Chapter 7

Vapor Power Cycle and

Refrigeration Cycles
Chapter 7 Outline
Aim of Chem. Eng. Thermdynamics

Limitation of Energy Usage Limitation of Mass Usage

Chapter 7 Vapor Cycles Chapter 6 Energy Chapter 5 Phase

( H, S, Q, W, η ) Analysis(H, S, W, Ex ) Equilibrium
pyiϕˆ iV = pisϕ isγ i xi

Chapter 3 Pure Substances Chapter 4 Mixted Substance

Thermodynamics(H,S, Thermodynamics
U）
Chapter 2 PVT
( µ , M i , Gi fˆi , ϕˆ i , ai , γ i )
( p-V-T, EOS)
 Do you Know?
1. How do power plants generate
electricity ?
2. How does the refrigerator cool ?

3. How does air conditioning work ?

2020/3/30
 Content
§7.1 Steam Power Cycles
§7.1.1 Rankine Cycle and its
Thermal efficiency
§7.1.2 Improvement of Rankine
Cycle
§7.2 Refrigeration principle
§7.2.1 Throttling Expansion
§7.2.2 Isentropic Expansion
§7.3 Refrigeration Cycles
§7.3.1 Vapor Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
2020/3/30
 §7.1 Steam Power Cycle
Principle of Steam Power The steam power cycle is mainly
Cycle composed of water pump, boiler,
turbine and condenser.
4 1 Water enters the boiler and is
heated to vaporize into superheated
steam
1 2 Superheated steam enters the
turbine to expand work
2 3 Spent steam enters the
condenser and is condensed into water
3  4The water is compressed and
boosted in the pump, and then returned
to the boiler to complete a cycle
2020/3/30

http://nht.xjtu.edu.cn/rlx/dmt/index1.htm
 Boiler shape

Power plant boiler boiler

schematic diagram
Steam turbine workshop

Steam turbine of power plant

Turbine rotor Gas flows in the impeller

 Temperature and pressure of water vapor in
thermal power plant
 Low-temperature and low pressure power plant（1.4MPa，350oC）
 Medium temperature and medium pressure power plant （3.92MPa，
450oC），
 High temperature and high pressure power plant （9.9MPa，540oC），
 Ultra high pressure power plant （13.83MPa，540oC），
 Subcritical pressure power plant （16.77MPa，540oC），
 Supercritical pressure power plant （22.11MPa，550oC）；
 Ultra supercritical pressure power plant （31MPa，600oC）

（pc=22.05MPa，Tc=374oC）
2020/3/30
 Disadvantages of the Carnot cycle
Conclusion: Carnot cycle is not suitable
for changing heat for work!

Boiler
4 1
Turbine steam exhaust,
T
Pump V+L

Condenser
3 2
Disadvantage 1:
V+L
Turbine required dryness
Disadvantage 2:
X>0. 9
Gas-bound
X<0.88 at point 2
phenomenon
S Damage to steam engine
blades
2020/3/30
 卡诺循环（Carnot cycle）
Carnot cycle T2 Carnot's theorem infers that all
ηmax = 1 − reversible machines working between the
efficiency： T1 same temperature heat source and the
① Isothermal reversible expansion same temperature cold source have the
④ same heat engine efficiency, that is, it has
② nothing to do with the working material
绝 绝
T 热
热
of the heat engine.
可
可 The significance of Carnot's theorem:
逆 All heat engines working between the
压 逆
膨 same temperature heat source and the
缩 same temperature cold source must not
胀
③Isothermal reversible compression exceed the reversible machine, that is,
the efficiency of the reverse machine is
the largest.
S Solve the problem of limit value of
② Adiabatic reversible expansion heat engine efficiency 。
④ Adiabatic reversible compression 2020/3/30
 Carnot cycle efficiency
Carnot cycle W T2
η max = = 1−
efficiency Q1 T1
 Tl——Temperature of high heat source，K。
 The upper limit is the limit of use of the boiler ，
~450oC。
 T2——Temperature of low heat source，K。
 Minimum limit is ambient temperature ,Summer in
Najing ~30oC， Arctic -50oC
 Summer in Najing ηmax =58%；In Arctic η max =79%。
The thermal efficiency of a thermal power plant is ~40%
2020/3/30

§7.1 .1 Rankine cycle and its thermal efficiency
The Rankine cycle is the simplest steam-powered cycle
Principle and consists of a pump, a boiler, a turbine, and a
condenser.
1
Ideal Rankine cycle
蒸
汽
作
水 功
加 透 1
热 平
至 机 等
过 可逆吸热 S
锅炉 热 2 蒸 T S4
等 膨
胀
蒸
汽 冷 汽 压
凝 冷
凝
缩 3 相变 2
水压缩 器
成
4 3 水
水泵
S
Cengel Y.A., Thermodynamics-An Engineering Approach 8th. 2020/3/30
2015, McGraw-Hill.
1、 Calculation method of ideal Rankine cycle
Task: Discuss the thermal
performance of the cycle.
Calculate:
1. the heat absorbed Q1
2. the heat released Q2
3. the work WS
performed externally
4. the work WP obtained
from the outside
5. the cycle thermal
efficiency and steam
consumption rate.
 Note: When the steam
power cycle device works
normally, the working
fluid is in a steady flow
process.

The first law of

thermodynamics for
stable flow systems
2
∆H + g ∆Z + ∆u = Q + Ws
2
 2
∆H + g ∆Z + ∆ u = Q + Ws
2
In Boiler：
Q
=1 H1 − H 4
In Turbine ：
W=S H 2 − H1
In Condenser：
Q=2 H3 − H2
In pump：
W=
P H4 − H3
P4

或WP = ∫ V水 dP
Unit of work and heat in euqations： P3
[KJ/Kg] = V水（P4 − P3）
Net work of an ideal Rankine cycle: the steam power
proces is a closed system
2
∆U + g ∆Z + ∆ u = Q + WN
2
循环过程∆U = 0
g ∆Z ≈ 0
且 2
∆u / 2 ≈ 0
∴ Q + WN = 0
∴ 净功W N
= WS + WP
− (Q1 + Q2 )
=
 净功( −W N ) =
−(W S + W P ) =+
Q1 Q2
1

