  5 ?
c) During what time intervals is the
acceleration positive? Negative?
 PTF #AB 20 – Intermediate Value Theorem
If these three conditions are true for a function:
1. f is continuous on the closed interval  a, b f(b) 

2. f (a)  f (b) 

3. k is any number between f (a) and f (b)

k has to be in
Then there is at least one number c in  a, b for


here
a b
which f (c)  k .    

f(a)
*As long as the function is continuous and the endpoints


you can find a c-value in

don’t have the same y-value, then the function must take 
here that will give you that
k-value
on every y-value between those of the endpoints.

1. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to 2. Let f ( x) be a continuous function on

show that f ( x)  x3  2 x  1 has a zero in the the interval 2  x  2 . Use the table of
interval  0,1 . values below to determine which of the
following statements must be true.

x -2 -1 0 1 2
f ( x) -4 1 6 3 -5

I. f ( x) takes on the value of 5

II. A zero of f ( x) is between -2 and -1
III. A zero of f ( x) is 6

(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) III only
(D) I and II only
(E) I, II, and III
 PTF #AB 21 – Mean Value Theorem & Rolle’s Theorem

Mean Value Theorem:

What you need: a function that is continuous and differentiable on a closed interval
f (b)  f (a)
What you get: f '(c)  where c is an x -value in the given interval
ba
Verbally it says: The instantaneous rate of change = average rate of change
Graphically it says: The tangent line is parallel to the secant line

Rolle’s Theorem (special case of Mean Value Theorem):

What you need: a function that is continuous and differentiable on a closed interval
AND the y -values at the endpoints to be equal
What you get: f '(c)  0 where c is an x -value in the given interval
Verbally it says: The derivative equals zero somewhere in the interval
Graphically it says: There is a horizontal tangent line (max or min)

1. Let f be the function given by 2. Determine if Rolle’s Theorem applies.

f ( x)  x  7 x  6 . Find the number c
3
If so, find c . If not, tell why.
that satisfies the conclusion of the f ( x)  x 4  2 x 2 for  2, 2
Mean Value Theorem for f on 1,3 .

3. Let f be a function that is

differentiable on the interval 1,10  . If
f (2)  5 , f (5)  5 , and f (9)  5 , which
of the following must be true? Choose
all that apply.

I. f has at least 2 zeros.

II. The graph of f has at least one
horizontal tangent line.
III. For some c , 2  c  5 , then
f (c)  3
 PTF #AB 22 – Extrema on an Interval

Extrema: the extreme values, i.e. the absolute maximums and minimums

Extreme Value Theorem: As long as f is continuous on a closed interval, then f will

have both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum.

Finding Extrema on a closed interval:

1. Find the critical numbers of the function in the specified interval.
2. Evaluate the function to find the y -values at all critical numbers and at each
endpoint.
3. The smallest y -value is the absolute minimum and the largest y -value is the
absolute maximum.

1. Find the absolute extrema of each c. f ( x)  x  e2 x  1 on  0,3

function for the given interval:

a. f ( x)  x 2  1 on 1, 2

b. f ( x)  x  2cos( x) on  0, 2 
 PTF #AB 23 – Finding Increasing/Decreasing Intervals

1. Find the critical numbers.

2. Set up test intervals on a number line.
3. Find the sign of f '( x) (the derivative) for each interval.
4. If f '( x) is positive then f ( x) (the original function) is increasing.
If f '( x) is negative then f ( x) (the original function) is decreasing.

1. Find the intervals on which the function 3. The derivative, g ' , of a function is
3
f ( x)  x3  x 2 is increasing and continuous and has two zeros. Selected
2 values of g ' are given in the table
decreasing. Justify. below. If the domain of g is the set of
all real numbers, then g is decreasing
on which interval(s)? Increasing?

x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
g '( x) 2 3 0 -3 -2 -1 0 3 2

2. Let f be a function given by

f ( x)  x4  x 2  2 . On which intervals is
f increasing? Justify.
 PTF #AB 24 – Relative Maximums and Minimums

First Derivative Test:

1. If f '( x) changes from + to -, then x is a relative max.
2. If f '( x) changes from - to +, then x is a relative min.

