URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

This lecture notes enlightens you on Urbanization, help identify major problems that have
surfaced due to the unprecedented rate of urban growth in India.
Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding
decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies
adapt to this change.
Reasons for urbanization:

 Employment opportunities Increase in population

 Rural to urban migration

 Better education for children
 Better standards of living
 Better commodity availability
 Rural push factors and urban pull factors
 Better health care facilities

Impacts of urbanization on the Environment:

1. Habitat loss and deforestation: Forest fires because of natural or manmade causes are
devastating to the flora and fauna, resulting in the loss of biodiversity.

©CanStockPhoto.com-csp79280678

2. The evolution of lifecycle and traits

Urbanization alters abiotic and biotic environments over time and space. Several ecological
changes are associated with urbanization and have the potential to strongly affect the
evolution of the urban population

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Therefore, urbanization can also have an impact on the evolution of life cycles and traits that
help different species to survive and reproduce in disturbed or altered ecosystems. For
example, some bird populations living in urban environments have altered their beak shape to
be able to more effectively eat the seeds in human-made bird feeders.

3. Transmission of diseases

The most predominant health problems associated with urbanization are poor nutrition,
pollution-related health conditions, the emergence of infectious diseases, inadequate
sanitation, and housing conditions, resulting in adverse health outcomes. They influence the
individual's quality of life while also compromising on public health, placing burdens on
public health systems and resources.

For example, the impact of urbanization on the transmission of disease can be clearly seen in
the recent COVID-19 pandemic. In India, metropolitans contributed three-fourths of total
cases from the beginning. The transport networks attributed significantly to transmitting the
virus from the urban containment zones.

The outbreak of the COVID-19 epidemic has triggered the discussion of the relationship
between urbanization and the spread of infectious diseases. One hypothesis attributes the
intensified transmission of COVID-19 to the “urban diseases” caused by the rapid urban
expansion, such as increased population ratio, dense buildings, environmental pollution, and
deteriorated sanitation by many people, which finally threatens residents’ public health. The

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main basis of this hypothesis is that there is a significant gap in the number of confirmed
COVID-19 cases between urban and rural areas in various cities.

The above figure shows that because of urbanization, the people live much more closure in
the small apartments/houses and a little sneeze or a cough can easily and very quickly
transmit the disease (COVID-19) to a large population in a short- duration of time.

4. Increasing the transport of invasive species

What Makes a Species "Invasive"?

An invasive species can be any kind of living organism—an amphibian (like the cane toad),
plant, insect, fish, fungus, bacteria, or even an organism’s seeds or eggs—that is not native to
an ecosystem and causes harm. They can harm the environment, the economy, or even human
health. Species that grow and reproduce quickly, and spread aggressively, with the potential
to cause harm, are given the label “invasive.”

How Invasive Species Spread

Invasive species are primarily spread by human activities, often unintentionally. People, and
the goods we use, travel around the world very quickly, and they often carry uninvited

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species with them. Ships can carry aquatic organisms in their ballast water, while smaller
boats may carry them on their propellers. Insects can get into the wood, shipping palettes, and
crates that are shipped around the world. Some ornamental plants can escape into the wild
and become invasive, while some invasive species are intentionally or accidentally released
to pets.

Threats to Native Wildlife

Invasive species cause harm to wildlife in many ways. When a new and aggressive species is
introduced into an ecosystem, it may not have any natural predators or controls. It can breed
and spread quickly, taking over an area. Native wildlife may not have evolved defenses
against the invader, or they may not be able to compete with a species that has no predators.

5. Paving the land with concrete

Paving land with concrete has a huge impact on the ecosystem such as:

 Increase in water runoff

 Increase in erosion
 Decrease in soil quality
 Decreases water quality by increasing sediment and pollutants in rivers and streams.

6. Increase in the regional temperature

As cities add roads, buildings, industry, and people, heat islands are created in urban areas.
An urban heat island is a name given to describe the characteristic warmth of both the

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atmosphere and surfaces in urban sprawls as compared to their non-urbanized or less
urbanized surroundings

In the above figure with the time frame 1950-2100, there is Modelled past warning followed
by Aggressive emissions reductions and then Business as usual emissio ns.