过 WS
热 透
器 平
膨胀功
1
机
锅炉 Q1 2
T 4 WN
冷
凝
器 Q2 3 Q1 2
4 Q2
水泵
3 S
WP压缩功 a b
2020/3/30
The meaning of WN in T - S diagram？
净功( −W N ) =
−(W S + W P ) =+
Q1 Q2
Q可逆 = ∫ TdS
Net work（-WN）= Q1
（Area1ba41）- IQ2I（Area 2ba32）
1
=Area 12341
 The larger Ql, the smaller Q2, and
T 4 the larger the net work WN.
T0 Ql is limited by the metallic
3

2
materials in the boiler , 550~600oC。
 Q2 is limited by ambient
temperature
a S b
2、 Thermal efficiency η and Specific steam Consumption
SSC of the ideal Rankine cycle
Economic indicators for evaluating the power
cycle
（1）Thermal efficiencyη：
The ratio of the net work of the cycle to the heat absorbed by the
working fluid from the high-temperature thermal storage (boiler)
−(W S + W P ) （H1 − H 2）（
+ H 3 − H 4）
η= =
Q1 H1 − H 4

W P ≈ 0
−W S H 1 − H 2
η
∴= =
Q1 H1 − H 4
（2）、SSC：（Specific steam Consumption)
Concept: the amount of steam consumed to make a 1kW.h net work

[Kg/(Kw.h)] [KJ/Kg]
[KJ/(Kw.h)]=

 SSC ⋅ ( −W S ) =3600
−1 −1
∴ SSC = 3600 /( −W S ) [ K g . Kw .h ]
[Conclusion]
η ↑，SSC↓， Shows: the more perfect the cycle 。
 Example1： A steam power plant works according to the ideal Rankine cycle,
Boiler pressure is 40×105Pa, Temperature of superheated steam is 440℃,
pressure of steam exhausted is 0.04×105Pa, steam flow is 60T/hr, calculate:
(1) Superheated steam absorbs heat from the boiler per hour and exhaust gas
releases heat from the condenser and exhaust gas humidity
(2) The theoretical power made by the turbine and the theoretical power consumed
by the pump.
(3) Thermal efficiency and Specific steam Consumption of the cycle

Q1 1）Q1 = H1 − H 4 3）W S = H 2 − H 1
解：
吸热
1
5 2）Q2 = H 3 − H 2
4） W P = H 4 − H 3

T = V（
3 P4 − P3）
4
−（W S + W P）
3 5）热效率η =
2 Q1
Q2（放热） 6）气耗率SSC =3600/-WN
2020/3/30
 Calculate the enthalpy of each state point？
Point 1： Query the steam table to get H1,S1 directly
according to P1,T1
Point 2：①get S2g,S2L by P2；②S2 = S1 = xS2g+（1-x)
S2L , get dryness x；③H2= xH2g+（1-x) H2L get H2

P1 Point 3：P3=P2，Vapor-liquid
1
saturation line，get H3, S3
5 P2 and V3 from steam table
T
4 Point 4：S4=S3, get S4；
3 2 P4=P1
WP = H 4 − H 3 = V（
3 P4 − P3）
get H4
S 2020/3/30
Point 1(superheated steam ）
P1 = 40 × 10 5 Pa T1 = 440 o C
H 1 = 3307.kJ / kg S1 = 6.9041kJ / kg / K
Point 2(Wet steam)
P2 = 0.04 × 10 5 Pa S 2 = S1 = 6.9041kJ / kg / K
SV SL
H2 = 2554.4 kJ / kg H2 = 121.46 kJ / kg
SV SL
S2 = 8.4746 kJ / kg / K S2 = 0.4226kJ / kg / K
SL
V2 = 1.0040cm 3 / g
设 2点的干度为 x，则
8.4746 x＋（1 − x）０.4226 =８.6.9041
x = 0.805
H 2 = 2554.4 × 0.805 + 121.46(1 − 0.805) = 2079.98kJ / kg
2020/3/30
Point 3(Saturated liquid)
SL
P3 = P2 = 0.04 × 10 5 Pa H3 = H2 = 121.46kJ / kg

Point 4(Unsaturated water)

WP = H 4 − H 3 = V（
3 P4 − P3）

H 4 = H 3 + V（
3 P4 − P3）

= 121.46 + 0.001004 × ( 40 − 0.04) × 10 5 × 10 − 3

= 125.472kJ / kg

Point 5(Saturated water)

5 SL
P5 = 40 × 10 Pa H5 = H5 = 1087.3kJ / kg
2020/3/30
Calcuate: 1) Superheated steam absorbs heat from the boiler every hour Q1

Q1 = m( H 1 − H 4 ) = 60 × 10 3 × ( 3307.1 − 125.472) = 190.9 × 10 6 kJ / h

2） Exhaust heat released in the condenser per hour Q2

Q 2 = m( H 2 − H 3 ) = 60 × 10 3 × ( 2079.98 − 121.46) = 117.51 × 10 6 kJ / h

3）humidity of exhausted 1-X=1-0.805=0.195

steam
4） Turbine theoretical power PT
60 × 10 3
PT = mWS = m( H 2 − H 1 ) = × ( 2079.98 − 3307.1)
3600
= −20452kW
2020/3/30
5） Theoretical power consumed by the pump NP.
60 × 10 3
N P = mW P = m( H 4− H 3 ) = × (121.46 − 125.472)
3600
= 66.8kW

6） Theoretical thermal efficiency of the cycle η

−（WS + WP） −3600
（PT + N P）
热效率η = =
Q1 Q1
− 3600
（− 20452+ 66.8）
= 6
= 38.4%
190.9 × 10
7）SSC
SSC = 3600 / −（W s + W P ) = 3600 / − [( H 2 − H 1 ) + ( H 4 − H 3 )]
= 3600 / − [( 2079.98 − 3307.1 ) + ( 125.472 − 121.46 )]
= 2.94 （Kg .Kw −1 .h −1） 2020/3/30
 2. Real Rankine Cycle
In fact, working fluids cannot be
1
completely reversible in turbines
and pumps, that is, it is impossible
to perform isentropic expansion 4’
T 4
or isentropic compression 。
2  2’ 4  4’ 3 2 2’
This irreversibility can be
expressed by the isentropic
efficiency ηs S
1  2，4  4 Ideal Rankine Cycle
1  2’，4  4’ Real Rankine Cycle 2020/3/30
 The definition of isentropic efficiency ηs：The ratio of
the amount of work done in an irreversible adiabatic
expansion to the amount of work done in a reversible
adiabatic expansion 。
− ∆H 1→ 2' = H 1 − H 2'
1
−WS ,透 平,不
η S， 透 平 = =
H 1 − H 2'
− WS ,透 平,可 H1 − H 2 4’
T 4
−WS ,泵 ,可
η S， 泵 = =
（H 4 − H 3）
3 2 2’
− WS , 泵 , 不 （H 4' − H 3）
Thermal efficiency of the
actual Rankine cycle η S
−（WS ,透 平,不 + WP ’） （H 1 − H 2’ ）
η= =
Q1 H1 − H 4 2020/3/30