Second Derivative Test:

1. If f ''( x) is neg (the function is ccd), then x is a relative max.
2. If f ''( x) is pos (the function is ccu), then x is a relative min.
* x must be a critical number*

To find the y-value or the max/min and to see if it is an absolute max/min:

1. Take the x -values and plug them back in to the original equation.
2. Compare.

1. The function defined by f ( x)  x3  3x 2 3. What is the minimum value of

for all real numbers has a relative f ( x)  x ln x ? Justify.
maximum at x = ? Justify.

2. Find the relative maximum value for

f ( x)   x 2  3 e x . Justify.

4. If f has a critical number at x  2 and

f ''( x)  3 , then what can you conclude
about f at x  2 ?
 PTF #AB 25 – Points of Inflection

Points of Inflection: Points on the original function where the concavity changes.

1. Find where y '' is zero or undefined – these are your possible points of inflection
(PPOIs)
2. Must test intervals to find the actual POIs – they are only where the second
derivative changes sign!

1. Write the equation of the line tangent 2. Given f ''( x)   x  3 x  1 , find the
2

to the curve y  x3  3x 2  2 at its point

points of inflection of the graph of
of inflection. y  f ( x) .
 PTF #AB 26 – Finding Concave Up/Concave Down Intervals

1. Find the PPOIs.

2. Set up test intervals on a number line.
3. Find the sign of f ' '( x) (the second derivative) for each interval.
4. If f ' '( x) is positive then f ( x) (the original function) is concave up (ccu).
If f ' '( x) is negative then f ( x) (the original function) is concave down (ccd).

1. Find the intervals on which the 2. Let f be a function given by

function f ( x)  6  x  3
1
2
is concave up f ( x)  3x4  16 x3  24 x2  48 . On which
or concave down. Justify. intervals is f concave down? Justify.
 PTF #AB 27 – “U-Substitution” Rule

1. Let u  inner function.

2. Find du , then solve for dx .
3. Substitute u & du into the integrand (it should know fit one of the integration
rules).
4. Integrate.
5. Substitute the inner function back for u .

1. Integrate  9  x  3x  5  2 x  3  dx e tan x

2 8

 4. Integrate  dx
cos 2 x

ex
2. Integrate  sin 3x cos3x  dx 5. Integrate  1  e x dx
2

6. Using the substitution u  2 x  1 ,

 
2
2 x  1 dx is equal to
3. Integrate  e dx
3 x 1 0

1 12 1 2
2  1 2 2 0
(A) u du (B) u du

1 5
2 1
2
(C) u du (D)  0
u du

5
(E) 
1
u du
 PTF #AB 28 – Approximating Area

Finding a Left or Right Riemann Sum or Trapezoidal Sum:

1. Divide the interval into the appropriate subintervals.
2. Find the y-value of the function at each subinterval.
1
3. Use the formula for a rectangle ( bh ) or trapezoid ( b  h1  h2  ) to find the area of
2
each individual piece.
4. You must show work to earn credit on these!
5. Always justify a left or right Riemann sum as an over or under approximation using
the fact that the function is increasing or decreasing.
Left Sum Right Sum
Increasing
Under approx. Over approx.
curve
Decreasing
Over approx. Under approx.
curve

1. Use a left Riemann Sum with 4 equal 2. Values of a continuous function f ( x)

4
are given below. Use a trapezoidal sum
subdivisions to approximate
 0
x 2 dx .
with four subintervals of equal length to
2.2
approximate
 1
f ( x)

x 1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2

f ( x) 6.0 5.1 4.3 2.0 0.3

a. Is this approximation an over or

underestimate? Justify.
 PTF #AB 29 – Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If f is a continuous function on  a, b and F is an antiderivative of f on  a, b , then

  f ( x)  dx  F (b)  F (a)
b

Graphically this means the signed area bounded by x  a , x  b , y  f ( x) , and the x -axis.