Impact of high temperature on human health and environment:

 Drinking lots of water to lower the body temperature and prevent dehydration.
 Vitamin D deficiency because of non-exposure to sunlight and avoiding high temperature
 Occurrence of several new diseases
 Plant growth, yield, and harvesting time have been changed and affected

7. Other impacts of urbanization:

 Industrial growth
 Increase in employment
 Social factors (moving more people from rural to urban)
 Economic problem during epidemic/pandemic
 Political turmoil
 Modernization
 Increase in population density
 Closely constructed houses
 Increased chance of epidemics

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 Increased traffic resulting in traffic jams
 More need of resources- Energy, water, and fuel, stress has been increased on locally
available resources
 High level of pollution in the air, water, soil-waste dumping
 Decreased aesthetic appeal of the landscape
 Loss of farmland
 Reduced species diversity
 Increased storm water runoff, because of the construction of pavement. As paving land
with concrete can increase water runoff, increase erosion and decrease soil quality.
 Increased risk of flooding
 Excessive removal of native vegetation
 Ecosystem of fragmentation

8. Positive impacts of Urbanization

 More employment opportunities

 Access to recreation, ecotourism,
 Consumerism

Sustainable Urban Development: is important because urban areas contribute significantly

to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). They contribute increasingly to export and is a rich
place for capital formation. Cities offer quality education and health care; arts and science;
technology and innovation and transport and communication.

 Some of the pre-requisites of sustainable urban development are:

 Income and output to be produced at a constant or even increasing return to scale.
 City should assure a minimum level of living to its inhabitants.
 A shift in the attitude of the people in the direction towards enterprise and equity.
 City should become self-reliant and sustain itself without much depending on external
sources.
 The developmental institutions undergo a continual renewal to maintain their relevance to
the needs of the urban areas.
 Participation of the private sector, NGOs, and CVOs should be encouraged in order to
maintain the level of development.

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 Management of Urban growth to promote minimal use of environmental capital, while
meeting social and economic goals.
 Zero waste disposal to be adopted and to become a habit. Japan leads the world in zero
waste management. Indore, an Indian city has bagged the first prize for five consecutive
years for their waste management.

The Agenda 21 of WCED held in 1992 in Rio-de-Janerio for promoting Sustainable Human
Settlement Development is

 Providing adequate shelter to all

 Improving human settlements management
 Promoting Sustainable land use planning and management.
 Promoting the integrated provision of environmental infrastructure: water, sanitation,
drainage, hazardous and solid waste management.
 Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in human settlements.
 Promoting human settlement planning and management in disaster-prone areas.
 Promoting sustainable construction industry activities.
 Promoting human resources development and capacity building for human settlement
development

9. Pros and Cons of Urbanization

Cons of Urbanization
Pros of Urbanization

Better public transport Higher level of air pollution

Better overall infrastructure More particles pollution

More education opportunities Noise pollution

Increasing property prices of homeowners Light pollution

People can use their time more efficiently Littering

More conveniently if you have kids Cities may become quite crowded

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Connection to the electricity grid and sewer Traffic jams
system

Better internet connection Higher level of stress

More efficient in terms of land use Increasing health issues

People in cities are usually more tolerant Increasing rent for tenants

Better connection of healthcare facilities Higher chances of homelessness

Better R&D opportunities to foster Development of slums

technological progress
Urbanization attracts tourists Spread of diseases
Multicultural attitude Waste management of problems

Easier to socialize Pets may not like the city life

Lower Unemployment rates Lack of natural spaces

10. Summary

We understood urbanization, the reasons for urbanization and its problems, the impact of
urbanization on the environment, discuss the problems of housing, water supply, transport,
and environmental pollution in urban India, and the association of urbanization with human
development and progress. Let’s ensure to consciously reduce the problems of urbanization
using advanced technical and apt solution.

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 Population Age structure
Introduction:

The age structure of a population refers to the proportionate numbers of people in different
age categories in a given population for a defined time. It is a natural characteristic of a
population in a country or a region. The age structure is closely related to the birth rate, death
rate and migration of a population

1. Few concepts are needed to understand the population age structure

1.1 Total fertility rate: The average number of children that would be born to a woman in
her lifetime if the age-specific birth rates remain constant.

 In developed nations TFR: 1.9

 In developing nations TFR: 4.7
 In 1960’s in India TFR was ~6
 It is 2.68 in 2007, 2.40 in 2015, and 2.159 is 2022

1.2 The earth’s carrying capacity:

Carrying capacity: The number of individuals who can be supported in a given area within
natural resource limits, and without degrading the natural, social-cultural, and economic
environment for present and future generations.

 If the carrying capacity is exceeded, it will negatively impact sustainable development

 No population can live beyond the environment’s carrying capacity for a long time

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 A study indicates the earth’s carrying capacity as 10 billion people.

1.3. Exponential growth:

 When any quantity increases by a constant amount per unit time, 1,3,5,7 etc., it is called
linear growth. However, when it increases by a fixed percentage, it is called exponential
growth. This exponential growth is the reason for the enormous rise in global population.

1.4. Doubling time:

The time needed for a population to double its size at a constant annual rate is called doubling
time. It is calculated as follows:

Td = 70/r, where

Td = doubling time in years

r = annual growth rate.