W P’≈ 0 (W P 只占Ws的0.9%)
 Actual Rankine cycle
3）在透平机中对外做功 WS = H 2’
− H1
1）在锅炉中吸热量 Q1 = H 1 − H 4’
4）在水泵中消耗功 WP = H 4’−H3
2）在冷凝器中放热量 Q 2 = H 3 − H 2’

−WS ,不 H 1 − H 2'
5）等熵效率η S = =
− WS ,可 H1 − H 2
Q1吸热
1
−（WS + WP）
6）热效率η =
4’ Q1
T H 1 − H 2’
= = 0.3 ~ 0.4
H 1 − H 4’
3 2 2’
Q2（放热） 7）气耗率：SSC = 3600 / − Ws
（Kg . Kw −1 .h −1）
2020/3/30

S
2、 Comparison between actual and ideal Rankine cycles

Ideal Actual
Q1 12344’6’1 12344’6’1
T
Q2 54’ 6’65 5’5’’ 6’65’’
PH
WN 1234561 1234561-
4
5’5’’4’5’5’
3 PL
2
The shaded part is the work that
1
the actual cycle does less than
5’
6 5 the ideal cycle, and it is also the
heat that is released when the
6’ 4’ 5” steam condenses.
S
S1 S’4 S’5
2020/3/30
 §7.1.1 朗肯循环及其热效率（续）
 E.g2 There is an ideal Rankine cycle, operating between pressures of
40bar and 0.08bar, in which the boiler produces superheated steam at
400℃ and the cooling water for the condenser at 25℃.
 (1) Find Q1，Q2；(2) Find the theoretical work of the turbine and the
theoretical work consumed by the pump. (3) Find thermal efficiency
and steam consumption rate and try to make a thermodynamic
analysis of this cycle.
1）Q1 = H 1 − H 4 3）W S = H 2 − H 1
解：

2）Q2 = H 3 − H 2 4）W P = H 4 − H 3
= V（
3 P4 − P3）
−(W S + W P )
热效率η = =36%
Q1
汽耗率SSC =3600/(-WN)
=3.29 （Kg.kw-1.h-1）
 §7.1.1 朗肯循环及其热效率（续）

e.g3:On the basis of e.g 1, the isentropic efficiency of the turbine

with the actual Rankine cycle is 0.85.
−W S ,透 平,不
解：η S， 透 平 =
− W S ,透 平,可
H 1 − H 2'
= = 0.85
H1 − H 2
H2’ can be found from the above equation
The other calculations are the same as in e.g1

−(WS + WP )
热效率η = =30.6%
Q1
SSC =3600/(-WN)
=3.871 （Kg.kw-1.h-1）
 §7.1.1 朗肯循环及其热效率（续）

Comparison between actual and ideal Rankine cycles

Entry Ideal Actual

水汽化吸热Q1(kJ/kg) 3038 3038
水汽化吸入有效能 (kJ/kg) 1196 1196
蒸汽膨胀作功WS (kJ/kg) 1099 934.0
乏汽冷凝排出热量Q2 (kJ/kg) 1943 2108
乏汽冷凝排出有效能 (kJ/kg) 101.3 73.51
水加压耗功WP (kJ/kg) 4 4
循环净功WN (kJ/kg) 1095 930
循环热效率η ，% 36 30.61
有效能利用效率η B，% 91.55 71.76
SSC， Kg.kw-1.h-1 3.29 3.871
 §7.1.1 朗肯循环及其热效率（续）

Measures to improve the thermal efficiency of the cycle

(1) Raise the superheating
temperature of the steam T
1、T ↑ ，Q1虽然 ↑ ，
但由于WN ↑↑（阴影部分
∴η ↑
为增加的功），
2、T ↑ ，乏气干度 ↑ ，
有利于透平机的安全运行。
T0
The increase in temperature is
limited by the material properties
of the equipment and cannot be
increased indefinitely. 2020/3/30
 §7.1.1 朗肯循环及其热效率（续）
(2) Raise steam pressure

1)、P ↑ ，W N 几乎不变，
 增加的功2'3'4'7'22'
与减少的功7'34577'
几乎相等;
但Q1 ↓ ,
 增加2'3'4'7'22'，
减少7'34987'， 5
净减少部分为75987）,
∴η ↑

2)、但P ↑ ，乏气干度↓ ，
不利于透平机的安全运
行。
提高蒸汽初压的影响
 §7.1.1 朗肯循环及其热效率（续）

(3) Reduce the back pressure

1）降低背压时所增加
的净功（阴影部分面积
6’655’6’）比Q1增加的
热量1’1891’大，因而
提高了整个循环的热效
率。

2）降低背压会降
低乏气的干度，应
注意。
降低蒸汽出口压力的影响
 Reducing the effect of exhaust pressure on Rankine cycle thermal
efficiency

Disadvantages:

Restricted by the ambient

T
1 temperature, p2 of the large
unit is now 0.0035~
5 0.005Mpa, and the
6 corresponding saturation
4 temperature is about 27~
33℃, which is close to the
4' 3 2 minimum that may be
3' 2' achieved in fact.
High thermal efficiency in
s winter
 Chapter 7 Outline
§7.1 Steam cycle
§7.1.1 Rankine cycle and its thermal efficiency
§7.1.2 Improvement of Rankine cycle
§7.2 Principle of adiabatic expansion
refrigeration of gases
§7.2.1 Throttling expansion
§7.2.2 Adiabatic expansion doing external work
§7.3 Refrigeration cycle
§7.3.1 Vapor compression refrigeration cycle
§7.3.2 Absorption refrigeration cycle
§7.3.3 Heat pump and its application 2020/3/30
 Refrigeration cycle
 Refrigeration cycle is the process of transferring heat
from low temperature to high temperature by using
mechanical work.
 The refrigeration cycle is used for two purposes:
 1） Refrigeration
 To keep the specified space below the ambient temperature,
heat is transferred from the cold space to the hot environment.
Refrigerator: Above -100 ℃ is the general cold, below -100℃
is the cryogenic.
2） Heating
 The specified space is kept at a higher temperature than the
environment, and heat is transferred from the lower
environment to the higher space. 2020/3/30

