Al .

I water water :
medium in which metabolic reactions take place in cells

thought that first cells formed and slowly evolved in the

deep ocean hydrothermal vents present

cells require a variety of biochemical reactions > solvent is needed for metabolism

water allows dissolved molecules to move around easily colide and react
together
-

covalent bond When two atoms share pair of electrons

10r
: a

of electrons is unequal
It
>
polar covalent :
sharing
H
=
therefore , water molecules can interact with each other and other molecules
& I

water :
electrically neutral >
oxygen atoms attract more strongly than hydrogen atoms
-

>
dipole :
separation of charges due to uneven
sharing

hydrogen bond : attraction between partially positively charged hydrogen atom attached to a

highly electronegative atom and another nearby electronegative atom

form between water molecules

but water molecules bonds

weak constantly break and form
hydrogen
: -> are smaller =
many

cohesion :
when molecules of the same type are attracted due to hydrogen bonding
ex) surface tension : surface of liquid resisting external force

object
>
should be broken for an the surface
to more through
conduction of water in xylem cells allow water
transport under tension in plants
water is sucked upwards tubular vessels leave's force is greater
along pulling
:

7
they withstand tension :
hydrogen bonds make it cohesive

adhesion :
two unlike molecules attract due to hydrogen bonding
> ex) Capilary action adhesion
causing movement when water is drawn through glass tubes
:
narrow

air-filled to water-filled formation of bonds

change from hydrogen
=

:
porous solids have large surface area attracted to water
strgon suction force
=

water's polar nature =

forms shells around charged polar , molecules >
-

prevent clumping
hydrophilic : all substances that dissolve in water (chemically attracted

>
polar molecules :
particles with positive/negative charges
ex) cutoplasm contains lots of hydrophilic solutes for transport

hydrophobic : substances that are not easily dissolving because they can't form hydrogen bonds

>
non-polar molecules molecules without
charges
:

ex) protein prevent water entering & in leaves

cuticles
leaving
:
,

most enzyme require water in order to hold its shape and

improve stability
hydrogen bonds will facilitate the of the active site and the substrate
binding

soluble substances glucose insoluble substances oxygen

amino acids fats

sodium chloride cholesterol

SHC to raise IC of
measure of
energy required lkg substance
:

water has higher SHC than air due to bonds

many hydrogen
·

advantages provide stable aquatic habitats

maintain a constant temperature

nermal conductivity :
ability of a substance to conduct heat

water has 30 times higher thermal conductivity than air-good insulators for organisms
time underwater feather
loon :
spends more
traps insulating layer of air

seal : relies on blubber to insulate from outside air

Buoyancy :
ability of an object to float on water

loon :
solid bones
> increase the weight and compress the air out

Viscosity : resistance of a fluid to flow

water is more viscosious than air allow loons to fly without friction
·

body shapes easy to move

= ·

water formed 4 5 billion .

years ago
> too not for the vapour to condense

predicted that water came from somewhere else

hypothesis :
origin = asteroids and meteorites (contain ice , hydrogen isotopes similar to Earth's

2 factors distance from the Sun >

temperature not enough for
boiling
earth has strong gravity holding oceans
<

Goldilocks zone :
area around star where temperatures are favorable for water (liquid) to exist

-xoplanet planets :
located in the goldilocks zone

> able to use transit

spectrometry by analysing light
Al 2 nucleicacid
. nucleic acid was first discovered in the nucleus

made from subunit "nucleotide" which link to form a polymer

Genetic material : store of /hereditary information > if copied = shared

nucleic acid present in cells

: a complex organic substance
living

phosphate group (acidic -charged

:
,

:
pentose sugar (five carbon atoms

:
nitrogenous base (one / two wings)

nitrogenous base purine : adenine , cytosine 2 carboring

pyramidine thymine guanine :

, ,
uracil I carbon
cing
they combine to form diverse range of DNA base sequences of different lengths

DnA molecule : made

up of 2 antiparallel strands

strands run in opposite directions 3' To 5' and 5' to 3'

covalent bond : formed by condensation reaction forms sugar phosphate backbone

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid RNA (ribonucleic acid

long with lengths short with lengths

2 polymer of nucleotides 1 polymer of nucleotides

ribose
pentose sugar deoxyribose :
pentose sugar :

complementary base pairing allows exact copy of DNA molecule to be made in replication
two strands in double helix separate > add nucleotides =
new strand

A-T 2 hydrogen bonds , C-G bonds

3 hydrogen
: :

> in
coding
strand of DNA , it will carry the base sequence that is read by enzymes
determine amino acid order shape and function /20 amino acid types

made of codon :
triplet of bases >
-
read with three bases

Genetic code : universal - same triplet codes for same amino acids

conserved sequences :
many coding sequence that remained unchanged
coding strand will always read in 3' to 5'direction

mRNA strand synthesis in 5' to 3' direction

nucleosome :
a section of DNA that is wrapped around a core of proteins
> DNA takes two turns around histone core

> held in position by additional histone protein /attached to linker DNA

core of nucleosome :
disc-shaped8 histone protein (2x4
types
> function : protect , package DNA , facilitate DNA replication , regulate gene expression
structure
T
helps to supercoil the DNA /compact
protect DNA ,
facilitate chromosome movement in cell division

scientists thought that protein is the

hereditary
material . 4 bases , 20 amino acids

DNA : identified in 1869 P S

DNA O X
Blender removing virus
·

X
isolate bacteria protein O
Centrifuge
·
:

Chargaff analysed DNA composition of different

organisms
-

falsified that DNA is tetranucleotide

similar ratio among 4 bases > didn't add up to 100

researchers began to consider the

sequence again
cell theory protocell-first : cell-like compartment capable of basic functions

gene-first :
development of a nucleic acid (RNA) that can replicate
metabolism -

first :
system of chemical reactions capable of sustainment

living cell must originate from non living cell

1 .
Catalysis :
give control over chemical reactions

.
2
Self-assembly : assemble carbon compounds to form a polymer
.
3 compartmentalisation : membrane development to enclose cell contents

4
.
self-replication :
basis of inheritance and persistence

scientists believed that RNA performed function in early cells

RNA properties assemble spontaneously from nucleotides

able to replicate itself

can control the rate of reaction

LUCA : last universal common ancestor

same building block for both DNA and RNA in all cells

similar transport mechanism for cellular materials

over 300 genes or sections of DNA common to all cells

Fossils provide evidence about Earth's history

ex) stromatolite formed when cyanobacteria in shallow water trap sediments and secrete calcium carbonate

>
slowly forming rocky mounds
Relative dating If one is older than other
comparing
:
younger
Absolute dating
: measure the physical properties calculate its
age

Hypothesised location for origin of life

:
hydrothermal vents

where not water emanates beneath the ocean >

-
forms when seabed crust's cracks expose seawater to rocks

some of the oldest rock found in hydrothermal both hydrogen and is

> :
rents +
oxygen present
-