If a nation has a 2% annual growth rate, its population will double in 35 years.

1.5. Population size: is the number of individuals present in the country

1.6. Mortality: is the number of deaths of individuals per unit time.

1.7 Zero population growth (ZPZ)

When birth plus immigration in a population is just equal to deaths plus emigration, it is said
to be zero population growth

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1.8. Population profile: It is also called age structure. It is a bar graph plotted with number
of males and females for successive ages in the population, with the oldest or the aged at the
top of the pyramid. The males are represented on the left hand side in blue, while the females
are represented on the right using a pink colour..

It is common in demography to split the population into three broad age groups:
Stage1: pre-reproductive stage 0-14 years, children and young adolescents
Stage2: reproductive stage 15-60 years, the working-age population
Stage3: post-reproductive stage 60 or 65 plus, the elderly population
Note that:
(In some demographic graphs age groups are grouped as 0-14; 15-44 and 45 and above years
)
2.Age Structure and their types:
Different types pyramid, bell, urn shape, population growth can be predicted. Here horizontal
axis is the number of individuals and the vertical axis represents age structure. Age structure
is divided into three stages: pre-reproductive ages, reproductive age, and post-reproductive
age.

Here are some more examples of countries with expanding rapidly, expanding slowly, stable,
and declining population age structures.

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In these images, we can see the shape of the population according to the three stages
discussed earlier: depending on pre-reproductive, productive, and post-reproductive stages. In
these images, males are represented on the left hand and females on the right hand.
2.1 Pyramid shaped:
Here the very young population is more, making a broad base and old people are less. This
type indicates growing population.
●The large number of individuals in very young age will soon enter into reproductive age,
thus causing an increase in population, whereas
●Less number of people in old age indicate less loss of population due to death.

●India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Nigeria are examples of this type

Case 1: increasing population: A progressive age structure is one in which both birth and
death rates are high. Here, wide base of pre-reproductive individuals, indicating a high
fertility rate and growing population. Children account for only 45-55% of the total
population and the aged for only 5-10%. Such a structure is common in developing countries
where social, cultural, and perhaps religious and economic conditions lead to high fertility,
and poor living conditions, bad diets, and little medical aid lead to high levels of mortality.

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India as an illustration: Source courtesy: Textbook: Environmental Science and Engineering,
Kaushik and Kaushik, New age publishers.

2.2 Bell shaped:

It occurs in countries like France, USA and Canada where birth rates have in the past one or
two decades declined resulting in people of almost equal number in age group 0-35 years.

So in the next 10 years, the people entering into reproductive age group is not going to

change much and such age-pyramids indicate stable populations .

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France as an illustration: Source courtesy: Textbook: Environmental Science and
Engineering, Kaushik and Kaushik, New age publishers.

Case 2: stable population: A stationary age structure is one in which birth and death rates
are both low and children account for about 35-40% of the total population and the aged for
about 10%. Here, Pre-reproductive and reproductive groups have similar widths, indicating a
fertility rate at about replacement level and results in a stable population. This pattern may
remain the same for many years

2.3 Urn shaped:

Here number of individuals in very young class is smaller than the middle reproductive age
class.
In the next 10 years the number in reproductive age class will thus become less before
resulting in a decline of population.

Germany, Italy, Hungary, Sweden and Japan are examples of this type.

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Germany as an illustration: Source courtesy: Textbook: Environmental Science and
Engineering, Kaushik and Kaushik, New age publishers.

Case 3: Decreasing population: A regressive age structure is one in which birth and death
rates are low and declining. Here, pre-reproductive age groups are narrower than reproductive
age groups, indicating a low fertility rate and resulting in a shrinking population. Children
account for about 30% of the total population and the aged for above 15%. This pattern is
common in developed countries (especially those in Western Europe), where high living
standards, education, and social awareness are accompanied by good food and medicine.

3.India population:
The present population of India is 1.21 billion and these numbers are increasing every day.
From the figure shown below, it can be concluded that by 2050 women will have an average

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of 2.5 children which is the highest estimate to the lowest estimate of 1.5 childre

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4.Effect of growing population on the nature

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source courtesy: https://www.blendspace.com/lessons/SzQzdtRv3gVK5Q/population-growth-
and-natural-resources

5. Factors that are influenced by the age structure:

The age structure of a population affects a nation's key socioeconomic issues.