 Heat pump
 Summer
低温房间 高温环境
制冷机

热量

2020/3/30
 Winter
高温房间 低温环境
热泵

热量

2020/3/30
 §7.2 Principle of adiabatic
expansion refrigeration of gases

Principle of refrigeration: high pressure normal temperature

fluid through adiabatic expansion into a low temperature
fluid, the fluid as a working medium to cool the need for
low temperature objects.
Two ways to acquire low temperature:
§7.2.1 Throttling expansion
§7.2.2 Adiabatic expansion doing external work
 §7.2.1 Throttling expansion
2
∆H + g∆Z + ∆ u = Q + Ws
小孔 2
 Fluid flow through the
throttle valve or perforated
plug is throttle expansion or
adiabatic flash process.
 ∵ Q=0 Ws=0，
∆u2=0，g∆ Z=0 ，
P2  ∴ ∆H=0
 Low temperature and
V1 V1 cooling quantity are obtained
via the throttling process
2020/3/30
 μJ-T
Whether the temperature of the gas can be reduced by throttling
depends on the temperature of the gas
∂T Thomson(1824 – 1907)
µ J-T = ( )H
∂p

Joule(1818 – 1889)

dp < 0
µ J -T >0 the gas temperature decreases. （冷效应）
µ J -T <0 the gas temperature increases. (热效应）
µ J -T =0 the gas temperature is constant.(零效应）
2020/3/30
 Calculation of μJ-T
 ∂T   ∂P   ∂H 
  ⋅  ⋅  = −1
由（3-7）  ∂ P H  ∂ H T  ∂ T P

 ∂H   ∂V 
− 
式3-
T  −V
 ∂T   ∂P  T
22
 ∂T  P
µ J −T =  = =
 ∂P  H  ∂H  Cp
 ∂T  P
∂V
1）对于实际气体 , 若知EOS，则( ) P 可知，
∂T
µ J −T 便可求出。

2）μJ-T=？(ideal gas) 2020/3/30

  E.g 4：At 25℃, the P-V-T of a gas can be expressed
as PV=RT+6.4×104P，At 30MPa & 25℃, the gas is
throttled and expanded.Can it be used as a refrigerating
medium?
 ∂V 
 Ans： T  −V
 ∂T   ∂T  P
= µ J −T = 
→
 ∂ P H Cp
4 RT ∂V R
PV = RT + 6.4 × 10 P → V = + 6.4 × 104 → ( )P =
∂T P
P
R
T × − V RT − PV −6.4 × 104 −6.4 × 104
µJ = P = = <0
Cp P ×Cp Cp Cp

 It can be seen that the temperature rises after throttle

expansion.So it can't be used as a cooling medium.
2020/3/30
e.g 5 Please prove that the temperature of the gas following
the ideal gas state equation does not change during the
throttling process. It can neither be used as a refrigerating
medium nor as a heating medium.

Ans：∵ PV=RT V=RT/P

R RT
T −
 ∂V  R =µJ =P P 0
 ∂T  = P Cp
 P

 Given that a real gas obeys two virial

equations, under what conditions can the
gas be used as a working medium for
vapor compression refrigeration?
2020/3/30
 Inversion curve (μJ-T=0)

Faraday (1791-1861)
The first to do systematic
experiment in the
liquefaction of a gas

1823-1845: Only O2, N2, H2, CO, CH4,

He can't be liquefied, called a permanent
gas

1852， Find the J-T effect

The liquefaction of a permanent gas

van del Waals

(1837-1923)
 a 
 p + 2  (V − b ) =
RT
 V 

James Dewar Heike Kamerlingh

2020/3/30

(1842-1923) Onnes(1853-1926)
 §7.2.1 节流膨胀（续）
Calculation of temperature drop of throttle expansion

The temperature drop of

throttle expansion is an
important index to measure
the effect of refrigeration. T △TH
1 1
△TH=T2-T1 T2
2
How to calculate △TH？
等焓线
(1)、T-S图上求△TH

图3-12
 等焓线
P1

△TH
P2
T1 1 H
T2
2

S 2020/3/30
 §7.2.1 Throttling expansion
P2 P2
1  ∂V 
=∫ [T   − V ]dP
2、∆TH = T2 − T1 =
∫
P1
µ J dP P1
C p  ∂T  P

T1，P1——Before throttle expansion

T2，P2——After throttle expansion
273 2
3、对于空气估算∆TH = 0.29∆P（ ）
T1
∆P ↑→ ∆TH ↑ ；T1 ↓→ ∆TH ↑ ，
∴ 需要预冷使T1 ↓
2020/3/30
 §7.2 气体绝热膨胀制冷原理(续）
§7.2.2 Adiabatic expansion of external work
Adiabatic expansion of external work: if the process is reversible, it is
isentropic expansion.
Similaritiesand differences between isentropic expansion and throttle expansion:
Isentropic expansion works through the expander, but throttle expansion does not
work.
Both are adiabatic expansions.
∴

1、μS  ∂S 
− 
 ∂ T  =  ∂P  T T  ∂V 
µS =  =  
 ∂P  S  ∂S  Cp  ∂T  P
 ∂T  P
 ∂V 
  >0 ∴ µ S 永远 > 0
 ∂T  P
即经等S膨胀后流体的温度↓ 。
2020/3/30
 §7.2.2对外作功的绝热膨胀（续）
2、The temperature drop of adiabatic expansion for
external work
P2
等焓线
△TH P1 ∆TS = ∫ µ S dP
P2 P1
P2
T1 1 H T  ∂V 
T2
=∫   dP
C p  ∂T  P
△TS

T2’
S 2 P1
2’
∆H S
= ∆ TH +
CP
∆TS > ∆TH
T

S
 §7.2.2对外作功的绝热膨胀（续）
The comparison of throttle expansion and isentropic expansion