  4x  6 x  dx   5e  dx
2 3
1. Evaluate: 3
4. Evaluate: x
1 ln 2

 4
 x4
2. Evaluate:   sin x  dx
2
0 5. Evaluate: 1  2  dx
 x 

6. What are all the values of k for

k
1 which  x 2 dx  0 ?
3. Evaluate: 
4 x 3
e dx
0
 PTF #AB 30 – Properties of Definite Integrals

  f ( x)  dx  0
a
1. If f is defined at x  a , then
a

2. If f is integrable on  a, b , then   f ( x)  dx    f ( x)  dx
a b

b a

  f ( x)  dx    f ( x)  dx    f ( x)  dx
b c b
3. If f is integrable, then
a a c

2. Which, if any, of the following are false?

  f ( x)  dx  4   f ( x)  dx  7
10 3
1. If and
1 10

  f ( x)  dx  ?
3
, then
a  f ( x)  g ( x)  dx  a  f ( x)  dx  a  g ( x)  dx
b b b
1 I.

II.

 
a  f ( x) g ( x)  dx  a  f ( x)  dx a  g ( x)  dx
b b b

  cf ( x)  dx  c   f ( x)  dx
b b
III.
a a
 PTF #AB 31 – Average Value of a Function

If f is integrable on  a, b , then the average value from the interval is

1
 f ( x)  dx
b

b  a a
To find where this height occurs in the interval:
1. Set f ( x)  answer (average value).
2. Solve for x .
3. Check to see if the x  value in the given interval.

1. Find the average value of f ( x)  sin x 3. The function

over  0,   .  t   7t 
f (t )  6  cos    3sin  
 10   40 
is used to model the velocity of a plane in
miles per minute. According to this model,
what is the average velocity of the plane for
0  t  40 ? (calculator)

2. Find the average value of y  x 2 x3  1

on the interval  0, 2 , then find where this
value occurs in the interval.
 PTF #AB 32 – 2nd Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

To find the derivative of an integral:

d  x
 f (t )  dt   f ( x)  dx
dx   a
*Remember that a must be a constant. If it is not, then you must use your properties
of integrals to make it a constant.

x 3x
v 1. For F ( x) 
 2
1  t 2 dt , find 4. Given f ( x) 
 0
 4  2t  dt and

(a) F (2)  
g ( x)  f e x , find
(a) f '(1)
1.
(b) F '(3)

(b) g ( x) in terms of an integral

2. Evaluate:
d 3 t
dx  2 x
 e  3 dt
(c) g '( x)

(d) g '(0)

sec t  dt
x3
3. Find F '( x) if F ( x)   2
x

(e) Write the equation for the tangent line

to g ( x) at x  0
 PTF #AB 33 – Extensions of FTC

1. FTC as Accumulation (“Integrate removes the rate!”):

  P '(t )  dt  P(b)  P(a) (gives total population added

b
a. Change in Population:
a

between time a and b)

  R '(t )  dt  R(b)  R(a) (gives total amount added of

b
b. Change in Amount:
a

water, sand, traffic, etc. between time a and b)

2. FTC as Final Position (“Integrate to find the end!”):
 v(t )  dt
b
 Particle Position: S (b)  S (a)   (gives particle position at a certain
a

time, b)
 R '(t )  dt
b
 Total Amount: R(b)  R(a)   (gives total amount of water, sand,
a

traffic, etc. at a given time, b)

1. A particle moves along the y -axis so 2. A metal A metal of length 8 cm is

that v(t )  t sin  t 2  for t  0 . Given that s(t ) heated at one end. The function
T '( x)  2 x  3 gives the temperature, in C ,
is the position of the particle and that
s(0)  3 , find s(2) . of the wire x cm from the heated end.

 T '( x)  dx
8
1. Find and indicate units of
0

measure. Explain the meaning of the

temperature of the wire.
1.
 PTF #AB 34 – Accumulating Rates

 Identify the rate going in and the rate going out.