 Countries with young populations (high percentage under age 15) need to invest more
in schools
 Countries with older populations (high percentage ages 65 and over) need to invest
more in the health sector.
 The age structure can also be used to help predict potential political issues. For
example, the rapid growth of a young adult population unable to find employment can
lead to unrest

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6. Interpretation of age structure using examples:
Example 1:Population pyramid of UGANDA 2012

i. As a result of lower mortality but still high fertility, Uganda has developed a very
youthful age structure.
ii. Uganda's population will continue to grow because of the large number of people
who are either currently at an age when they are having children or who will soon
enter that age group.
iii. More youthful dependence means the government has to give more money and
adapt schemes for child welfare, schools and their policies.
iv. These policies or schemes are important to implement considering they are going
to be the next reproductive stage. T
v. herefore, government has to concentrate on education, health and psychological
impacts considering that these children who will be adults in the future impact the
country.
vi. So, UGANDA is progressing as these children grow up provided, they are given
good opportunities for education, better resources for upskilling and will also be
productive to the nation in the future.

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Example 2: Population pyramid of JAPAN 2015

The above figure is the population age structure in Japan in 2015, where we can see a big
urn-like structure. We see the male and female congregation and also people living up to 90
plus age. Also, we see a smaller number of pre-reproductive populations i.e., a smaller
number of children whether it is male or female. Therefore, a large number of populations are
in the middle group / middle band, which is working for the band and making sufficient
money for their living. Also, the nation can use the talent and convert it into a progressive
ratio of the country based on this talent pool which is available with the working population.
Here, government can provide training opportunities and nurturing of their population’s talent
to convert into productive outcomes. Here government focus is on training process,
workplace ethics and etiquette, targeted skills, and skill training structures for a particular
band. However, there is a hitch in this graph as the life expectancy of the Japanese is pretty
high, which means the elderly persons at home. This means the government has to spend lots
of money on medical facilities to provide health care facilities and also to the ones who are
taking care of elderly people and address their emotional physical and psychological needs.
Because of the lots of development in the healthcare systems, and medical transformations,
peoples have much better lifestyles.

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How to slow down population

 Promote economic development

 Promote-family-planning

 Promote women empowerment

7. Summary:

We learned about population age structure, characteristics of population age structure, how to
draw it and depiction, understanding the number of male and female age structure in the
groups and its impact on the population size. We also learned about the definitions of the
fertility rate, doubling time, and zero population growth.

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13
 Sustainable Human Societies
Economic growth and development
• Economic growth is an increase in a nation’s capacity to provide goods and services to
people.
It involves making an economy bigger. Its goal is to use political and economic systems to
encourage environmentally beneficial and more sustainable forms of economic development,
and to discourage environmentally harmful and unsustainable forms of economic growth.
• Economic development is the improvement of human living standards made possible by
economic growth.
Economic Systems Are Supported by Three Types of Resources
●An economic system is a social institution through which goods and services are
produced, distributed, and consumed to satisfy people’s needs and wants, ideally in the most
efficient way possible.
●Three types of capital, or resources, are used to produce goods and services.
♦Natural capital includes resources and services produced by the earth’s natural processes,
which support all economies and all life.
♦Human capital, or human resources, includes people’s physical and mental talents that
provide labor, organizational and management skills, and innovation.
♦Manufactured capital, or manufactured resources, refers to items such as machinery,
equipment, and factories made from natural resources with the help of human resources.
Natural capital:
Environmental and ecological economists have developed various tools for estimating the
values of the earth’s natural capital.
The three goals of this study are to
(1) integrate economic and ecological knowledge in order to estimate the economic and
ecological values of ecosystem services;
(2) to evaluate the costs and benefits of actions that could be taken to prevent the decline
of these services;
(3) to develop toolkits to help local, regional, and international policy makers promote
more sustainable development that conserves ecosystems and biodiversity.
Ecological and environmental economists have developed ways to estimate non-use values
of natural resources and ecological services that are not represented in market transactions.
One such value is an existence value—a monetary value placed on a resource such as an
old-growth forest or endangered species just because it exists, even though we may never see
it or use it. Another is aesthetic value—a monetary value placed on a forest, species, or a
part of nature because of its beauty. A third type, called a bequest or option value, is based
on the willingness of people to pay to protect some forms of natural capital for use by future
generations.