节流膨胀与等熵膨胀均是获取低温流体(即制冷)的方法
节流膨胀 等熵膨胀
△H=0 △S=0
△TH较小，冷冻量小 △TS较大，冷冻量大
少数流体要预冷，才能使T↓ 任何流体均是T↓
不作功 作功
节流阀，设备简单，操作方便 膨胀机，设备复杂
汽液两相区、液相区均可用 使用时不能有液滴
用得最多：普冷，小型深冷 大、中型气体液化

p.281【例7-2】
2020/3/30
p.282 【e.g 7-2】
 The air state at the outlet of a compressor in a factory is
p1=1.01MPa(10 atm), T1=325 K, and now needs to be
expanded to p2=0.203MPa (2 atm).As an engineer, if you had
two options for expansion, which one would you choose from?
Why? Take the ambient temperature to be 25℃.
 (1) throttle expansion;
 2 do the adiabatic expansion of external work, the actual
output of the expansion machine is known to be equal to 75%
of the axial work of the reversible adiabatic expansion
(namely, isentropic efficiency is 75%).
 It is suggested that only the temperature of the gas after two
kinds of expansion, the work of the expander (effective work)
and the lost work in the expansion process can be calculated.
Then, identify a more economical, energy-efficient option as
an option. 2020/3/30
∆T
不可逆绝热膨胀
等熵线

2020/3/30
 p1=1.01MPa(10 atm)，T1=325K
p2=0.203MPa(2 atm) , T2=?

过 程 T2/K ∆T/K Ws/kJ.kg-1 WL/kJ.kg-1

节流膨胀 321 -4 0 129.7
作外功绝热膨胀 216 -84 -81.59 53.67

 Do external work adiabatic expansion of the loss of work is

small, cooling range.
 From the perspective of thermodynamics, adiabatic expansion
of external work is more energy-saving than throttle expansion,
so it should be the first choice.But its equipment costs a lot.
 Therefore, the choice of which expansion is more appropriate,
should be based on the final demand, energy saving and
equipment costs to find a balance. 2020/3/30
2020/3/30
§7.3 Refrigeration cycle

§7.3.1 Vapor compression

refrigeration cycle
§7.3.2 Absorption refrigeration cycle
§7.3.3 Heat pump and its application

2020/3/30
 §7.3 Refrigeration cycle
Refrigerationcycle: the reverse circulation of heat from
low temperature to high temperature via external work.
 Purpose
1） Refrigeration 示意图
 To keep the specified space below the ambient temperature, heat
must be transferred from the cold space to the hot environment.
Like refrigerator or a room in summer.
 Refrigerating machine
2）Heating 示意图
 To keep a specified space at a higher temperature than the
environment, heat must be transferred from a lower temperature
environment to a higher temperature space.A room in winter.
2020/3/30
 Heat pump
 Summer
低温房间 高温环境
致冷机
热量

TH TH=T0
QH
WS
致冷机
QL
TL 返回
2020/3/30
 Winter
高温房间 低温环境
热泵
热量
TH
QH
热泵 WS
QL
TL TL=T0 返回
2020/3/30
 §7.3.1 Vapor compression refrigeration cycle
QH

Ideal refrigeration cycle

WS2

WS1  Reverse carnot cycle

 Four reversible
processes
QL
1-2：Adiabatic reversible compression, temperature rise from
T1 to T2, isentropic process, consuming external work WS1
2-3： Isothermal reversible exothermic (QH)；
3-4： Adiabatic reversible expansion, cooling from T2 to T1,
isentropic process, external work WS2
4-1： Isothermal reversible heat absorption(QL)。
 §7.3.1蒸汽压缩制冷循环（续）

T2
Related indexes of
3 2 reverse carnot cycle
T WHs
Q 循环在 T2下放热量
QH = T2 (S3 − S2 )
T1 4 Q
L
1 = H3 − H2
循环在 T1下放热量
S QL = T1 (S1 − S4 )
= H1 - H 4

ΔU= 0
Ws = ( QH + QL )
= (T2 − T1 )(S4 − S1 )
 §7.3.1蒸汽压缩制冷循环（续）
1） Refrigeration coefficient ε
The parameter for measuring refrigeration efficiency is called the
coefficient of refrigeration, which is defined as the ratio of the heat QL
absorbed from a cold body to the work consumed by WS：
QL
ε=
− Ws
2） Reverse carnot cycle coefficient of refrigeration εC
TH TH=T2
QL T1 (S4 − S1 ) T1 QH
εc = = = WS
- Ws (T2 − T1 )(S4 − S1 ) T2 − T1 致冷机
QL
TL TL=T1
 §7.3.1蒸汽压缩制冷循环（续）

εC is just a function of temperature, independent of the

properties of the working medium
For any refrigeration cycle operating between two
temperatures, εC is the maximum
It can be used as a comparison standard for all practical
refrigeration cycles
 §7.3.1蒸汽压缩制冷循环（续）

T Disadvantages of the reverse carnot cycle

T2 (1) In the process of circulation, there

3 2 will be a "liquid hammer"
phenomenon, tending to damage the
machine
4 T1 1
(2) The actual process can hardly
approach the four reversible
S
processes
Q:How to improve the process?
 QH
Vapor compression
refrigeration cycle

Improvement of reverse
carnot cycle ：
The adiabatic reversible
compression process is arranged in
the superheated steam region to
QL change the wet steam into dry gas
The original isentropic expansion
was replaced by the isenthalpy
expansion (Throttle valve)

Composition: compressor,
condenser, throttle valve, evaporator
通过冰箱散热片向大气排出q1
Vapor compression
QH refrigeration cycle
Refrigerant :Low boiling point
material. Like R22(CHClF2)
Tb=-40.80 ℃
冰箱 How to achieve the cooling
QL 冷藏
effect of the designated space?
室提
Vaporization of refrigerant in
TH 供Q L
evaporator is used to absorb heat
QH at low temperature.The
致冷机 WS liquefaction in the condenser
QL results in discharging heat at
T TL=T high temperature.
L
1
Single-stage steam compression 蒸发盘管
refrigeration
冷冻室 毛细管
高温环境

冷凝器

冷凝盘管

蒸发器

压缩机
低温冷室

2020/3/30
通过冰箱散热片向大气排出QH

QH

QL

冰箱
冷藏
室提
供QL
1→2 Compression of low pressure steam
2→4 Condensation of high pressure steam
4→5 The throttle expansion of a high-pressure liquid P↓ ，T↓
5→1 Evaporation of liquid at low pressure
 3、Indexs
1）★★★单位制冷量qL
qL = h1 − h5 = h1 − h4 ( kJ/kg )
2）制冷剂循环量 Q
m = L （kg / h）
（循环速率） q L