 To find a max or min point, set the two rates equal to each other and solve.
 To find the total amount
b b
Total=Initial Amt 
 a
Rate Added 
 a
Rate Removed

 Remember to think of different blocks of time for piece-wise functions. Try to

visualize what is happening in the situation before you try to put the math to work.

A factory produces bicycles at a rate of 3. Find when the number of bicycles in the
p(w)  95  0.1w2  w bikes per week for warehouse is at a minimum.
0  w  25 . They can ship bicycles out at a
90 0 w3
rate of s( w)   bikes/week.
95 3  w  25

1. How many bicycles are produced in the

first 2 weeks?

2. How many bicycles are in the warehouse

4. The factory needs to stop production if
at the end of week 3?
the number of bicycles stored in the
warehouse reaches 20 or more. Does the
factory need to stop production at any
time during the first 25 weeks? If so,
when?
 PTF #AB 35 – Functions Defined by Integrals

 f (t )  dt
x
F ( x)  
a

 F '( x)  f (t ) (The function in the integrand is the derivative equation!)

 These problems work just like curve sketching problems – you are looking at a
derivative graph so answer accordingly.
 To evaluate F (b) , find the area under the curve from where it tells you to start (a) to
the number given (b).

Let f be a function defined on the closed 3. Find the x -coordinate of each point of
interval  0, 7  . The graph of f , consisting of inflection of the graph of g on the
four line segments, is shown below. Let g interval 0  x  7 . Justify your answer.
x
be the function given by g ( x)   f (t ) dt .
2


1
4. Let h( x)  f (t )dt  x 2 . Find all
2 3
critical values for h( x) and classify them
as a minimum, maximum or neither.
1. Find g (3) , g '(3) , and g ''(3) .

2. Find the average rate of change of g on

the interval 0  x  3 .
 PTF #AB 36 – Solving Differential Equations

1. Separate the variables (usually worth 1 point on a free response question).

2. Integrate both sides, putting “C” on the side with the dependent variable (found on
the bottom of the differential). (If there is no “C”, you lose all points for this part
on a free response question.)
3. If there is an initial condition, get to a point where it is easy to substitute in the
initial condition and then solve for “C”.
4. Use the “C” you found and then continue to solve for f ( x) (if needed.)

1. Find a solution y  f ( x) to the 3. Find y  f ( x) by solving the differential

2 dy
differential equation
dy 3x
 equation  y 2  6  2 x  with initial
dx e 2 y dx
1
satisfying f (0) 
1
. condition f (3)  .
2 4

dy
2. If  2 y 2 and if y  1 when x  1 ,
dx
then when x  2 , y  ?
 PTF #AB 37 – Slope Fields

1. Substitute ordered pairs into the derivative to compute slope values at those points.
2. Construct short line segments on the dots to approximate the slope values.
3. For a particular solution, sketch in the curve using the initial condition and guided by
the tangent lines.

1. Consider the differential equation c. Find the particular solution y  f ( x)

dy
 x 2  y  1 . to the given differential equation
dx with the initial condition f (0)  3 .
Draw in the solution.
a. On the axes provided, sketch a slope
field for the given differential
equation at the twelve points
indicated.

b. Describe all points in the xy  plane

for which the slopes are positive.
 PTF #AB 38 – Exponential Growth & Decay

 Direct Variation is denoted by y  kx .

k
 Inverse Variation is denoted by y  .
x

* k is called the constant of variation and must be found in each problem by using the
initial conditions.

dy
 If y is a differentiable function of t such that  ky , then y  Cekt .
dt

1. If
dy
 ky and k is a non-zero constant, 2. The number of bacteria in a culture is
dt growing at a rate of 3000e2t 5 per unit
then y could be of time t . At t  0 , the number of
bacteria present was 7,500. find the
(A) 2ekty (B) 2ekt (C) ekt  3 number present at t  5 .