High-throughput economies of most developed countries

• The high-throughput economies of most developed countries rely on continually increasing
the rates of energy and matter flow to increase economic growth.
• This practice produces valuable goods and services, but it also converts high-quality matter
and energy resources into waste, pollution, and low-quality heat, and in the process, can
deplete or degrade various forms of natural capital that support all life and economies.
Environmental economists believe that conventional economic growth eventually will
become unsustainable. Their reasoning is that such growth will lead us to deplete or degrade
much of the natural capital.
• Ecological economists see all economies as human subsystems of the biosphere that depend
on natural resources and services provided by the sun and earth. They urge us to shift from
our current high throughput economies to more economically
sustainable economies, or eco-economies.
Environmental Economic Indicators
• Economic growth is usually measured by the percentage of change in a country’s gross
domestic product (GDP): the annual market value of all goods and services produced by
all firms and organizations, foreign and domestic, operating within a country
• Changes in a country’s economic growth per person are measured by per capita GDP: the
GDP divided by the country’s total population at midyear.
• Environmental and ecological economists and environmental scientists call for the
development and widespread use of new indicators—called green indicators—to help
monitor environmental quality and human wellbeing.
• One such indicator is the genuine progress indicator (GPI)
Subsidies
• Subsidies activities and projects which prevent pollution or don’t degrade environment.
• Tax the activities and projects which pollute and degrade environment.
• Japan, France, and Belgium have phased out all coal subsidies and Germany plans to do so
by 2018. China has cut coal subsidies by about 73% and has imposed a tax on high-sulfur
coals.
• Governments could phase in environmentally beneficial subsidies and tax breaks for
pollution prevention, eco-cities, sustainable forestry, sustainable agriculture, sustainable
water use, energy efficiency and renewable energy use, and actions to slow projected climate
change.
• The economy also will grow because of this.
 Use Lessons from Nature to Shift to More Sustainable Economies-low-throughput
economy
Learning and applying lessons from nature can help us design and manage more sustainable
economies.
Alow-throughput economy, based on energy flow and matter recycling, works with nature to
reduce excessive throughput and the unnecessary waste of matter and energy resources (green
boxes).
This is done by
(1) reusing and recycling most non-renewable matter resources;
(2) using renewable resources no faster than they are replenished;
(3) reducing resource waste by using matter and energy resources more efficiently;
(4) reducing unnecessary and environmentally harmful forms of consumption;
(5) emphasizing pollution prevention and waste reduction; and
6) controlling population growth to stabilize the number of matter and energy consumers.
We can use certain principles for shifting to more environmentally sustainable
economies, or eco-economies, during this century.
Economics:
Use full cost pricing
Sell more services instead of more things
Reduce poverty
Use eco-labels
Use environmental indicators to measure progress
Ecology and population
Mimic nature
Preserve biodiversity
Repair ecological damage
Stabilize human population.
Resource use and control pollution
Improve energy efficiency
Rely more on renewable resources
Shift to a non-carbon renewable energy economy
The environmental revolution

These are some of the cultural shifts in emphasis that will be necessary to bring about the
environmental or sustainability revolution.

Education on the ecological index is one of the key parameters in leading towards a
sustainable developed nation. So let’s all become socially and ecologically responsible.
 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The concept of sustainable development

Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. The concept of sustainable development does imply limits - not absolute limits but
limitations imposed by the present state of technology and social organization on
environmental resources and by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human
activities. But technology and social organization can be both managed and improved to make
way for a new era of economic growth. The Commission believes that widespread poverty is
no longer inevitable. Poverty is not only an evil in itself, but sustainable development requires
meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunities to fulfil their aspirations
for a better life. A world in which poverty is endemic will always be prone to ecological and
other catastrophes.

Meeting essential needs requires not only a new era of economic growth for nations in which
the majority are poor but an assurance that those poor get their fair share of the resources
required to sustain that growth. Such equity would be aided by political systems that secure
effective citizen participation in decision-making and by greater democracy in international
decision-making.

Sustainable global development requires that those who are more affluent adopt lifestyles
within the planet’s ecological means - in their use of energy, for example. Further, rapidly
growing populations can increase the pressure on resources and slow any rise in living
standards; thus sustainable development can only be pursued if population size and growth
are in harmony with the changing productive potential of the ecosystem.

Yet in the end, sustainable development is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process
of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation
of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with the future
as well as present needs. We do not pretend that the process is easy or straightforward.
Painful choices have to be made.

The genesis of sustainable development goals

World Summit on Sustainable Development which was held in Johannesburg renewed
international commitment to the pursuit of sustainable development with the Johannesburg
Plan of Implementation (JPOI); 2012 resulted in an outcome document “The Future We
Want”. In the document, the States reaffirmed the commitments to all previous sustainable
development agreements, plans and targets. They also committed to developing a suite of
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) building on the priorities identified in Agenda 21 and
the JPOI, and decided to replace the Commission for Sustainable Development with a ‘high-
level political forum’ to progress implementation of Agenda 21 and the JPOI, and the
achievement of the SDGs. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were agreed upon at
the United Nations in New York in September 2015.
Sustainable Development Goals are
Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture;
Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages;
Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all;
Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls;
Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all;
Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all;
Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all;
Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and
foster innovation;
Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries;
Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable;
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns;
Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts;
Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development;
Goal 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss;
Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels;
and
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for
sustainable development.
Sustainable human development and the environment
Economic development and sound environmental management are complementary aspects
of the same agenda. Without adequate environmental protection, development will be
undermined; without development, environmental protection will fail.