★★★QL—制冷装置的制冷能力 [KJ/h]
3）冷凝器放出热量QH

QH = ∆H 2→4 = H 4 − H 2 = m(h4 − h4 )
4）压缩机
耗功量 Ws = ∆H1→ 2 = H 2 − H1 = m(h2 − h1 )
5）理论功耗
PT = mws [ kJ / h ]
Ws
= , kW
3600

6） ★★★制冷效能系数
QL H 1 - H 4 h1 - h4
ε= = =
Ws H 2 - H 1 h2 - h1
2020/3/30
 lnp-h图及计算
lnp qH T
3 2
4 2
4 3

1
5 qL Ws 1
5

h s
qL = h1 − h5 = h1 − h4 QL h1 − h4
ε= =
Ws h2 − h1
qH = h4 − h2
 lnp 4 3
P-h diagram 5
2
1
h
5 1 011 0012 0013 014 015
009 09 0.00 0.0

85
0.0 2

8
0.0 0.00 0. 0. 0.0 0.00

00
75
7

00
00

0.0
00

0.0
10

0.0
200

0.0
3
18
℃ 21 0.00
15 160 70℃ ℃ 190℃ 0℃ 220℃
1 0 0.004
0℃ ℃ 23 0.005
0℃

130℃
0.006

14
p(MPa)

120℃
110℃

0℃
0.007 0.008

100℃

240℃
250
90℃
0.009 0.01

80℃

o
C
70℃
60℃
0.015

50℃
40℃
30℃
0.02m /kg
3
20℃
10℃

0.025
t=0℃
-10℃

0.03
1
-20℃

0.04
-30℃
-40℃

0.05
-50℃

0.06
-60℃

0.07 0.08
0.09

x=1.0
.0

0.1
0.3

0.7
0.4

0.9
0.8
0.1
0.2

0.5
0.6
x=0

0.15
0.2

0.3
0.1 0.4
0.5
0.6 0.7m3/kg
0.8
0.9
1.0kJ/(kg· K)

1.0

K)
1.5

K)
g·
J/(k

g·
2.0
1.1
0.7

0.9

/(k
0.8

1.2

1.4

1.5

1.6
1.3

1.7

1.8

1.9

2.0k

2.1

kJ
2.5

2.2

2.3

2.4
3.0
0.01
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
h(kJ/kg)
 Actual refrigeration cycle
Measures to improve the coefficient of
refrigeration
 A supercooled liquid in a condenser 2’
that is supercooled to a temperature 2
below saturation 4 3
1、冷冻量增加了5’5dc5’，若耗功量 T
4’
WS仍为H2-H1，则制冷系数ε增大。
2、为了计算方便， 4’过冷液体的性质 5’ 5 1
用4’点温度对应的饱和液体代替。
3、实际制冷循环往往不可能是完全等
熵的，2—>2’，则耗功量WS为H2’- c dS
H1。 2020/3/30
 The supercooling measures shown on the
pressure-enthalpy diagram Commonly applied
lnp T in engineering
2
4’ 4 3 2
4 3
4’
1
5’ 5 1
5’ 5

h s
qL = h1 − h5' = h1 − h4' W=s h2 − h1 QL h1 − h4'
ε= =
不变 Ws h2 − h1
qH = h4' − h2
 lnp 4 3
P-h diagram 2
1
5 h
5 1 011 0012 0013 014 015
009 09 0.00 0.0

85
0.0 2

8
0.0 0.00 0. 0. 0.0 0.00

00
75
7

00
00

0.0
00

0.0
10

0.0
200

0.0
3
18
℃ 21 0.00
15 160 70℃ ℃ 190℃ 0℃ 220℃
1 0 0.004
0℃ ℃ 23 0.005
0℃

130℃
0.006

14
p(MPa)

120℃
110℃

0℃
0.007 0.008

100℃

240℃
250
90℃
0.009 0.01

80℃

o
C
70℃
60℃
0.015

50℃
40℃
30℃
0.02m /kg
3
20℃
10℃

0.025
t=0℃
-10℃

0.03
1
-20℃

0.04
-30℃
-40℃

0.05
-50℃

0.06
-60℃

0.07 0.08
0.09

x=1.0
.0

0.1
0.3

0.7
0.4

0.9
0.8
0.1
0.2

0.5
0.6
x=0

0.15
0.2

0.3
0.1 0.4
0.5
0.6 0.7m3/kg
0.8
0.9
1.0kJ/(kg· K)

1.0

K)
1.5

K)
g·
J/(k

g·
2.0
1.1
0.7

0.9

/(k
0.8

1.2

1.4

1.5

1.6
1.3

1.7

1.8

1.9

2.0k

2.1

kJ
2.5

2.2

2.3

2.4
3.0
0.01
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
h(kJ/kg)
 例7-5 There is an ammonia freezing circulation device, the freezing quantity is
105 kJ·h-1, the evaporation temperature is -15℃, the condensation temperature is
30 ℃.Assuming that the compressor runs adiabatically and reversibly, find 1) the
circulation volume of the refrigerant;2) compressor power consumption and steam
volume;3) heat load of the condenser;4) the content of steam in the refrigerant
after the throttle valve;5) efficiency coefficient of cyclic refrigeration;6) εC
 §7.3.1蒸汽压缩制冷循环（续）
 由氨的 lgP-H 图查取有关数据来计算
1点： t1=-15℃ 与饱和蒸汽线相交，查得
H1=1664kJ/kg；
S1=9.02kJ/kg·K
???
氨lgp- h图
(链接)
v1=0.508m3/kg
氨饱和蒸汽表(链接)
2点：t3=30℃其相应饱和蒸汽压力P3=1.17Mpa； P2=P3
S2 = S1 = 9.02kJ/kg·K ； ? 氨lgp- h图
?
(链接)
*用S2和P2查H2 = 1880 kJ/kg；
4点： T4=30℃与饱和液体相交，据此查得
T2

?
H4= 560.53kJ/kg； 氨饱和蒸汽表(链接)
5点： T5 =T1= -15℃，由于4-5是等焓过程， T1
 H5 = H4 = 560.53kJ/kg；
?
2020/3/30
 §7.3.1蒸汽压缩制冷循环（续）