1 2 1
(D) kty  5 (E) ky 
2 2
 PTF #AB 39 – Particle Motion Summary

 Position Function: s(t ) or x(t )

 Velocity Function: v(t )  s '(t )
 Acceleration Function: a(t )  v '(t )  s ''(t )
b
 Displacement:  a
v(t ) dt
b
 Total Distance:  a
v(t ) dt
b
 Position of the Particle at time t  b : s(b)  s(a)   v(t ) dt
a

A particle moves along the x -axis with 3. Find all values of t for which the
velocity at time t  0 given by v(t )  1  e1t . particle changes direction. Justify
At time t  0 , s  2 . your answer.

1. Find a(3) , v(3) and s(3) .

4. Find the displacement and total

distance of the particle over the
time interval 0  t  3 .

2. Is the speed of the particle

increasing at time t  3 ? Give a
reason for your answer.
 PTF #AB 40 – Area Between 2 Curves

If f and g are continuous on  a, b and g ( x)  f ( x) bounded by the vertical lines x  a and

x  b , then the area between the curves is found by
 f ( x)  g ( x)  dx
b
A
a

To find the area of a region:

1. Sketch or draw the graphs.
2. Determine whether you need dx or dy (going vertically or horizontally)
3. Find the limits from the boundaries, axes or intersections.
4. Set up the integral by Top  Bottom if dx or Right  Left if dy .
5. Integrate and evaluate the integral.

1. Find the area of the region in the first 3. Find the area of R, the region in the
quadrant that is enclosed by the graphs first quadrant enclosed by the graphs of
of y  x3  8 and y  x  8 . f ( x)  1  sin(2 x) and g ( x)  e x 2 .
(calculator)

2. The area of the region bounded by the

lines x  0 , x  2 and y  0 and the
curve y  e x 2 is ___.
 PTF #AB 41 – Volumes of Slabs (Cross Sections)

Volume =  Area
Volume of Slabs (Cross Sections):
 If the solid does NOT revolve around an axis, but instead has cross sections of a
certain shape.
 A( x)  dx  A( y)  dy
b d
 V  (perpendicular to the x  axis) or V   (perpendicular
a c

to the y  axis)
 A( x) represents the area of the cross section
3 2 
Equilateral Triangle: A  s Semicircle: A  s2
4 8
Rectangle: A  s(height) Square: A  s 2

1 2 1 2
Isos. Rt. Tri (on hyp.) : A  s Isos. Rt. Tri (on leg): A  s
4 2

1. Let R be the region in the first 2. Find the volume of the sold whose base
1 is enclosed by x 2  y 2  1 and whose cross
quadrant under y  for 4  x  9 .
x sections taken perpendicular to the base
Find the volume of the solid whose base are semicircles.
is the region R and whose cross
sections cut by planes  to the x -axis
are squares.

3. Find the volume of a solid whose base is

the circle  x  1  y 2  9 and whose
2

cross-sections have area formula given

by A( x)  sin  x   2 x .
 PTF #AB 42 – Volumes of Rotations (Discs & Washers)

Volume of Disks:
 If the solid revolves around a horizontal/vertical axis and is flush up against the
line of rotation.
 r  dx (horizontal axis) or V     r  dy (vertical axis)
b d
 V  2 2
a c

 r is the length of chord from curve to axis of rotation

Volume of Washer:
 If the solid revolves around a horizontal/vertical axis and is NOT flush up
against the line of rotation.
R  r 2  dx (horizontal axis) or V    R  r 2  dy (vertical axis)
b d
 V  2 2
a c

 R is the length of chord from farthest away curve to axis of rotation

 r is the length of chord from closest in curve to axis of rotation

1. Find the volume of the solid generated 3. Find the volume of the solid generated
by the graph bounded by y  x 2 and the by revolving x  1  y with y  3 and
line y  4 when it is revolved about the x  0 about the y -axis.
x -axis. (calculator)

2. The region enclosed by the x -axis, the

line x  3 , and the curve y  x is
rotated about the x -axis. What is the
volume of the solid generated?