Awareness

Environmental conservation and regeneration are emerging concerns for one and all. These
should not be seen as someone else's responsibility. The results are the consequence for all
of us across all age groups and social strata.
The nation today needs a well-developed policy on the environment. This would mean
awareness at the nationwide level. This would also mean well-planned action. For this, it is
necessary to understand the causes of ignorance about the environment and
the misconceptions about it.
In India, ignorance and misconceptions prevail because of illiteracy on a large scale, lack of
proper orientation and training of functionaries and leaders, and lack of organised effort on
the part of the educational system to address these problems systematically.
Environmental matters of vital concern relate to the areas of agriculture, industry and health.
Knowledge about these and other areas can be imparted to the concerned people through
various educational programmes such as formal education at school and college levels, non-
formal education at the adult level, and special orientation and training of the functionaries
and opinion leaders. Mass media can play a vital role in this matter. It should be the concern
of the recipient to seek this knowledge rather than wait to be exposed to it.
 WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE

Women empowerment in India is the most effective tool for development as these days;
women across the world are actively working as a leader and surpassing others in all the
spheres of life. As the entire world is clasping its breath and praying every single day for an
incredible escape from the COVID-19 Pandemic, it is the women governors and nations
steered by these amazing figures who are taking over the responsibility and marching ahead
in the battle alone wherever required.

Definition:Empowerment
Empowerment means individuals acquiring the power to think and act freely, exercise
choices and fulfil their potential as full and equal members of the society.
Women Empowerment: Goal and Objectives

●The goal of this Policy is to bring about the advancement, development, to encourage active
participation and empowerment of women.
●The objectives of this Policy:

♦Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies for the development
of women

.♦In all human rights and fundamental freedom for women on equal basis with men in all:
political, economic, social, cultural and civil.

♦Equal access to participation and decision making of women in

Social, Political, Economic life of the nation,

Health care, Employment Quality education at all levels,

Equal remuneration, Occupational health and safety,

Social security and public office etc.

♦Strengthening the legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of discrimination against
women
.♦Changing societal attitudes and community practices by active participation.

♦Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women and the girl child.

♦Building and strengthening partnerships with civil society, particularly women‟s

organizations.

Education is the initial line of defense for women. With a meaningful education, the women‟s
status strides beyond the restrictions of motherliness. Advancement of education of women
and girls allots to the postponement of their marriage timing and the ensuing constriction in
the volume of their families.
NATIONAL POLICY FOR THE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN (2001)
Women Empowerment in India:
●Very essential for the development of society.
Empowerment of women has becoming a burning issue all over the world including India
since last few decades.
●The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble,
Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles.
The Constitution not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt
measures of positive discrimination in favour of women.
●From the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78) onwards has been a marked shift in the
approach to women‟s issues from welfare to development.
In recent years, the empowerment of women has been recognized as the central issue in
determining the status of women.
●The National Commission for Women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to
safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of women.
The 73rdand 74thAmendments (1993) to the Constitution of India have provided for
reservation of seats in the local bodies of Panchayatsand Municipalities for women, laying a
strong foundation for their participation in decision making at the local levels.

Women Empowerment Schemes:

Some schemes are:
●Rajiv Gandhi National Creche Scheme For the Children of Working Mothers
●Ministry approves new projects under Ujjawala Scheme and continues existing projects
●UJJAWALA: A Comprehensive Scheme for Prevention of trafficking and Resue,
Rehabilitation and Re-integration of Victims of Trafficking and Commercial Sexual
Exploitation
●Working Women Hostel
●SWADHAR Greh (A Scheme for Women in Difficult Circumstances)
●Revision under IGMSY in Accordance with National Food Security Act, 2013 in XII th Plan
●Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP)
●NARI SHAKTI PURASKAR
●Awardees of Stree Shakti Puruskar, 2014 & Awardees of Nari Shakti Puruskar
●Awardees of Rajya Mahila Samman& ZilaMahilaSamman
●Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana(IGMSY) -A Conditional Maternity Benefit Scheme
●One Stop Centre Scheme
●Women Helpline Scheme

 POSHAN Abhiyaan

Malnutrition is not a direct cause of death but contributes to mortality and morbidity by
reducing resistance to infections. There are a number of causes of death of children such as
prematurity, low birth weight, pneumonia, diarrhoeal diseases, non-communicable diseases,
birth asphyxia & birth trauma, injuries, congenital anomalies, acute bacterial sepsis and
severe infections, etc.