1). The amount of refrigerant circulating m

QL QL
m= =
qL h1 − h4
5
10
= = 90.62 kg h
1664 − 560.53
2). The amount of steam the compressor handles per hour
3
V = v1m = 0.508 × 90.62 = 46.04m / h
3). Compressor consumption
m ⋅ ws m (h2 − h1 ) 90.62 × (1880 − 1664 )
PT = = = = 5.44kW
3600 3600 3600
4). Condenser heat load
QH = m (h2 − h4 ) = 90.62 × (1880 − 560.53) = 11.94 × 104 KJ h
 §7.3.1蒸汽压缩制冷循环（续）

5). Vapor content in refrigerant after throttle 即求5点的干度X

h5 = h（1 − X）+ Xh
sl sv

h = 349.89kJ / kg
sl

hsv = h1 = 1664kJ / kg
h5 = 560.53kJ / kg
X = 0.16
6). The refrigeration coefficient
QL h1 − h5 1664 − 560.53
ε= = = = 5.10
Ws h2 − h1 1880 − 1664
7). Coefficient of refrigeration for reverse carnot cycle εC
TL T1 −15 + 273.15
εC = = = = 5.7
TH − TL T3 − T1 30 −（ − 15）
§7.3.1Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle (continued)
Condensation ：T =T
4 3 30℃ SI
temperature
Subcooling ：T 25℃
4’
temperature
Subcooling =T4-T4’ 5℃
Evaporation
-15℃
temperature :T5’=T5=T1
Refrigerator： Four star T1=-24℃
Three starT1=-18℃

Key: Determine the status of 2 ’, 4’ points

W S ,可 （H 2 − H1）
isentropic efficiency of 2′ : ηS = =
W S ,不 （H 2' − H1）
The properties of the supercooled liquid 4' are replaced by a
saturated liquid corresponding to its temperature.
 （1）Selection of evaporation temperature and
condensation temperature
Evaporation temperature: Depends on
the temperature requirements of the space to
be cooled. The lower the evaporation
temperature, the higher the energy
consumption.
 Condensing temperature: depends on the
temperature of the cooling medium.
Usually the cooling medium is atmospheric
or river water. For more
 Selection of cooling stages: information ,
 evaporation temperature <-25 ℃ , single- please refer
stage compression to p.300
 evaporation temperature <-30 ℃, two-stage
compression
 evaporation temperature< -45℃, three-stage
compression
Multi-stage Compression Refrigeration

 Multi-stage compression refrigeration

can provide a variety of cooling
capacity at different temperatures,
which is suitable for chemical
production that requires cooling
capacity at various temperatures .
 For example, the purification and
separation of hydrocarbon mixtures
in ethylene plants need to be carried
out at different temperatures .

2020/3/30
Multi-stage Compression Refrigeration

 Three-stage compression
refrigeration using propylene as the
refrigerant can provide cooling
capacity of 3 ℃, -24 ℃, and -40 ℃.
 For example, three-stage
compression refrigeration using
ethylene as the refrigerant can
provide cooling capacity of -55 ℃, -
75 ℃, and -101.4 ℃.

2020/3/30
 lnp
§6.3.1蒸汽压缩制冷循环（续）
4 3
（2) Selection of Refrigerant 2
1
5 h

Basic requirements：
The boiling point of the refrigerant should be low
at atmospheric pressure . (link)
The condensing pressure of the refrigerant at
room temperature should be as low as possible to
reduce the requirements for the pressure
resistance and sealing of the equipment.
 lnp
§6.3.1蒸汽压缩制冷循环（续）
4 3
（2) Selection of Refrigerant 2
1
5 h
Basic requirements：
The latent heat of vaporization should be as large as
possible, which can reduce the amount of refrigerant
circulation and reduce the size of the compressor.
Has a higher critical temperature and a lower
freezing temperature. (link)
It is chemically stable and does not burn or
decompose under operating conditions. Without
polymerization, it should have no obvious corrosive
effect on the equipment.
§7.3.1Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle (continued)

The commonly used refrigerants in industry are ammonia ,

R11 , R12 , R22 , etc.
NH3, large latent heat of vaporization, boiling point -33.4
℃; condensation temperature 30 ℃, P = 12 atm ,
evaporation temperature -30 ℃; (P = 1atm, evaporation
temperature -70 ℃)
1. Different grades of freon are suitable for different
freezing capacity.
2. R11, R12, R113, R114, and R115 have destructive effects
on the ozone layer and will be banned in 2010.
§7.3.1Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle (continued)

Q 1: Can refrigerators be used as air conditioners?

q0 H1 − H 4
ε= =
Ws H 2 − H1
Q 2: Does the refrigerator have a large cooling
coefficient in winter or in summer? why?
Q3: Are the refrigerants used in refrigerators and air
conditioners the same? What is the basis for selection?
 Application of vapor compression refrigeration
(1) Business and People's Life
Food refrigeration and comfortable air-condition.
(2) Industrial Production and Agriculture
Use refrigeration to provide a productive air conditioning
system.
(3) Construction Engineering and Tunnel Traffic
Use refrigeration to achieve frozen earth mining.
(4) Scientific experimental research
Use refrigeration to create artificial environments to serve
scientific research and production.
(5) Medical Hygiene
Refrigeration is playing an increasingly important role in
hygiene. 2020/3/30
 §7.3 Refrigeration cycle (continued)

§7.3.3 Heat pump and its application

High temperature room Low temperature

Heat pump environment

Heat

TH
Q1 WS
Heat pump
Q0
Winter TL TL=T0 2020/3/30
 Heat pump cycle (refrigeration cycle): It can realize the
heating from low temperature environment to high
temperature system (such as indoor heating).
 The lower temperature limit is the atmospheric
ambient temperature T0, and the upper one is the
warm room temperature TH that maintains a higher
temperature.

 Heating coefficient ω TH

Q1 Q0 + WS Q1 WS
ω= = =ε +1>1 Heat pump
WS WS
Q0
TL TL=T0
 Q: The heat pump or direct electric furnace consumes
1J (mechanical) work. Which one can generate more
heat?

QH TH
ω= Q1
WS WS
Heat pump
oHeat pump：ω=5.
oThat is, 5J of heat is generated when 1J Q0
of mechanical work is consumed. TL TL=T0
o Electric furnace: only 1J of heat is generated
when 1J of mechanical work is consumed.

Obviously, using a heat pump gets more heat than burning

an electric furnace directly!
 The heat pump is essentially an energy mining machine .
 The heat pump obtains energy from the natural
environment at the cost of some high-quality energy (as a
compensation condition), and supplies heat to the user
along with the high-quality energy spent, saving high-
quality energy and effectively using low-level Thermal
energy .
 The heat pump is a reasonable heating device. The
system can operate in different temperature ranges, so
that the heat pump can become a refrigeration device .
 Users can use the same device as a refrigerator for air
conditioning in summer and a heat pump for heating in
winter.

2020/3/30
Example:
In winter at minus 20 ℃, in order to maintain the
indoor temperature at 20 ℃, a heating device
must be used. The supply efficiency required to
maintain 20 ℃ is 10 kJ per hour. Try to calculate
the power consumed by the following heating
methods:
① Reversible heat pump cycle;
② Electric heater;
③ Actual heat pump device with a heating
coefficient ω of only 0.4 ωC.
Solution:
① Reversible heat pump cycle Q0
Air
TH conditioner
ϖC =
TH − TL 253K 293K
293.15
=
293.15 − 253.15
= 7.325 TH
Q1 104 Q1 WS
W
=S = = 0.379 KW
ωC 3600 × 7.325 Heat pump
Q0
The minimum TL TL=T0
price paid under
ideal conditions.
② Electric heater
Q1 104
W
=S = = 2.78 KW
ωC 3600 ×1 293K

253K
③ Actual heat pump
ω = 0.4ω C
Q0
= 0.4 × 7.325 Air
conditioner
= 2.93 253K 293K
4
Q1 10
W=
S = = 0.948KW
ω 3600 × 2.93
 Comparison of three heating methods

Heating method Reverse Carnot Heater Air

cycle conditioning
Power
consumption， 0.379 2.78 0.948
kW
Work-to-heat 7.372 1 2.93
efficiency η

[Example 7-10]
Electric heaters are the most
convenient for heating, but they
consume the most energy! 2020/3/30
How air conditioning works TH
Q1 WS
T Heat pump
Q0
TL TL=T0
S
 The boiling point of
the refrigerant?

Boiling point Ts ( p = 1atm)

Ammonia -33.4℃
R22 - 40.8℃
R134a - 26.1℃
THR01 - 30.18℃

返回
 T

Condensing
temperature 2
4 3
30℃

-15℃ 1
5
Evaporation
temperature
return

s
 Why not use a reverse Carnot cycle in a vapor
compression refrigeration cycle?
Comparison of reverse Carnot cycle
(3467) and refrigeration cycle

T
Reverse 2
73 “Liquid Strike”
Carnot cycle phenomenon in wet vapor 3
compression 4
Actual 12 Not only safe, but
refrigeration also increased the 1
cooling capacity per 5
cycle
unit mass of working
fluid 71 s
 Topic: Analysis of Throttle Valves Instead of Expanders

Disadvantages: T
2
1. Work loss : h4 − h6
3
2. The sacrifice of removing heat 4
from the cold storage
h5 − h6 = h4 − h6 1
6 5

Advantages s
Pros> cons

1. Eliminates the expander and simplifies the equipment;

2. Easy to adjust expansion valve opening to adjust
evaporation temperature;
Vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

Can water be used as a refrigerant?

Boiling point： Ts ( p = 1atm) It solidifies below

0 ° C and cannot
Water 100℃ flow.
Generally we use
R22 - 40.8℃ low boiling point
R134a - 26.1℃ working fluids such
as Freon and
THR01 - 30.18℃ ammonia.
 Close the doors and windows tightly and
open the refrigerator door to cool the room.
Is it feasible?
room (air) system Closed system
∆U = Q − W 35℃ T房 35℃
∆U 空气 = Q空气 Q1
WS
Take air as an ideal gas,then 冰 制冷
U = f (T ) 箱 Q2
10
冷藏室 TL
For refrigeration systems： ℃

(Q1 + Q2 ) = Ws <0
∆U air = Qair =| Q1 + Q2 |> 0 空调 T
Is the refrigeration coefficient of
a refrigerator large in winter or
in summer? why? 15℃

冰
箱
10
35℃ ℃ winter
q1

冰
箱
10 summer
℃
Is the refrigeration coefficient of a refrigerator large
in winter or in summer? why?
15℃ 35℃
ε 冬天 > ε 夏天
refrigerator refrigerator
q0 h −h
ε= = 1 4
− w s h2 − h1 10℃ 10℃
winter summer
2

T 2
lnp
4 3 2
35℃ 4 4
15℃ 3 2
3
4
10℃ 1 5 5 1
55
s h
Are the same refrigerants used in refrigerators and air
conditioners? What is the basis for selection?

15℃

air
conditioning
q1
refrigerator
5
°C
 15℃

Refrigerant refrigerant Air

Refrigerator
conditioning
has a lower boiling
point! !! 5
℃
T
q1
4 2
35℃ 3
5 1
15℃
5℃
5 1
s
 返回

2020/3/30
 Summary
Vapor-compression Refrigeration cycle
Cycle Consume work to transfer heat from
low to high temperatures
Heat into work
1. Refrigeration Refrigerator
1
2.Heating Heat pump
Superheater
Turbine

boiler 2
Condenser
4
Water
pump 3
 Summary
Vapor-compression Cycle Refrigeration cycle
1. Isenthalpic expansion
Isentropic expansion
2.Isentropic expansion
1. Rankine cycle
1. Vapor compression
2. Regenerative cycle refrigeration cycle
3. Reheat cycle 2. Vapor absorption
Thermal efficiency: refrigeration cycle
WS + WP Cooling coefficiency:
=η = 0.3 ~ 0.4
QH QL
ε =
= 4~5
Ws 2’
1 2
4 3
4 4’
T T

3 2 2’ 1
5’ 5

S
S
 Summary
Calculation of ideal and actual Rankine cycles:
QH、QL、WS、WP、 η η
t
Refrigeration principle：
µ J -T >0 T decreases after throttling,
∂T
µ J-T = ( )H
∂p µ J -T <0 T increases after throttling,
µ J -T =0 T remains the same after throttling.
∂T
The refrigerant should be a gas of which µ J-T = ( ) H > 0 at
∂p
normal temperature and pressure.
Calculation of ideal and practical vapor compression
refrigeration cycle
QL、QH、WS、 ε εc