POSHAN Abhiyaan (National Nutrition Mission) is a flagship programme of the Ministry of

Women and Child Development (MWCD), Government of India, which ensures convergence
with various programmes i.e., Anganwadi Services, Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana
(PMMVY), Scheme for Adolescent Girls (SAG) of MWCD Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY),
National Health Mission (NHM), Swachh-Bharat Mission, Public Distribution System (PDS),
Department Food & Public Distribution, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) and Ministry of Drinking Water & Sanitation.

The National Nutrition Mission (NNM) has been set up with a three year budget of
Rs.9046.17 crore commencing from 2017-18. The NNM is a comprehensive approach
towards raising nutrition level in the country on a war footing.

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Goals:

The goals of NNM are to achieve improvement in nutritional status of Children from 0-6
years, Adolescent Girls, Pregnant Women and Lactating Mothers in a time bound manner
during the next three years beginning 2017-18.

BENEFITS:

More than 10 crore people will be benefitted by this programme. All the States and districts
will be covered in a phased manner i.e. 315 districts in 2017-18, 235 districts in 2018-19 and
remaining districts in 2019-20

 BETI BACHAO BETI PADHAO YOJANA:

Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) was launched by the Prime Minister on 22 nd January, 2015
at Panipat, Haryana. BBBP addresses the declining Child Sex Ratio (CSR) and related issues
of women empowerment over a life-cycle continuum. It is a tri-ministerial effort of Ministries
of Women and Child Development, Health & Family Welfare and Human Resource
Development.

In 2015, the Indian government introduced the Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (BBBP) scheme to
address concerns of gender discrimination and women empowerment in the country. The
name Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao translates to „Save the girl child, educate the girl child‟. The
scheme aims to educate citizens against gender bias and improve efficacy of welfare services
for girls. It was launched with an initial funding of Rs. 100 crore (US$ 13.5 million).
GOAL:

The Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Yojana aims to achieve the following goals:

 Improve the child sex ratio

 Ensure gender equality and women empowerment
 Prevent gender-biased, sex selective elimination
 Ensure survival and protection of the girl child
 Encourage education and participation of the girl child

Beneficiaries

Categories Description

Primary Segment Young and newly married couples; pregnant and lactating mothers; and
parents

Secondary Youth, adolescents (girls and boys), in-laws, medical doctors/

Segment practitioners, private hospitals, nursing homes and diagnostic centres

Tertiary Segment Officials, PRIs, frontline workers, women SHGs/collectives, religious

leaders, voluntary organisations, media, medical associations, industry
associations and the people at large

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beti-padhao-yojana/

ANGANWADI:

Anganwadi is a government-sponsored child-care and mother-care development programmes

in India at the village level. The meaning of the word „Anganwadi‟ in the English language is
“courtyard shelter” It primarily caters to children in the 0-6 age group. They were started by
the Indian government in 1975 as part of the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
program to combat child hunger and malnutrition. An Anganwadi centre provides basic
health care facilities in Indian villages. It is a part of the Indian public health-care system.

Objectives

(i) to improve the nutritional and health status of children in the age-group 0-6 years
(ii) to lay the foundation for proper psychological, physical and social development of
the child
(iii) to reduce the incidence of mortality, morbidity, malnutrition and school dropout
(iv) to achieve effective co-ordination of policy and implementation amongst the various
departments to promote child development and
(v) to enhance the capability of the mother to look after the normal health and nutritional
needs of the child through proper nutrition and health education.

In order to achieve the Anganwadi Services objectives, a package of six services comprising‟

(i) Supplementary nutrition

(ii) (ii) Pre-school non-formal education; (iii) nutrition & health education; (iv)
immunization; (v) health check-up; and (vi) referral services are provided to the
targeted beneficiaries i.e. all children below 6 years, Pregnant Women and Lactating
Mothers. Three of the six services namely Immunisation, Health Check-up and
Referral Services are delivered through Public Health Infrastructure under the
Ministry of Health & Family Welfare

All the children in the age group 6 months to 6 years, Pregnant Women and Lactating
Mothers are eligible for services under Anganwadi Services. Anganwadi Services is a self
selecting scheme and no targets are fixed for the beneficiaries of either Supplementary
Nutrition or Pre-school non-formal education. As on 31.03.2021, there are 675.07 lakh
children and 156.73 lakh Pregnant and Lactating Mothers receiving Supplementary Nutrition
at Anganwadi Centres.

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recruitment.html

INTEGRATED CHILD PROTECTION SCHEME (ICPS)

 About ICPS
The Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS) is a centrally sponsored scheme aimed at
building a protective environment for children in difficult circumstances, as well as other
vulnerable children, through Government-Civil Society Partnership.
 The ICPS : Objectives
ICPS brings together multiple existing child protection schemes of the Ministry under one
comprehensive umbrella, and integrates additional interventions for protecting children and
preventing harm. ICPS, therefore, would institutionalize essential services and strengthen
structures, enhance capacities at all levels, create database and knowledge base for child
protection services, strengthen child protection at family and community level, ensure
appropriate inter-sectoral response at all levels.
The scheme would set up a child protection data management system to formulate and
implement effective intervention strategies and monitor their outcomes. Regular evaluation of
the programmes and structures would be conducted and course correction would be
undertaken.

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NATIONAL CRECHE SCHEME FOR THE CHILDREN OF WORKING MOTHERS
A crèche is a facility which enables parents to leave their children while they are at work and
where children are provided stimulating environment for their holistic development. Crèches
are designed to provide group care to children, usually up to 6 years of age, who need care,
guidance and supervision away from their home during the day.
OBJECTIVES
(i) To provide day-care facilities for children (6 months to 6 years) of working
mothers in the community.
(ii) To improve nutrition and health status of children.
(iii) To promote physical, cognitive, social and emotional development (Holistic
Development) of children.
(iv) To educate and empower parents /caregivers for better childcare.
SERVICES The scheme will provide an integrated package of the following services:
(i) Day-care Facilities including Sleeping Facilities.
(ii) Early Stimulation for children below 3 years and Pre-school Education for 3 to 6
years old children.
(iii) Supplementary Nutrition(to be locally sourced)
(iv) Growth Monitoring.
(v) Health Check-up and Immunization.
Photo courtesy: https://www.adda247.com/upsc-exam/national-creche-scheme/

 MAHILA SHAKTI KENDRA SCHEME

1. Government of India has approved a new scheme namely, Mahila Shakti Kendra for
implementation during 2017-18 upto 2019-20 to empower rural women through
community participation and to create an environment in which they realize their full
potential. It will provide an interface for rural women to approach the government for
availing their entitlements also empowering them through training and capacity building.

Components of MSK scheme:

National level : Domain based experts provide support in implementation of all women
centric schemes/programmes of the Government with the aim to strengthen the conceptual
and programmatic basis of such schemes through convergence with Ministries and State
Government /UT Adm.
State level : At the state level, the State Resource Centre for Women (SRCW ) under the
State Governments (Department of WCD/Social Welfare) provide technical assistance
towards implementing programmes, laws and schemes meant for women through effective
coordination at the State/UT level.
District level : District Level Centre for Women (DLCW) collate information on government
programmes, schemes and services meant for women empowerment (including Beti Bachao
Beti Padao (BBBP), One Stop Centre, Women Helpline, Mahila Police Volunteers, Swadhar,
Ujja wala, etc.) to serve as a link between village/block and state level.
Block level : Activities under MSK was implemented at the Gram Panchayat level and
facilitated through Block/Taluk level centres, which serve as the focal points and called
MSK- Block Level

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for-creating-awareness/
Module 6 web links

Urbanization

1. . Johnson, M.T. and Munshi-South, J., 2017. Evolution of life in urban

environments. Science, 358(6363), p.eaam 8327.
2. Yu, D., Li, X., Yu, J., Shi, X., Liu, P. and Tian, P., 2021. Whether urbanization has
intensified the spread of infectious diseases—Renewed question by the COVID-19
pandemic. Frontiers in Public Health, 9.
3. https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-
Wildlife/Invasive-Species
4. https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-
Wildlife/Invasive-Species
5. https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-Wildlife/Invasive-
Species
6. . https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/53839/1/Unit-13.pdf
7. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/59424/1/Unit1.pdf
8. G. Tyler Miller and Scott E. Spoolman (2016), Environmental Science, 15th Edition, Cengage
learning.
9. 2. Benny Joseph, (2012), Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
10. 3. https://www.worldometers.info/co2-emissions/co2-emissions-per-capita/
11.

Population Age structure

12. https://www.thoughtco.com/age-structure-definition-3026043
13. G. Tyler Miller and Scott E. Spoolman (2016), Environmental Science, 15th Edition, Cengage
learning.
14. 2. Benny Joseph, (2012), Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
15. Twidell, John and Tony Weir. Renewable energy resources. Third Edition, Routledge, 2021
16. https://www.google.com/search?q=population+growth+rate+of+india
17. https://www.blendspace.com/lessons/SzQzdtRv3gVK5Q/population-growth-and-
natural-resources
18. . https://www.indexmundi.com/uganda/age_structure.html

Sustainable human societies, sustainable development goals

19. . G. Tyler Miller and Scott E. Spoolman (2016), Environmental Science, 15th Edition, Cengage
learning.

20. . Benny Joseph, (2012), Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
21. Twidell, John and Tony Weir. Renewable energy resources. Third Edition, Routledge, 2021.

Women and child welfare

22. https://wcd.nic.in
23. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-NB9RdISh2k